There was no evidence that the use of strobilurin fungicides lowered grain protein relative to untreated crops, despite yield increases of over 30%, contradicting European work where strobilurin application lowered grain protein through yield dilution. In this study strobilurin treatment was associated with either no effect or higher grain protein levels relative to untreated crops fertilised with the same amount of nitrogen. However, there was a slight trend to suggest that strobilurin treated crops utilised higher N rates better than untreated crops since where there was a margin advantage to nitrogen application it tended to be greater with the strobilurin treatments.

• In 1999, provided we can avoid the problems experience in 1998 with the late sowing and harvesting, Pivot will be looking to contribute to development of the Decision Support System for nitrogen in high rainfall cropping, as proposed by the recent Southern Farming System research forum. 
• For site-specific results, please see the attached trial report.

• Sowing mid to late maturing barley varieties in May was pivotal when optimising yield in this trial. May sown varieties yielded 0.6 t/ha more on average over their June sown counterparts.
• Sowing with a lower seeding rate reduced yield and increased protein concentration, with the optimum plant population being 180 pl/m2.
• Navigator had the lowest grain protein at 12.8% when sown at TOS 1 with 180 plants/m2.
• Navigator had the highest grain protein at 14.7% when sown at TOS 2 with 120 plants/m2.
• Navigator had the highest yield of all varieties, at 5.84 t/ha, when sown at TOS 1 with 180 plants/m2.

• Barley varieties differ in coleoptile length and their ability to emerge from depth.
• Care at sowing should be taken when Triadimenol based dressings are used in conjunction with short coleoptile varieties such as Hindmarsh.
• Choosing a long coleoptile variety, or combining higher seeding rates with a Carboxin based dressing may help counteract some of the plant establishment losses from deeper sowing.

• Higher grain yields were achieved in all varieties from early sowing in 2011.
• Buloke and Commander were not yield responsive to nitrogen despite early biomass responses at both sowing dates.
• Hindmarsh was more responsive to nitrogen than Buloke and Commander, showing an average 0.6 t/ha response to nitrogen across both sowing dates.
• Grain protein exceeded 12% with delayed sowing, while the strategic approach to applied N achieved protein levels less than 12% at earlier sowing in Buloke and Commander.

• Early sown Planet with a plant population of 200 pl/m2 was the highest yielding treatment.
• Increased plant populations were not shown to significantly increase yields.
• Early sowing times showed a significantly higher yield results (p=0.05) however this results could be influenced by frost events.

• Highest grain yields were produced at the earlier sowing date at both sites.
• Commander produced the highest grain yields at both sites with the lowest protein content.
• Increased N application rates increased grain yield at both sites but significantly increased protein content at Frances.
• Increased sowing rates have been shown to slightly increase grain yield but reduce screenings and protein so may assist in attaining the malting grade.

• Highest grain yields were produced at the earlier sowing date at both sites.
• Commander produced the highest grain yields at both sites with the lowest protein content.
• Increased N application rates increased grain yield at both sites but significantly increased protein content at Frances.
• Increased sowing rates have been shown to slightly increase grain yield but reduce screenings and protein so may assist in attaining the malting grade. 
   

• Highest grain yields were produced at the earlier sowing date at Frances but the later sowing date at Conmurra.
• Commander produced the highest grain yields at both sites with the lowest protein content.
• Increased N application rates had no effect at Conmurra but a small increase yield at Frances.
• Increased sowing rates have shown to slightly increase grain yeild but reduce screenings and protein so may assist in attaining the malting grade.
• Disease control ws critical to allow high grain yields to be acheived. 

whilst the time of sowing can strongly influence yield, the advantages of early sowing may be reduced if establishment is compromised. later sowing (23 June) reduced yield in all varieties except Wimmera, the average reduction being 0.8t/ha compared to sowing on either 26 April or 17 May. avoid dry sowing into paddocks with known weed burdens

• Earlier times of sowing for barley in the HRZ can have many advantages, but should be carefully weighed up in terms of added costs involved with an earlier time of sowing
• Westminster was once again a standout variety across all sowing dates, performing well in both April sown and May sown conditions
• The use of PGRs can significantly reduce the height of early sown crops, and significantly improve yields across all varieties

The unusually dry and hot seasonal conditions in October impacted on both the development of barley disease and the final barley yields. Both Impact In furrow ® and Bumper ® appeared to provide varying degrees of visual control of the barley disease scald. The yield of the barley variety Gairdner appeared to react to disease pressure more than Baudin, with the most likely reason being the longer growing season of Gairdner and the date of sowing of the two varieties. Nufarm's Fungicide systems program will continue to analyze the affect of different fungicides on wheat and barley varieties to determine the most strategic fungicide regime.

