On-Duty residues may affect the performance of subsequent susceptible crops. Cereals are considered a safe crop option following Clearfield canola as long as the On-Duty has been applied prior to the end of August and that rainfall between spraying and sowing the next winter crop has been at least 250mm.

• Increasing inputs from low to district practice significantly increased crop emergence for all four varieties, reflecting the increased seeding rate.
• Crop head density was higher under district input practice, reflecting the higher seeding rate and crop nutrition, and was positively correlated with seedling establishment.

• Burning or cultivating 2015 stubbles tended to produce higher yields, however this was only significant at Ungarie.
• High rainfall and a soft finish removed the benefit of stored soil moisture that stubble retained systems may have provided.
• Nitrogen was the limiting factor for both yield and protein for 2016.
• Growers cannot let stubble negatively impact on weed control and timely sowing.
• Growers should use crop rotation to their advantage by aiming to sow the right crop into the least antagonistic stubble.
• Stubble retained systems can require more nitrogen due to increased nitrogen tie-up.

• Plant counts for each treatment were averaged over three replicates and compared.
• No statistical analyses have been used in the following interpretation.
• For results, please see the attached trial report.

• A diagnostic service is available to farmers and industry for diseased plant specimens.
• Samples of all leaf and aerial plant parts should be kept free of moisture and wrapped in paper not a plastic bag. Roots should be dug up carefully, preserving as much of the root system as possible and preferably kept damp. Samples should be sent to the following address:

SARDI Diagnostic Centre
Plant Research Centre
Hartley Grove
Urrbrae SA 5064

• Please see the attached trial report for full details.

The GRDC-funded Australian Herbicide Resistance Initiative recommends the use of chaff carts as part of a 10-point plan to beat crop weeds on the WeedSmart website.

• Resistance to Group B herbicides is common across western Victoria.
• Resistance to trifluralin is increasing.
• A new pre-emergent herbicides should become a fundamental part of an integrated weed management strategy to aid in control of multiple-resistant ryegrass.

 

• Current standard practices of 50 kg/ha DAP or 50 kg/ha MAP balanced with urea below the seed provides adequate P nutrition.
• With adequate soil moisture, no large differences in grain yield were observed in 2019 at Streaky Bay with different granular fertiliser treatments.

• Prior to sowing, seed was treated with various products that are commercially available although no seed treatment improved crop performance relative to the untreated control.
• Rancona C had no negative effects on germination early vigour, establishment or yield of wheat when compared to other seed treatments or the untreated control.
• There was no evidence of wheat smut at the trial site this season, if disease pressure was greater we may expect to see difference in yield between treatments.

The trial went well in 2011 because the manure coverage was good. Michael was disappointed with the results from the deep rip treatments with or without lime, because there was no significant yield difference compared to the control and hence no economic gain. However applying chicken manure at 2t/ha resulted in an increase in yield (especially from the most acidic sand rises) with a considerable economic gain/return. Therefore, as a result of these trials Michael is going to implement a strategic manure application programme with the objective of increasing his paddocks yield and profitability while reducing the impact of the sand rises. Fellow growers in the area have embraced the trial outcomes and most of them are keen to adopt a similar strategy in their cropping system since chicken manure is widely available in the area.

• Resistant varieties will still produce excellent yields under high disease pressure and provide growers with a low risk alternative to grow chickpeas again.
• The resistant varieties Genesis 090 and Genesis 509 produce excellent yields under high disease pressure and provide growers with a low risk alternative to grow chickpeas again.

• The mild (although dry) finish to the 2012 season suited chickpeas at this site enabling them to mature slowly and achieve relatively high yields (averaging 2.6t/ha).
• Across all varieties a 13% yield improvement from fortnightly disease control, and a 7% yield improvement from strategic control involving three applications of chlorothalonil compared to untreated plots occurred.

• A combination of weed competition and bird damage likely accounts for the absence of interaction between variety and crop-top application timing for grain yield in this trial. However significant treatment and variety responses were generated for grain yield, as well as a significant interaction for grain weight.
• Earlier maturing cultivars generally showed higher grain yield, favoured by the dry (but mild) finish to the season. The latest maturing cultivar Genesis114 showed the equal lowest average yield with other later maturing cultivars Genesis090, PBA HatTrick and Chickpea 3.

Grain yield results of these trials need to be treated with caution due to the adverse environmental
conditions experienced throughout the season.

• Howzat had significantly greater levels of foliar disease and pod infection levels than all resistant varieties when no fungicides were applied.
• Under high disease pressure in Howzat fortnightly sprays of chlorothalonil did not always prevent plant death from occurring.
• Maximum grain yields in Howzat treatments at Turretfield occurred in fortnightly sprays of
  chlorothalonil, however disease levels in these treatments were still higher than in untreated plots of the resistant varieties
• Resistant varieties with no fungicides applied suffered no yield loss when compared to the same varieties treated with fortnightly sprays under high disease pressure at Turretfield
• One spray at podding to reduce pod infection levels from low levels to very low levels in resistant varieties was all that was required to successfully grow the new resistant chickpeas under high levels of disease pressure last year. There was no significant difference between the fungicides used to reduce pod infection levels in the resistant types, however chlorothalonil reduced levels to a far greater extent than Mancozeb in Howzat.

Grain Yield results of these trials need to be treated with caution due to the adverse environmental
conditions experienced throughout the season.

• The trial had no disease pressure and was not harvested for grain yield due to the dry conditions which have been outlined previously.