There were no differences in grass weed numbers in paddock N7/8 between cereal crop treatments imposed of Sakura, East West and North South sowing, cross sowing and ‘15 cm nudge’.

• Weed seeds were found in narrow windrows and chaff dumps, ryegrass was more prevalent than barley grass which is more prone to shedding seed early.
• Burning reduced the viable ryegrass and self-sown cereal seed density by 85%, reducing the overall weed seed bank, but results for barley grass were lower at 38%.
• Conditions (i.e. temperature and humidity) and timing of burn were shown to strongly influence the effectivenessof this cultural management tactic.
• Burning windrows resulted in fewer weed seeds returning to the weed seed bank.
• There is a cost associated with windrow harvesting due to lower harvesting height requiring reducing the harvest speed with larger throughput of straw.
• A better understanding of burning and the weather conditions needed to sterilise barley grass seed is needed.

• Sub-tropical perennial grasses have persisted and produced good quantities of biomass over several years in the Mallee.
• Due to low early winter rainfall and reliance on stored summer moisture, cropping into a summer-growing pasture base led to high yield penalties in 2011. 
• Further research and development is needed to fine-tune management of the pasture cropping system before it can be deployed in the Mallee.

• In the wet winter of 2016, a single irrigation of a barley crop increased grain yield and grain quality but resulted in reduced water productivity.
• The 50 kg/ha seeding rate improved grain quality and reduced lodging compared with the 80 kg/ha seeding rate with no negative impact on grain yield.
• The waterlogged treatment (ponded for 48 hours) used an additional 0.41 ML/ha or 55% more water in one irrigation than the treatment that was ponded for only five hours.

• Barely responded to inputs of nitrogen and fungicide during 2008.
• 50 kg of seed was the optimum sowing rate.
• 40 kg/ha of nitrogen was required to maximise yield.
• Fungicide response was independent of nitrogen application.

• When the maximum rate of nitrogen (N) was applied, La Trobe achieved malt grade and the greatest profitability.
• Fathom was the most N efficient variety, converting the most supplied nitrogen to grain, whereas Compass and Commander were the least responsive.
• The highest rate of N (120kg N/ha) was the most profitable for all varieties in a Decile 10 growing season

• LaTrobe, GrangeR, and Skipper had reduced emergence from deeper sowing under both dry and wet sowing conditions. 
• Varieties differed in their sensitivity to sowing time; variety choice and sowing time influenced grain yield and quality more than sowing depth.
• LaTrobe and Fathom were the highest yielding varieties across both sowing dates.
• Commander and Skipper were the only varieties to suffer a yield penalty from early dry sowing.
• GrangeR yielded similar to Commander at earlier sowing but less when delayed.
• Screenings were greater than 7% and retention less than 70% in LaTrobe across both sowing times, and in Commander and GrangeR at earlier sowing only.
• Skipper was the only variety to achieve malt specifications across both sowing times.

• Mundah a short season feed barley from WA outperformed Galleon when sown in July by almost doubling its yield.
• There was no benefit of using high rates of P when sowing late.

Capeweed score 2 (Mid season).

Pre-sowing: cultivated in April by farmer.

• Fathom, Spartacus CL and Rosalind have performed consistently well at most sites in 2016.
• Compass performed poorly when sown early, with substantial lodging and head loss. When sown later, it was one of the top performers with little to no lodging observed.
• Fathom, Hindmarsh, La Trobe, Spartacus CL, Rosalind and Compass are consistently the top yielding varieties over a range of different seasonal finishes in the Mallee and Wimmera.

The wet winter and subsequent waterlogged conditions through June and July resulted in reduced tillering, particularly in the earlier maturing varities, and overall yield performance was reduced.