Grain Yield results of these trials need to be treated with caution due to the adverse environmental
conditions experienced throughout the season.

• See Milestone 1 for weather interpretation.
• Infected stubble was spread throughout this trial to ensure adequate infection by ascochyta
• blight.
• The trial highlighted the excellent foliage resistance of Flip 94-090c, Flip 94-508c, Flip 94-509c and Flip 97-530. However because of late rainfall it also showed the importance of the recommended fungicide application at early podding to prevent seed discolouration. Where the plots remained untreated, there were significant levels of infection on the seed.
• Varieties that are susceptible (Kaniva) or moderately susceptible to ascochyta blight (Howzat and WACPE 2075) had significant yield reductions without the application of fungicides.

• Dry seasonal conditions did not favour chickpea production in 2006 and grain yields were below average
• Ascochyta blight infection levels were only low in the trials however the ascochyta blight resistant varieties still had lower infection levels than Howzat, Almaz and Nafice
• Susceptible and moderately resistant varieties incurred grain yield loss in nil treatments compared to fortnightly sprayed treatments at Turretfield. This did not occur in varieties rated resistant including the two new lines to be released (FLIP94-079C and CICA503)
• Previous trials show ascochyta blight resistant varieties Genesis090 and Genesis509 can be successfully grown under high disease pressure with only the need for foliar fungicide sprays during podding
• No information was obtained on podding strategies required to reduce grain yield loss in resistant varieties due to a lack of pod infection from the dry spring conditions. Further work is required in this area.
• Varieties with intermediate resistance require foliar fungicides early in the season to control ascochyta blight and prevent yield loss even in dryer years.

• Howzat, Sonali and Almaz had significantly greater levels of foliar disease, pod infection levels, yield loss and seed size reductions than all three resistant varieties when no fungicides were applied at both sites.
• Under very severe disease pressure levels fortnightly sprays of chlorothalonil did not always prevent plant death from occurring in Howzat, Sonali and Almaz.
• One spray of chlorothalonil at the podding stage in the resistant varieties was sufficient to control high levels of ascochyta blight disease pressure and prevent yield loss and seed size reduction, up to eight sprays were required in moderately susceptible lines and four sprays in moderately resistant varieties.
• Genesis090 and Genesis508 can be successfully grown in SA with only the need for one fungicide spray during podding except for in cases where very severe levels of disease pressure exist early in the season and then more frequent spraying in flowering and podding may be required.
• Varieties with partial resistance to ascochyta blight like Almaz can be successfully grown in SA however they will require a proactive regular fungicide spray strategy including early season fungicide sprays when disease is present.
• The treatment based on spraying according to forecasted rainfall amounts and variety disease susceptibility (predictive) was successful for moderately susceptible varieties under high levels of disease pressure, however needs further refining for severe disease level conditions and varieties with moderate or greater levels of resistance to ascochyta blight.
• Chlorothalonil was superior to mancozeb as a podding spray treatment.

• No disease was present in the trial this year, therefore no effects of fungicide management regime were seen.

• Dry and hot conditions prevailed throughout late winter and spring limiting disease spread and plant growth.
• There was no fungicide treatment effect on grain yield in 2007.
• Fungicide treatments at early podding (pod), early and late podding (podplus) and strategic sprays (strat) had larger seeds than the control, but not significantly larger than fortnightly or systemic sprays.

• No disease was present in the trial this year, therefore no effects of fungicide management regime were seen.

• Significant levels of disease were present in the trial this year, but due to the high temperatures in November causing a short finish, it appears that potential yield differences were negated.
   

• 2019 had below average growing season rainfall, which led to very little disease development
• No difference in fungicide treatments was observed due to good environmental control of disease

• 2019 had below average growing season rainfall, which led to very little disease development
• No difference in fungicide treatments was observed due to good environmental control of disease

Grain Yield results of these trials need to be treated with caution due to the adverse environmental
conditions experienced throughout the season.

• Growing season rainfall was extremely low (157mm c.f. 230mm long term average) and there was no subsoil moisture due to low summer rainfall. Only 8mm rainfall was recorded in r (a critical period for crop growth and yield determination). There was an extremely hot
  period during October which resulted in significant flower and pod abortion. Many plots had
  died without setting pods prior to harvest. The late rainfall of 50mm in November was too late to be of any benefit.
• Emergence was similar across all treatments and varieties.
• All varieties responded similarly to the herbicide treatments.
• The most significant damage was in simazine + imazethapyr and simazine + isoxaflutole
  treatments. Simazine + isoxaflutole applied at double rates caused a significant reduction in
  crop height.
• The trial was not harvested and grain yields not recorded as there was almost no pods set (see above).

Grain Yield results of these trials need to be treated with caution due to the adverse environmental
conditions experienced throughout the season.

• See Milestone 1 for weather interpretation.
• Emergence was similar across all treatments and varieties.
• All varieties responded similarly to the herbicide treatments.
• The most significant damage was in simazine + imazethapyr, simazine + isoxaflutole and flumetsulam treatments.
• Grain yields were improved in treatments with greatest weed control, hence no yield reductions were observed in the simazine + imazethapyr and simazine + isoxaflutole treatments, where most crop damage was observed.

• There was diversity in phenology between varieties.
• Early sowing extended the crop vegetative period, but increased exposure to frost damage during the flowering phase.
• Desi varieties PBA Striker, PBA Slasher, PBA Boundary and CICA1521 were the highest yielding varieties at both sites.
• Dry conditions severely limited chickpea grain yield in 2019, but favoured early maturing varieties, particularly with mid May sowing.

Key findings:

• In a wet season, substantial yield losses (94%) from Phytophthora root rot (PRR) occurred in susceptible chickpea varieties such as PBA BoundaryA.
• Varieties with improved resistance to PRR (PBA HatTrickA and YorkerA) can also have large yield losses (68–79%) in a season highly conducive to PRR.
• Although yield losses will occur in seasons highly conducive to PRR, crosses between chickpea and wild Cicer species, such as the PBA breeding line CICA1328, currently offer the best levels of PRR resistance.

Summary

Under conditions that are highly conducive to PRR, substantial (94%) yield losses occur in susceptible varieties such as PBA Boundary.  However, significant losses (68-79%) can also occur in varieties with improved resistance to PRR (PBA HatTrick and Yorker).  Crosses between chickpea and wild Cicer species such as the PBA breeding line CICA1328 offer the best resistance to PRR.

No visual herbicide damage symptoms or yield effects were evident in 2008 wheat, barley, IT canola or lentil crops sown after the application of common herbicides to chickpeas in 2007.

There was a small but significatn yield penalty for desi chickpeas treated with P Pickle T compared to the nil treatement (the control).

• Results of this trial need to be treated with caution due to the low yields and adverse environmental conditions experienced throughout the season.
• Growing season rainfall was extremely low (190mm c.f. 265mm long term average) and there was no subsoil moisture due to low summer rainfall. Only 9mm rainfall was recorded in October (a critical period for crop growth and yield determination). There was an extremely hot day October 13 (37OC) followed by a frost (Oct 16, -3.4) which resulted in almost complete flower and pod abortion. Approximately 80mm rain fell in November and December, ensuring that we achieved grain yields up to 400kg/ha.
• Emergence was similar to target plant densities.
• Results highlight the yield potential of the new lines Flip 94-090c and Flip 94-509c.
• Low plant densities and later sowing tended to be higher yielding due to the late rainfall. This is the opposite trend of 2003 and needs further investigation.
• There was a greater proportion of large seed (>8mm) of Flip 94-090c at low plant densities compared with high plant densities (25% c.f. 5%).

• A dry (but mild) finish to the season meant that yields were less than the previous seasons but still above average, and there was less biomass production and disease pressure, resulting in low amounts of plant lodging.
• As expected, lodging was greater at the earlier sowing date, but was generally only minimal.

A strong negative effect on crop yield was found with sowing chickpeas shallow even with light rates of Simazine and Triflualin.

• Chickpeas are again a valid crop option with a number of varieties with improved ascochyta blight resistance, high yields and good adaptation now available to growers.
• Variety selection must be based on ascochyta blight pressure, yield and marketing opportunities, and understanding that disease management is critical to success.

• Chickpea variety selection must be based on ascochyta blight pressure, yield and marketing opportunities.
• If considering early sowing, it is essential to select a variety with excellent ascochyta blight resistance or ensure an excellent disease management strategy is implemented. 

• Chickpea lines (kabuli and desi) with improved ascochyta blight resistance have been commercialised to Australian Agricultural Commodities by the Victorian Department of Natural Resources and Environment.
• These new varieties will require fewer fungicides applications to manage ascochyta blight disease and reduce risk.

Chickpea lines (kabuli and desi) with improved ascochyta blight resistance have been commercialised to Australian Agricultural Commodities by the Victorian Department of Natural Resources and Environment. These new varieties will require fewer fungicides applications to manage ascochyta blight disease and reduce risk.

• Although it was a dry year, the results highlighted significantly less ascochyta blight infection in Genesis 090, which is rated MS as compared to PBA Striker which is rated S.
• There was also significantly higher infection in the variety PBA Striker when Bixafen + Prothioconazole or Tebuconazole + Azoxystrobin were used after the first signs of infection compared to when they were used as a preventative spray. 

These results are only preliminary and should not be used on their own. The effects of the different fungicides will require greater investigation before significant interpretation can be made.

These results are only preliminary and should not be used on their own. The effects of the different fungicides will require greater investigation before significant interpretation can be made.

• Both varieties had similar grain yields (Genesis 090: 0.28 t/ha, PBA Striker: 0.26 t/ha) and no significantly different effect of fungicide treatment (see Table 3 in attached trial report summary). There was no evidence of an interaction between the fungicide and the variety.

• Despite a dry year with low grain yields, ascochyta blight was observed in all varieties, with stem breakages visible.
• However, there was significant variation between varieties and some newer breeding lines including CICA1454 ranked equal or better than Genesis 090 (see Table 2 in attached report).  
• Although there were significant differences between varieties with ascochyta blight infection, this did not equate to differences in grain yield.
• There was only a significant difference between fungicide treatments (see Table 3 in attached report). 

Despite a dry finish, ascochyta blight progressed well, causing stem breakages and significant grain yield losses in most varieties. The new variety, PBA Royal had 45% of the plot with stem infections early in the season but recovered and had little grain yield losses compared to the full control treatment (Table 4). The breeding line CICA1454 had 15% less ascochyta blight infection compared to the closest named variety, offering hope of better ascochyta blight resistance.

• Despite a dry year with low grain yields, ascochyta blight was observed in all varieties, with stem breakages visible. There was a significant interaction between variety and fungicide treatment. This showed some newer breeding lines including CICA1352, CICA1454, CICA1156 ranked equal or better than Almaz and Genesis 090 (see Table 2 in attached Trial report).
• Grain yields varied significantly, with a significant variety and treatment affect observed. Grain yield losses up to 36% were observed in the untreated (nil) plots (see Table 3 in attached Trial report). This also highlighted CICA1156, CICA1552, ‘C1’, and CICA1652 which ranked higher for yield than the highest named variety Almaz. In a pairwise analysis only CICA1652 was significantly higher than Almaz. 