• The trial yielded an average of 6.1t/ha for the 2011 season. A late time of sowing and saturated soil profile that led to waterlogging effects may partly explain the lower than expected yield based on water use efficiency values.
• The highest yielding variety were the feed cultivars with Oxford topping performance at 6.96t/ha.
• Spring rainfall (September-November) was considerably lower in 2011 at 135.2mm compared with the long-term aerage for Dunkeld of 196.9mm. This shortfall will partly expalin the reduction in yields across all varieties at this site compared with the Inverleigh and Lake Bolac.

• It was cost effective to apply an insecticide for the control of BYDV in wheat.
• The best treatment was the split application of insecticide at approximately 4 weeks and 10 weeks post sowing.
• Chara was a superior variety to Kellalac for yield at the Gnarwarre site. 
   

• The new winter cereals pre-emergent herbicide, Bayer191, is targeted for release in 2011.
• New chemistry with varying degrees of broadleaf and grass weed control.
• High level control of annual ryegrass, including Group A-, B- and D-resistant ryegrass.

• Increasing plant density resulted in increased plant height, pod height and subsequent yield. 
• Early sowing resulted in an increase in bottom pod height and total plant height, however the plants were more liekly to lodge. 

• This site was unresponsive to nutrient treatments in 2017
• Treatments were adjusted to reflect grower standard practice due to drier than normal conditions at the beginning of winter.

 

• Wheat yields were low, around 1 t/ha, as a result of low growing season rainfall in 2017.
• Treatments were adjusted to reflect standard grower practice due to drier than normal conditions at the beginning of winter.
• This site was unresponsive to nutrition treatments in 2017.

 

• The Mooneys Gap phalaris site has shown that productive perennial grass and sub clover pastures can double the carrying capacity of a paddock when compared to a rundown annual pasture. The Mooneys Gap phalaris pasture has had an average increase in carrying capacity of 157% compared to the control annual pasture over the three years of the trial.
• The introduction of deep rooted perennial pastures has environmental as well as production benefits. Perennial pastures are more efficient users of water as they are able to access available moisture at deeper levels and for longer periods than annuals and therefore assist in lowering water recharge reducing the risk of salinity. Perennials slow the soil acidification rate by the increasing nitrogen uptake thereby reducing nitrate leaching. Well managed phalaris pastures maintain a level of ground cover well in excess of annual grass based pastures reducing the risk of wind and surface water erosion. The Mooneys Gap phalaris site clearly demonstrates the enhanced environmental outcomes that come with well managed perennial pastures.
• Soil testing is important to test for nutrient deficiencies and pH prior to phalaris establishment. Adequate lime and fertiliser should be applied to address deficiencies prior to establishment. Particular attention must be paid to ensuring that aluminium levels are suitable for phalaris production prior to sowing.
• Weed control is of critical importance before and during the establishment phase of phalaris pastures. Periodic annual weed control measures enhance the production of phalaris based pastures after establishment.
• A suitable fertiliser regime needs to be implemented to replace nutrients removed by the enhanced production of the phalaris based pasture.
• Rotational grazing increases the persistence of the phalaris pasture.
• The addition of phalaris pastures extends the period of available green feed when compared to an annual grass system.
• The recent availability of the Holdfast GT Phalaris variety is an important addition to the perennial grasses that can be established in the region.
• The claims that Holdfast GT will persist as well as Australian phalaris have not been tested due to the time required to obtain results from a new variety.
• PPS will continue to test the persistence of Holdfast GT in the PDS trials as well as other pastures in the project.

This research highlights how important a tactical approach to STNB management is in the medium rainfall zone.  In dry seasons there is lower disease pressure, resulting in a potentially expensive fungicide strategy which can be marginal in returns.  Conversely, where there is high disease pressure usually from wet conditions early in the season, then a double spray strategy can improve grain quality, yield and returns to the grower.

Where growing barley on barley, growers should budget for a fungicide spray at Flag-1 every year to protect the top 3 leaves in the canopy.  Where conditions are wet early post emergent (especially if stubble is retained) allowing early disease pressure and high yield potential then a fungicide spray at Z31-Z32 can reduce disease pressure and protect the canopy until the Flag-1 spray is applied.

Under high disease pressure situations (wet conditions early post emergent) removing stubble prior to sowing barley on barley can reduce inoculum levels and the build up of early disease pressure.  This will also help to reduce the selection pressure for fungicide resistance.