Ascochyta blight infection was severe within this trial and resulted in almost complete plot death in multiple susceptible varieties. Grain yields were higher when disease was fully controlled. Interestingly, PBA Royal, a new variety with improved resistance produced the highest yields when diseases were fully controlled (2.44 t/ha) and not controlled at all (1.6 t/ha).

• Significantly more ascochyta blight infection and lower grain yields were observed in PBA Striker (rated S) than Genesis090 (MS). Captan and Propiconazole treatments were also less effective in controlling ascochyta blight than the tebuconazole + Azoxystrobin and Bixafen + Prothioconazole, but both the Captan and Propiconazole treatments had less disease than the untreated plots. This did not equate to significantly different grain yields due to the dry season with low grain yields overall. 

Chickpea ascochyta blight infection was low due to dry seasonal conditions, which were not conducive for high levels of disease infection at Hart, 2019. Harvestability, in terms of plant height, was not reduced where chickpea was intercropped with canola. However, intercropping chickpea with linseed in a mixed row arrangement decreased the plant height of chickpea. Grain yield of chickpea as a sole crop was greater than all intercropping treatments. Further work is required to determine if the costs of disease management, weed management and crop desiccation can be reduced by adopting mix species system.

• Grain yields were generally low in 2018 due to dry seasonal conditions and frost events during the vegetative and reproductive stages. There was no yield response to the soil nutrition treatments on both soil types. All the treatments except all nutrient minus phosphorus resulted in significantly higher biomass than the nil on the swale.
• The dry growing season conditions may have reduced movement and uptake of the applied macro and micro-nutrients by the crop. Hence, results should be treated with caution.

Treatments were not significant on grain yield. Grain yields were very low in 2019 due to extremely dry seasonal conditions. The dry conditions may have restricted microbial growth, movement and uptake of the nutrients by the crop. Hence, results should be treated with caution.

Chickpeas were the most profitable crop sown in spring producing estimated returns up to $900/ha. In comparison, many varieties sown autumn failed to produce a return. The new early flowering, cold tolerance trait may further improve yield and stability in spring sowing, once incorporated into more broadly adapted breeding material. In contrast faba bean was the most profitable crop overall, producing a gross margin of up $2800/ha, from high yield and grain prices received in late 2019.

• As in 2007, dry seasonal conditions did not favor chickpea production in 2008 and consequently early maturity and low grain yields were observed.
• Ryegrass competition of 33 plants/m2 at maturity reduced grain yields of chickpeas by 48%, and 120 plants/m2 reduced grain yields by 82%.
• Genesis079 was the highest yielding variety and is well adapted to short season environments.
• These results confirm previous findings showing chickpeas as a poor competitor, and the unsuitability of control measures such as weed-wiping and crop-topping.

The choice of vigorous, leafy, nutritious forage crops available for low to medium rainfall environments to supply nutritious green feed to sheep during the winter and spring months continues to expand. Forage cereal crops provide feed during winter; vetch is useful from late winter into spring and forage brassicas provide from late spring into summer. To help decide which forage to grow from the broad range available, first plan the time of greatest need (time of year, duration), intention to harvest silage, hay or grain and the rotational requirements of the paddock in which forage is to be planted.

• Positive crop production responses still remain at Cadgee five years after amelioration treatments were applied.
• Application of clay improved establishment and flowering biomass, regardless of incorporation depth (shallow, 10 cm and spaded, 30 cm), compared to the control and the spaded lucerne treatments (see Fig. 1 in attached trial report).
• Grain yield response to clay application increased with the depth of incorporation, and were doubled in the spaded clay + Luc treatment compared to the control, adding 1.58 t/ha in 2018.
• Over the long term, this treatment has produced an additional 95 % grain (4.5 t/ha) since 2014 (four years grain data; Fig. 2). 
• Changes in soil chemical, hydrological and physical characteristics as a result of spading and lucerne and clay addition were the focus of 2019 soil measurements at the site.
• A full report detailing temporal trends and long term soil fertility changes will be released soon.
   

• Incorporating clay into the sand has led to yield increases that are improving with time.
• Yield response to clay application increased with the depth of incorporation; a cumulative increase of 0.74 t/ha (23%) over the control was achieved when clay was incorporated in the top 10 cm (Fig. 1 Shallow clay), increasing to 1.41 t/ha (44%) when the clay was incorporated to 30 cm (Fig. 1 Spading + clay).
• A similar response was achieved when 10 t/ha of Lucerne hay (organic matter (OM)) was spaded in, resulting in a 1.62 t/ha (50%) increase in yield (Fig. 1 Spading + OM).
• The combination of OM plus clay gave the best grain yield result in all years, with a cumulative 2.95 t/ha (92% increase) achieved across the 2014, 2015 and 2017 seasons (Fig. 1 Spading + Clay + OM).
• Spading alone led to cumulative decreases in yield of 0.39 t/ha (-12%), which is in contrast to results on Mallee sands, where the effect of spading has remained positive over time.
• Changes in soil chemical, hydrological, physical and biological characteristics as a result of clay and OM addition are the focus of 2018 soil measurements at the site.
• The response to deep disturbance and placement of OM and nutrition, in contrast to spading, is the focus of future research conducted by PIRSA at Murlong on the Eyre Peninsula in 2018.