Where there is a dry start to the season and a slow build up of disease then stubble management has minimal impact on the buildup of STNB levels.

Burning barley stubble prior to planting barley on barley has shown to increase yield buy between 325 and 400kg in 2017 and 2015. While removing stubble can reduce early disease pressure, not all the yield increase can be accounted for by disease.  Other factors are involved that may require additional work to understand (N mineralization, allelopathic impacts of stubble or improved seed bed).  Where erosion risk is low growers should consider burning to remove barley stubble if planting consecutive barley crops.

We feel that there is no further work required to investigate the hypothesized link between STNB levels and pre-harvest head loss.

Growers, advisors and the wider barley industry are the key beneficiaries of this research.  Being able to manage disease to maintain grain quality, yield and economic returns to the grower is critical for a competitive barley industry.

This research highlights how important a tactical approach to STNB management is in the medium rainfall zone.  In dry seasons there is lower disease pressure, resulting in a potentially expensive fungicide strategy which can be marginal in returns.  Conversely, where there is high disease pressure usually from wet conditions early in the season, then a double spray strategy can improve grain quality, yield and returns to the grower.

Where growing barley on barley, growers should budget for a fungicide spray at Flag-1 every year to protect the top 3 leaves in the canopy.  Where conditions are wet early post emergent (especially if stubble is retained) allowing early disease pressure and high yield potential then a fungicide spray at Z31-Z32 can reduce disease pressure and protect the canopy until the Flag-1 spray is applied.

Under high disease pressure situations (wet conditions early post emergent) removing stubble prior to sowing barley on barley can reduce inoculum levels and the build up of early disease pressure.  This will also help to reduce the selection pressure for fungicide resistance.

Where there is a dry start to the season and a slow build up of disease then stubble management has minimal impact on the buildup of STNB levels.

Burning barley stubble prior to planting barley on barley has shown to increase yield buy between 325 and 400kg in 2017 and 2015. While removing stubble can reduce early disease pressure, not all the yield increase can be accounted for by disease.  Other factors are involved that may require additional work to understand (N mineralization, allelopathic impacts of stubble or improved seed bed).  Where erosion risk is low growers should consider burning to remove barley stubble if planting consecutive barley crops.

We feel that there is no further work required to investigate the hypothesized link between STNB levels and pre-harvest head loss.

Growers, advisors and the wider barley industry are the key beneficiaries of this research.  Being able to manage disease to maintain grain quality, yield and economic returns to the grower is critical for a competitive barley industry.

• On zones where wheat growth is not constrained the French and Schultz method gives a realistic potential yield estimate based on growing season rainfall (GSR) and a soil water evaporation term of 110 mm.
• Where soil water evaporation is higher because of sub-soil constraints and other factors that affect the growth of wheat, the soil water evaporation term must be adjusted.
• Zoning your paddocks into areas of performance and soil testing these areas separately for soil nutrients can improve decisions on where to apply nutrients for the best return.
• Fertiliser application rates at sowing should be strategic, i.e. based on the yield potential of the zone and soil test results (e.g. a sowing application of DAP or MAP on a soil with high yield potential should be supplemented with topdressing applications of N if seasonal conditions are good).

• Blackleg internal infection was found in many varieties including some varieties that had higher levels than would be expected.
• Due to the good winter and spring, the level of yield loss at a certain level of internal infection was much lower than measured in 2008.
• Farmers need to cut canola stems at windrowing time to assess the level of blackleg.

• Blackleg internal infection was found in many varieties inclding some varieties that had higher levels than would be expected. 
• Due to teh good winter and spring, the level of yield loss as a certain level of internal infection was much lower than measured in 2008.
• Farmers need to cut canola stems at windrowing time to assess the level of blackleg. 

• WA2211 had lower disease severity and slower build up of blackspot than Kaspa and Alma,
  however this was not reflected in final grain yield due to dry spring seasonal conditions.
• P-Pickel T slows the blackspot epidemic during the early stages of the crop growth. The effect of P-Pickel T wears off and disease levels are no different to untreated controls beyond 12 weeks after sowing.
• The blackspot epidemic spreads further in the crop during flowering and podding, by spore
  splash (demonstrated by trap plants placed at Kingsford trial). Fungicide sprays at this stage, to stop the infection on upper foliage and stems, may be beneficial in higher rainfall regions. This needs to be tested in trials by timing spraying with spore release.
• Concept trial methodology was successfully developed to assess wether field pea lines with
  improved blackspot resistance levels can be sown at earlier sowing dates than currently
  recommended. However further evaluation is required on WA2211 to assess wether its black spot resistance improvement is significant enough due to the dry seasonal conditions which prevailed in 2007 . This will occur again in 2008.
• The importance of an additive effect of varietal improvement, seed dressing and foliar sprays in allowing earlier sowing is not fully understood and requires further evaluation in a year more favourable for disease infection and spread.