The topsoil sand at Yanda was severely repellent (Figure 1, left), as measured by the molarity of ethanol droplet test (MED). Clay spreading and tillage (either combined or separated) significantly reduced the severity of water repellency. When the subsoil clay was not incorporated by tillage or was incorporated using an off-set disc, the soil water repellency generally decreased with an increasing amount of subsoil clay. However, low-repellency (MED<1) was obtained only at rates over 150 t/ha of subsoil.

In contrast, spading (either at standard speed of the tractor or at half speed) was the most effective method for the alleviation of soil water repellency. In these treatments, the MED values were completely reduced to zero (non-repellent soil) and, most importantly, this was achieved independently from the presence, or not, of clay-rich subsoil. The significant reduction of the soil water repellency however did not convert to better plant establishment measured five weeks after sowing (Figure 1, Right).  This result could be explained by the wetter than usual weather recorded during April-May 2016 that reduced the impact of the soil water repellency on plant establishment. Nevertheless, tiller counts collected five weeks after plant counts showed a significant effect of tillage on the number of tillers. In particular, the spader treatments (standard and ½ speed) had the most tillers while the control had the fewest.

This trend was repeated with the barley grain yields at harvest time (Figure 2). Both tillage and rate of clay spreading, significantly improved grain yield in comparison to the control treatments (no clay and no tillage). The lowest yield were recorded in the control treatments and in the off-set tillage only (no clay) with an average of 1.41 t/ha and 1.36 t/ha respectively. The shallow tillage (or incorporation) using off-set discs did not yield significantly differently from the treatments with no incorporation at any given rate of subsoil clay. Clay spreading at 250 t/ha followed by spading at standard speed produced the highest yield on average (2.93 t/ha). Nonetheless, all treatments with spading (standard and ½ speed) were able to yield over 2.5 t/ha, even without the addition of subsoil clay (Figure 2). 

Field observations showed that the trial was also affected by frost, which explained the lower than expected yields. Head samples were collected in early November 2016 from all the treatments (except spading at ½ speed) for the assessment of frost induced sterility (FIS= number of sterile florets / total number of florets) and the results are shown in Figure 3.

The results on FIS showed that frost damage might be one of the main reasons of low yields and responsible of the large yield differences between treatments. The control treatments and the off-set treatment (no clay) had over 60% frost induced sterility. Even though increasing amounts of subsoil clay significantly reduced FIS (Figure 3c), the treatments with no incorporation or with incorporation by off-set discs still recorded FIS values above 50%. Spading was the most effective treatment to significantly reduce frost damage to below 40%, regardless of the presence or not of subsoil clay (Figure 3a and b).

Spading was the most successful treatment in this first year of the trial at Yanda. Most importantly, spading was able to produce the highest yields and significantly reduce the frost damage regardless of the addition subsoil clay. This was particularly evident when estimating the simple return of investments on the first year of the trial (ROI= ($/ha gain – $/ha total direct costs) / $/ha total direct costs), based on the mean values presented in Table 3. Because of the high crop-specific costs with barley at Yanda (500 $/ha) and the yield reduction due to frost, spading alone at standard speed was the only treatment that gave a positive ROI on the first year (+0.4 $/ha) followed by negative ROI with spading at ½ speed (-0.18 $/ha) and the control (-0.35 $/ha). These estimates are indicative only, as indirect costs and interests on the initial capital investment are not included in the calculations. For more accurate estimates of ROI, yield results from multiple seasons and crops will be collected in the next 3 years.

 

Conventionaland TT canola and many pulse crops are very sensitive to traces of sulfonylurea (Glean, Logran or Ally) remaining in the boomspray (tank, hoses and filters). It is recommended to clean out the boomspray using the recommended procedures with bleach. However, if a sensitive crop (such as regular canola) is to be sprayed after using one of the SU herbicides then it is suggested to also clean the boomspray with an EC formulated herbicide or insecticide.

• Due to unreliable crop establishment, accurate data could not be generated.
• Oil data was however obtained which is given in the following table. 

• DPI-Horsham are currently breeding Clearfield® tolerant Juncea canola varieties
• The Clearfield® tolerant varieties express a high level of tolerance to recommended rates of the imidazolinone herbicides.
• These Clearfield® tolerant varieties will most likely be commercially available in 2009.

Grain yield losses of up to 40% can be caused by clethodim at particular rates and timings. Early application timings were the best to avoid crop damage. Variation does exist between herbicide tolerant crop types (Conventional, Clearfield and TT) and their level of sensitivity to clethodim

• Break crops faced a range of tough environmental conditions in the Mallee in 2015 including multiple frost and heat shock events.
• Timely rainfall in April and hence early sowing resulted in excellent biomass production with most crop options producing on average more than 2 t DM/ha and several break crop options producing greater than 2.5 t DM/ha.
• The highest grain yields tended to be crops with the quickest maturity such as lentils (0.73 t/ha), vetch (0.64 t/ha) and field peas (0.63 t/ha).
• High value crops such as lentils and vetch were highly profitable due to both excellent prices and reasonable grain yields. (v) Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types.

• Break crops faced a range of tough environmental conditions in the Mallee in 2015 including multiple frost and heat shock events.
• Timely rainfall in April and hence early sowing resulted in excellent biomass production with most crop options producing on average more than 2 t DM/ha and several break crop options producing greater than 2.5 t DM/ha.
• The highest grain yields tended to be crops with the quickest maturity such as lentils (0.73 t/ha), vetch (0.64 t/ha) and field peas (0.63 t/ha). 
• High value crops such as lentils and vetch were highly profitable due to both excellent prices and reasonable grain yields.
• Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types.