• Early sowing plus large numbers of airborne spores caused severe blackspot infection in pea crops in 2009.
• Winter and spring rain increased severity of blackspot in the pea crops.
• Airborne blackspot spore numbers are expected to be high in 2010 since pea stubbles have severe disease loads.

• Acidic soil layers below 5 cm adversely affect root growth and architecture, nodulation, plant vigour, N2
fixation and yield potential of acid-sensitive pulses.
• Moderately (pHCa 4.6–5.0) and severely (pHCa <4.5) acidic layers in the 5–20 cm soil profile are not detected using soil samples collected over standard profile depths of 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm.
• Finer sampling at 5 cm intervals is recommended to detect pH stratification.
• The current standard industry practice of spreading lime with no incorporation and sowing with knife point press wheels or disc seeders confines the lime effect to the surface layers.
• Careful paddock selection and forward planning is required to correct pH stratification in the topsoil (0–10 cm).
• Lime application and incorporation with a full cultivation operation at least 6–12 months before sowing acid-sensitive species could be necessary.
• Appropriate lime rates should be used to ensure pHCa >5.5 in the entire top 10 cm layer.
• The effect of pH stratification on more acid-tolerant species, including canola, lucerne and cereals, should also be monitored.

Cereals can be successfully established into existing stands of lucerne to increase winter production without compromising summer
production of the lucerne. The choice of cereal will influence the amount of winter and spring production.

• Brassica carinata is a crop similar to canola that may be used to produce biojet fuel.
• Carinata is grown in Canada over summer but is very late flowering and taller when grown under our winter conditions.
• Earlier flowering carinata lines were selected in 2017 and tested in 20 yield trials in 2018.
• Several carinata lines have produced higher grain yields than canola at Bordertown.
• Future studies will develop an agronomic package to optimise carinata production.
   

The time from sowing to emergence represents a key period in the development of high-yielding wheat crops.

• The +Zn treatment received 7 kg Zn/ha at sowing plus 2 foliar sprays of 0.33 kg Zn/ha.
• Generally, yield responses to Zn are greater in durum and bread wheat than in barley.
• The most inefficient lines of wheat and barley showed distinctive symptoms of Zn deficiency, such as reduced growth, pale leaves with chlorotic and necrotic lesions along the mid-vein.
• In 1999 a dry spring limited the yield response to Zn to about 0.5 t/ha, whereas, in 1998 yield increases up to 1 t/ha were measured.
• The disparity between the vegetative and the yield responses has tended to be greater in barley than in wheat.
• The wheat cultivars Goldmark and Kukri have low Zn efficiency, whereas the widely adapted, high yielding cultivars Trident, Krichauff and Worrakatta are Zn-efficient.
• Within barley, a number of Japanese breeding lines (eg SBWI-1) are very inefficient, but many current cultivars from SA as well as Arapiles (Vic.) and Stirling (WA) show a high level of efficiency.
• Pot assays for Zn efficiency have been developed and generally show similar rankings to the field tests.
• Wheat double haploid populations derived from the cross between Trident (efficient) and Songlen (inefficient) have been produced to develop molecular markers for Zn efficiency.

• Highly winter active lucerne varieties had better establishment than the winter active or semi dormant varieties.
• Many of the breeder's lines showed better establishment than the commercial cultivars.

• Liming to help reduce some of the inherent nutritional problems of low soil pH.
• Application of Molybdenum pre seeding to assist with nodulation.
• Improving nodulation by either increasing the number of rhizobia applied, ensuring rhizobia survival in those acid soils or ensuring both collar and lateral nodules develop.
• Early tissue testing and subsequent nutrient correction with foliar applications to overcome some of the deficiencies associated with lower soil pH.
• Raised beds for water logging control in wetter areas, or sowing the beans into a ‘hill’ rather than a ‘furrow’.
• Retention of cereal stubble to improve soil moisture status prior to and at sowing may assist with improving germination and nodulation.

If the time and costs incurred in sowing are compared to broadcasting in relation to the yields achieved it is more cost effective to broadcast then to sow. The BCG will continue work in this area in 2001.

• Trifluralin can provide useful control of low levels of brome and barley grass.
• No crop damage was observed this season from Metribuzin/Diuron mixes applied pre-sowing.

• The ecology of brome grass has changed, making it more problematic to control in crops. Higher levels of seed dormancy are allowing brome to escape pre-sowing control tactics, resulting in greater in-crop emergence.
• Increased seed dormancy associated with a requirement for cold or chilling. Under field conditions this increased chilling requirement would not be met until late Autumn or early Winter.
• Knockdown herbicides are less effective in the management of highly dormant populations of brome. Therefore, brome grass management has become heavily reliant on Group A and B herbicides, especially the Clearfield(TM) technology, which is expected to increase the risk of herbicide resistance development.
• High levels of seedbank persistence from one year to the next (approximately 25%) means multiyear control of brome grass is required to exhaust seedbanks to manageable levels. Plan a three-year rotation.

• If early sowing, Morava vetch is the best choice for brown manuring, particularly if brown manuring for early weed control is the objective since early desiccation will preclude any persistence of hard-seeded vetch into subsequent crops. Field peas are the preferred option for later (mid May) sowing for either brown manuring or crop topping
• TOS 1 field peas had disease problems in early winter reducing biomass.

• Across the trial series at Grass Patch, Ballidu, Merredin and Holt Rock the highest grain yields, oil and gross margins were from the open pollinated variety, so growers should continue to use open pollinated TT varieties in the low rainfall regions, rather than hybrid varieties.
• In the hybrid treatments, there were generally increased yields and oil from the purchased (F1) seed, compared with the retained (F2) seed.  The gross margin was only significantly better at the Grass Patch site, for the 2014 F1 compared with the retained seed. Grading to increase seed size and sowing at a target density of 40 plants/m² improved the yield and gross margins of F2 retained hybrid seed, but at Grass Patch in 2015 using F1 hybrid seed or OP seed provided better results..

• My conclusion is that Conservation Farming practices are just as applicable in a marginal environment as in a more reliable one, perhaps more so. The trick here is to establish a blend of the existing knowledge (e.g. need to store moisture when possible, weed control, fertility management, sound pasture phase, timeliness of sowing, disease management), plus the newly available technology of seeders and herbicides that can continue to grow solid yielding, but importantly more profitable crops into the future.

• Overall yield from May 17 sowing was impressive for this AgZone, at 1.6 t/ha.
• Delayed sowing by 34 days, to June 20, led to 1042 kg/ha less yield – 30 kg/ha/day.
• Short season hybrids could extend the safe sowing window later in this environment.
• Difficulty establishing canola in hot conditions could limit how far the sowing window can be brought forward.
• To take advantage of early autumn rains in this environment larger seeded broadleaf species that can be sown deeper should be tested.

• Yield were impressive; 1.9t/ha from April 26 and 2.2t/ha from May 17.
• Mid-season maturity varieties showed the greatest plasticity in plant development across sowing dates and may be a good option over a wide sowing/establishment period.
• Short season hybrids may enable the sowing window to be extended later with reduced risk.
• Long season varieties yielded poorly from these sowing dates.

• Yields were relatively stable across sowing times ranging from 2.2 to 3.1 t/ha.
• Early and mid-season hybrid varieties out-yielded the open pollinated varieties of the same season length.
• These hybrids combine early flowering, high biomass and in some cases a long flowering period.
• In general varieties had substantial plasticity and growers may be able to use a few varieties across a wide range of emergence dates; this is important if pre-ordering hybrid seed and/or dry sowing.

• Improved knowledge of how canola varieties develop in differing regions and the drivers behind development will assist growers in choosing the correct variety for a particular sowing opportunity.
• The development of site specific optimal flowering windows, where the balance between plant growth and frost and heat risks are accounted for, will allow growers and advisors to match canola variety selection with sowing opportunities.
• Nitrogen is an important driver of canola yields in above average seasons. Low risk techniques to ensure adequate nitrogen supply are critical to capitalise on above average rainfall in the low rainfall zone.