• Break crops faced a range of tough environmental conditions in the Mallee in 2015 including multiple frost and heat shock events.
• Timely rainfall in April and hence early sowing resulted in excellent biomass production with most crop options producing on average more than 2 t DM/ha and several break crop options producing greater than 2.5 t DM/ha.
• The highest grain yields tended to be crops with the quickest maturity such as lentils (0.73 t/ha), vetch (0.64 t/ha) and field peas (0.63 t/ha).
• High value crops such as lentils and vetch were highly profitable due to both excellent prices and reasonable grain yields.

Yield increases were the result of stripe rust control and the associated green leaf retention achieved with fungicide treatment.

Mouldboarding was the driver of crop yield in the trial with 2012 mouldboard treatments producing, on average, 85% higher yielding than no mouldboard. The 2011 mouldboard treatments were on average 44% higher yielding than no mouldboard.

• Incorporation of the lower subsoil application rates (50 and 100 t/ha) with offset discs resulted in increased canola plant establishment compared with the offset disc control plots without subsoil. However, at the higher subsoil application rates (360 and 450 t/ha) establishment was reduced due to inadequate clay incorporation (Fig. 1). Visually it was clear that the high rates of subsoil application resulted in surface sealing due to the poor incorporation by offset discs and this sealing was sufficient to reduce canola establishment. Incorporation of 50t subsoil/ha using a spader appears to have resulted in a reduction in canola establishment (Fig. 1) but there is no apparent reason why this should the case. Apart from this anomaly there is a trend towards improved plant establishment when higher rates of applied subsoil are spaded (Fig. 1).
• Comparing grain yields between subsoil incorporation using offset disc and rotary spader is not valid on this trial as the offset disc treatments are situated on pale deep sand which has less water holding capacity and lower potential than the sandy gravel on which the spaded treatments are situated. Canola grain yields in 2010 showed trends not dissimilar to those obtained for wheat on this trial in 2009. For the offset disc treatment there was no impact of the lower subsoil application rates on yield but a trend towards lower yields at the high application rates (Fig. 1) again most likely due to inadequate subsoil incorporation. For the rotary spader there was a trend towards higher yields as the subsoil application rate increased (Fig. 1), indicative of the capacity for the spader to achieve good subsoil incorporation. Overall canola yields were increased by more than 300 kg/ha when either 360 or 450 t/ha spread subsoil was incorporated using a spader (Fig. 1).
•  In both the 2009 and 2010 seasons the trends in crop establishment and grain yield have demonstrated the principle that when claying the subsoil application rate needs to be ‘matched’ to incorporation method that will be used to incorporate the clay. The results suggest that offset discs are only likely to be successful at incorporating lower subsoil application rates, probably of the order of 150 t/ha or less while rotary spaders are more appropriate for incorporating higher subsoil application rates of 250 t/ha or more.

• Results from experimentation undertaken in southern NSW in 2011 and 2012, have demonstrated that crop sequences which include a brassica or legume break crops can be as profitable as, and in many instances more profitable than, continuous wheat.
• Canola was consistently the most profitable break crop option. However, the rotational benefits of canola were usually restricted to just the first subsequent wheat crop whereas additional wheat yields can occur for 2 years after a legume.
• Growing pulses for grain maximises profit, particularly in favourable seasons, but compromises grass weed control and (depending upon species) reduces N available to subsequent crops compared to brown manuring.
• Growing pulses for hay was found to be profitable across a range of season types, achieves excellent grass weed control and provides greater N inputs and higher carry-over of soil water than when the same crop is grown for grain.
• Growing pules for brown manure loses money in the year they are grown, but achieves excellent grass weed control, high N inputs, residual carry-over of soil water, provides more ground cover, and requires less labour than when grown for hay or grain.

The Gross Returns (Income less Input Costs) for this demonstration using 2016 wheat prices for APW1, APW2 and ASW1 indicate that farmer practice (control) had the highest return of $443.61/ha (Figure 7 and Table 3). The second highest return was the spaded treatment at $442.11/ha.

All the treatments made a profit during 2016 between $303.13/ha to $443.61/ha. For a season such as 2016 where there was sufficient rainfall for plant establishment and growth, wetters may not be required at seeding which would reduce input costs.

Results generated using an average wheat price of $250/t over all treatments indicates that farmer practice (control) would still have the highest return of $465.81/ha, whilst the ploughed treatment would have the second highest return of $462.52/ha (Figure 8 and Table 4). All treatments would make a profit over $353.11/ha.

Over both scenarios the Gross Return ranking trend remained similar, with the soil amelioration treatments bringing a greater return than the wetters and DBS knife point at depth.  There is a larger $/h return difference between the two wetter treatments when comparing the 2016 wheat prices due to the grade of the grain (Table 2); $52.55/ha for 2016 wheat price and $22.67/ha for average $250 price.

It would be interesting to see how all plots at this site perform under a range of seasonal conditions. A multi year Gross Returns analysis could indicate a change in the $/ha return ranking trend in seasons where wetters have a greater influence on plant establishment. This analysis may also present significant return on investment for the soil amelioration treatments in the second and third year crops.

In 2007, wider row spacings (400mm vs 200mm) significantly (P<0.01) reduced yield (4.36t/ha vs 4.69t/ha) when averaged across five barley varieties and two nitrogen timings, suggesting that the benefits of wider row sowing for crop residue management practices are coming at a significant financial cost ($100/ha+, using current prices). However, the barley variety WI with nitrogen applied at
sowing (GS00) achieved the opposite result, as wider row spacings (400mm vs 200mm) significantly (P<0.05) increased yield (5.15t /ha vs 4.31t/ha).

Greater variation in dry matter production at the water ripe sampling time was observed compared to milky-soft dough. Dry matter production was highest at milky-soft dough and Moby barley consistently had the lowest. Majority of cereal forage varieties had NDF and NDFD levels to meet grade 1 and 2. Feed quality did not decline significantly with later cutting

Using the highest label rate of either Aviator Xpro or Prosaro in the first application for sclerotinia lowered the level of sclerotinia infection and recorded a higher $ROI/ha in this trial. Increasing the rate of fungicide increases early activity on active disease but will also increase the length of protection from reinfection. 

The use of higher rates under high sclerotinia disease pressure is recommended not only in a single spray application to extend the window of protection but as recorded in this trial it can provide benefits to a two spray strategy. Improvements in length and strength of sclerotinia control from the use of a higher rate in the first application have been recorded across multiple commercial trials conducted by Bayer Crop Science across Australia in the 2016 season.

Study Conclusions

Potential nitrogen contributions are assumed to be 40% of the total nitrogen contribution, assessed from the dry weight and nitrogen content (N% tissue) of the green manure crops measured at anthesis. Legume crops provided the most potential nitrogen of all treatments, due to high tissue nitrogen and moderate to high biomass production. Oats had the highest biomass but were low in tissue nitrogen and potential nitrogen benefits were therefore negligible. Any benefits from this type of crop, would be largely associated with the contribution of organic carbon to the soil. Emergence of both canola and mustard was poor, whilst the lathyrus and vetch competed poorly with weeds due to slow initial growth.

The percentage of undecomposed material remaining on the soil surface at seeding in 1999, varied from approximately 35% for oats down to 10% for lathyrus. The general pattern was that the crops with higher tissue nitrogen content broke down quicker. This indicates the microbial degradation of legume crops is likely to be faster than for brassica or cereal crops.

Differences in water infiltration observed may indicate the potential for treatments to increase the initial sorptivity of soil (ability for more rapid entry of rainfall) and decrease the flow rate through the soil (effectively increasing moisture retention). This may allow earlier sowing after summer rains, increased moisture availability during the growing season and potentially longer availability under dry finishing conditions. These results are variable and subject to trial/operator error. Further evaluation of these attributes is required prior to evaluation of renovation techniques.

The high cost of seeding and maintenance of the green manure crop, can significantly influence the gains or losses experienced over this three year period. It may be most economic, to green manure legume crops in seasons with low potential returns (poor yield potential or price).  The cost of harvesting a lupin crop for example may prove less beneficial than using it as a green manure to improve wheat yield and quality, where prices are depressed or where disease/season has reduced yield potential. Strategic use of green manure crops as a tool in integrated weed management or potential productivity gains through addressing specific problems may result in little or no short term economic gain where employed in better performing paddocks and must be viewed as a long term strategy to overcome yield constraints. However, strategic use of these techniques for poor performing paddocks, or paddock that would have otherwise been ‘rested’, are likely to result in economic responses, particularly where using low cost crops or pasture has been employed as there is no requirement to recover the cost of foregone yield – only those associated with growing a crop and the implementation of techniques.

Data supports the hypothesis that a green manuring:wheat:wheat rotation, may be as profitable as a legume:wheat:wheat rotation using either a field pea or Lathyrus crop. Given this assessment does not include any additional benefits that may be gained from green or brown manuring in terms of additional weed control and potential improvement of soil characteristics such as the addition of organic material, improved soil structure and longer term productivity gains, these techniques are likely to prove both economical and sustainable by providing additional benefits that may be observed in lower herbicide costs through better weed management, improved soil health and a more flexible farming system.

• Revenue produced a significantly higher grain yield than Mackellar although this was not significantly different to H150.1 and Tennant. In addition Revenue tends to have higher dry matter prodution than Mackellar. In this trial the latter may have been more susceptible to the waterlogging.
• The white grained CSIRO line H150.2 continues to produce high grain yields in Tasmania and has now also demontrated potential as a dual pupose crop. It will be suitable for an earlier dual purpose sowing as it is later flowering than both Mackellar and Revenue.
• Preston showed good early vigour but it will flower too early for more typical dual purpose sowing times in Tasmansa, e.g. March.

• There are no significant differences in yields between east-west crop orientation and north-south crop orientation.
• As the paddock has good weed control, the results were primarily influenced by water availability and evaporation within the crop.

Over all four trials both Sakura treatments maintained a positive $ROI/ha with Sakura + trifluralin ($78.50) slightly ahead on average $ROI/ha to the standalone Sakura ($73.48)

Sakura 118 g/ha recorded a $55.08 increase in $ROI/ha over Boxer Gold across the four trials. Boxer Gold $ROI was generally in line with that of the prosulfocarb treatments in three of the sites, except from Waddy Forest where prosulfocarb 2.5 L/ha recorded a higher yield. Why this occurred is not clear as results were cross checked back with the contractor to ensure there was not a transcription error.

Trifluralin, due to its poor weed control, especially at Cunderdin, returned a slight positive $ROI/ha ($7.20) across the four trials.