• As long as enough plants are established, canola can be sown at low rates as the plants compensate so well. Lodging was reduced by lower sowing rates. 
• Using retained hybrid seed for sowing resulted in lower grain yeilds and increased plant losses from blackleg.
• Winter types of canola from international sources may allow us to get increased grain yeilds in seasons when we can sow early. 

• In a low yielding season canola yield reached a plateau at between 20 and 40 plants/m².
• Hybrid canola reached a plateau at lower density than open-pollinated canola.
• Canola yield held up at high density well, even though plants became severely stressed in early winter and early spring.
• Hybrid canola had a significant yield advantage over open-pollinated (OP) canola in a below average season.

• In the Upper North it will be rare that there are stubble loads high enough (7-10t/ha stubble residue) to cause a significant issue at seeding to reduce seeding efficiency.
• The stubble loads experienced in the Upper North will on average be able to be sown through and produce effective canola establishment without burning or cultivation.
• Undertaking burning or cultivation was shown in this demonstration to have a negative impact on canola plant establishment if undertaken unnecessarily (barley stubble residue ~5t/ha).

In 2017, there were three canola variety trials sown across the South East region of South Australia: located at
Keith, Bordertown and Frances. The site at Keith evaluates early season varieties, and those at Bordertown and
Frances evaluate mid-season varieties. Both sets of trials have similar sowing and harvest times and have a similar
complement of varieties, although there may be several early maturity varieties in the early series that are not
tested in the mid-series, or vice-versa. The data from the 2017 Bordertown canola variety trials has not been
released.

• The yields for the Clearfield (imidazolinone tolerant) variety time of sowing 1 (TOS1) trial averaged 5.48 t/ha (see Table 2a in attached trial report).
• There was no significant difference in yield between the two varieties sown.
• The yields for the Clearfield (imidazolinone tolerant) variety time of sowing 2 (TOS2) trial (Table 2b) averaged 5.56 t/ha and ranged from 6.32 t/ha (Pheonix CL) down to 5.18 t/ha  (Banker CL).
• There was no significant difference in yield between the varieties. 

• Soil analysis obtained from the site indicated that most nutrients were in adequate supply with the exception of Phosphorus. Gypsum was applied to both sites in 1995 at 2.5 T/Ha. DAP was applied to the crop at sowing at the rate of 100 kg/ha. 
• For further discussion please see the attached trial report.

• Early sowing opportunities may provide a great opportunity to maximise canola yield, but selection of the correct variety is important.
• Understanding the drivers behind canola development will help to improve canola management and variety selection.
• Varietal maturity ratings don’t always correlate with varietal phenology.

• I firmly believe that canola is here to stay in the district. It is in many ways better suited to the
  environment than wheat.
• The frost risk from sowing early is much greater with wheat because it only flowers for a few days.
• Frosts at this time can devastate wheat crops.

The 2009 season was one we would like to forget, with decile 1 growing season rainfall for nearly all grain growing regions in Victoria. Despite the season, crops in many areas looked excellent, but those without stored subsoil moisture at sowing struggled considerably with no effective rainfall in spring. Oil contents were highly variable, and generally low. Frosts on 23 October and 17 November wiped off about one-third of the crop in the Western District

While the 2003 series of trials is largely inconclusive, they do highlight a number of take-home messages:
• Do not expect nutrients like nitrogen to work effectively where other essential nutrients like phosphorus are lacking.
• Site selection for nutrition trials is vital - conduct of trials on recently constructed beds is advised against. Ideally, trials will be conducted in situations where beds have been in a normal cropping rotation for at least 5 years.
• The jury is still out on best approach to N management for canola, but where reasonable profile N is present before sowing a crop, split applications are advisable to mitigate risk.

• Selecting mid-fast hybrid varieties with flexible phenology in the Wimmera is a good risk management option, which also has yield potential when seasonal conditions are favourable.
• Fast hybrids have performed well but avoid the temptation to plant these early if an early break eventuates.
• Selecting slow developing varieties comes with added risk of requiring a germinating rain in the first week of April or earlier.
• The best return on investment in nitrogen comes with application to hybrids that flower at the optimum time for the environment.