All four sites to some extent were affected by frost which may have affected yield outcomes.

Getting weed control right is the key to ensuring the longevity of any herbicide but it also allows the crop it’s best possible chance of achieving its yield potential. Using a program of effective knockdowns and a product with a long residual activity like Sakura can deliver higher yields and returns across a variety of soil types and locations as seen across the four trials conducted during the 2016 season.

• Treatments were a single application of 10 kg/ha of Zn as zinc sulfate monohydrate (ZSM) (35% Zn) in 1996 or 4 applications of 1.25kg/ha or 2.5 kg/ha Zn as Incitec.
• Granulock ST-Z (10 %N, 19.5 % P, 2.5% Zn) between 1996 and 1999. Soil samples were collected at the commencement of the experiment, after the first application and post-harvest from the fourth crop.
• Samples were analysed for DTPA extractable Zn.
• The percentage of soil extractable Zn available from applied Zn after 4 cereal crops was about 12 % for the single application of 10 kg/ha Zn as ZSM, 22% for multiple applications of 1.25 kg/ha Zn and 20 % for 2.5 kg/ha Zn as STZ.
• It would appear that provided there is no compromise in crop productivity, a multiple low rate strategy of Zn fertiliser addition may be more effective in building available soil Zn concentration than a single higher rate.

Overall, early growth was a function of a number of constraints. In the fully retained stubble plots plant establishment was poor due to large straw windrows creating major problems at sowing and mice damage. In surface stubble treatments lower soil temperatures and higher populations of vulpia resulted in reduced plant vigour. Where stubble was fully retained this effect was less than when most stubble was removed through cutting and baling.

The use of trifluralin as part of an integrated herbicide management program for the control of Group A resistant annual ryegrass populations has increased dramatically over the past decade. The requirement of incorporating Triflur 480 within 4 hours of application has imposed management issues during the busy sowing period, however, the advent of Crew (a slow release trifluralin formulation) offers greater management flexibility with an incorporation period of 24–48 hours.

Note: This trial was an unreplicated demonstration with observations/assesments based on one plot per treatment only, and as such results may not be definitive.

• Variety: there was no difference between the yield of Digger and Northfield (0.56 vs 0.57 t/ha respectively)
• Row spacing: there was no significant difference in the yield of lentils sown at 18 cm (7") or 36 cm (14") (0.59 vs 0.54 t/ha respectively). However, the crop sown at 18cm (7") was much easier to harvest and stood up better.
• Sowing rate: there was a significant negative effect of sowing rate on yield - the 50kg sowing rate had the higher yield compared to the 100kg/ha sowing rate (0.62 vs 0.51 t/ha respectively).

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Weeds have the biggest impact on summer water storage.
• Over the last two summers, the method of weed control had little effect on moisture storage
• Even under adequate growing season rainfall, weed control is necessary because weeds tie up and/or prevent significant amounts of nitrogen mineralizing, which cost 0.5t/ha of the canola yield.

Controlling summer weeds conserved both water and nitrogen and doubled wheat yields in 2011 on both sand and clay soil types. Retaining or removing stubble has only minor effects on wheat yield. Complete control of summer weeds pays, and there is no excuse for weedy paddocks during summer in the Wimmera and Mallee!

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Overall imposing a fallow allowed for a small amount of extra water to be stored in the soil and a small amount of extra nitrogen. As a result there was a small yield gain of 0.2 t/ha in 2012. 
• In this trial the fallow treatment was planted then sprayed out in August to replicate what is known as an ‘opportunistic’ fallow compared to a ‘strategic’ fallow where no crop is planted for 18 months. 18 month fallows would have different results to the ones reported here.
• Other benefits of fallow that were not recorded in this trial but could have contributed to the yield gain are improved weed control, disease breaks and opportunity for early sowing. 

• This is the second season in which this trial has been run and the fallow has yielded higher than continuous cropping in both 2011 (0.4 t/ha) and 2012 (0.2 t/ha). Other research indicates that fallows produce yield benefits in dry seasons which are not the case in the crop in 2011, which received 231mm for the growing season. The yield difference in 2011 was therefore more likely to have been the result of extra nitrogen in the soil, or weed or disease control rather than soil water benefits, however, these were not measured.
• Farm economics need to be carefully considered before implementing a fallow, the opportunity cost of not producing a crop needs to be weighed up, and benefits of yield, extra N, weed control and disease breaks carefully factored into the decision. 
• In 2012 the yield benefit from fallow was 0.2 t/ha and likely to be due to extra nitrogen and water being present in the soil. However, this is an unreplicated demonstration and thus it is hard to tell whether yield differences are the result of fallow or random variation in the paddock. 

• Continuous wheat can be successfully grown.
• Stubble has been burnt to reduce the incidence of yellow leaf spot in the following crop.
• In most years the crop has been direct drilled.
• Disease levels are still low and the crop is checked at flowering every year for root diseases.
• Continuous wheat has been relativley low risk - after 7 years it has not failed (except for the drought year in 2002).
• Thus far there is no problem with grass weeds or soil borne diseases.

• Sunflower grain yield averaged 1.07 t/ha at this site with the highest yields obtained from the control and the treatments where only the bottom one third (1/3) of leaves were removed.
• The total leaf removal treatments had the largest effect on yield, at worst yielding only 0.16 t/ha.
• Removing all leaves at budding or at the start of the flowering growth stages had the largest effect on plant structures.
• Total leaf removal at the end of flowering had the largest effect on 1000 grain weight and test weight.