• Time of nitrogen application was not as important as the quantity available to the plant.
• Nitrogen is an important driver of canola yields across dune-swale soil types and must be managed in the low rainfall zone for the crop to be profitable.

 

The safest way of sowing canola is with the fertiliser down the same tube.

• Intermittent prevailing dry conditions experienced through the growing season probably impacted negatively on the residual activity of Atradex WG and Intervix in the TT and CL canola systems respectively, while resistance to Group A and Group B Herbicides would also have been a contributing factor.
  • Final weed control ratings (out of 10):
  • Roundup Ready canola system – 9.9
  • Triazine Tolerant canola system – 7
  • Clearfield canola system – 7.5
• The trial was harvested 5th November (168 days after sowing). Yield data are shown below. The high yields and oil content probably reflect timely rain rather than a particularly good season. There is some discrepancy between the yields of the trial and the paddock average harvested by Andrew. The harvest contractor is confident that the figures reflect the true yield for the site and suggest that this area of the paddock was possibly a high yielding area compared to other areas of the paddock, or that the impact of small plot water harvesting may have played a role. The trial is more about relative performance than actual performance: on average the RR system yielded 38 percent higher than the TT system and 15 percent higher than the CL system.
• System specific input costs used in calculations in the table above provide a ball park summary of specific costs associated with each system. They are not hard and fast figures, to be disputed. It is appreciated that each and every item is subject to negotiation with suppliers so readers are encouraged to re-work the figures to suit their experience and anticipated costs for 2011.
• The trial demonstrates that in this instance growers would have on average an additional $500 per hectare to meet other costs when growing RR canola over TT canola (purchased seed) or an additional $465 per hectare over TT canola (using farmer saved seed – assuming that the same yields are obtained for these TT crops).
• Again in this instance growers would have on average an additional $225 per hectare to meet other costs when growing RR canola over CL canola (purchasing all seed) or an additional $190 per hectare over CL canola (using farmer saved seed).
• These additional earnings per hectare are even more attractive when one considers the fact that the level of weed control achieved by the RR system was significantly better than that achieved by the other two systems.

• The late sown crops (in July) were extremely poor and were not harvested.
• The optimum sowing time for the 1996 season was early May.
• There was no significant difference in yield between karoo and Narendra on the same sowing date.

• In the southern Mallee canola is best sown from mid May onwards (earlier sowing can lead to problems with frost.
• Sowing in July is too late.

Note: blackleg resistance ratings shown are for 2007, and ranked from 1.0 to 9.0. Varieties with ratings of 3-4.5 are moderately susceptible; 5-5.5 are moderately resistant; 6.0-7.0 are resistant and 7.5-9.0 are highly resistant. Check the Victorian Winter Crop Summary for 2008 ratings.

Early sowing is the key to maximising canola yeild in the Northern Agricultural Region (NAR) All varieties yielded less when sown on April 29 compared to April 14 Yield loss was on average 43kg/ha per day between April 14 and April 29th sowing Using the highest yeilding variety rather than trying to match variety maturity to sowing date was the best option.

• Early sowing is the key to maximising canola yield in the Northern Agricultural Region (NAR)
• All varieties yielded less when sown on April 29 compared to April 14.
• Yield loss was on average 43 kg/ha per day between April 14 and April 29 sowing.
• Using the highest yielding variety rather than trying to match variety maturity to sowing date was the best option.

• IH30, unlike 43Y23 has limited adaptability and is suited to a later sowing date.

From this initial work it cannot be concluded that the later nitrogen timings implicit in a canopy management approach significantly influence the need for disease management.

Wheat yields at Gippsland were well below the average yields recorded at SFS’ other trial sites in the western districts of the state.

• Wheat on wheat can be successfuly grown with relatively low risk if all factors that influence diease are considered.
• The most important are: disease carry over, variety selection, sowing time, seed treatment and burning stubbles.
• Barley on wheat is less of a problem, except for self-sown wheat in the barley sample.

• Wheat on wheat can be successfuly grown with relatively low risk if all factors that influence diease are considered.
• The most important are: disease carry over, variety selection, sowing time, seed treatment and burning stubbles.
• Barley on wheat is less of a problem, except for self-sown wheat in the barley sample.

On-Duty residues may affect the performance of subsequent susceptible crops. Cereals are considered a safe crop option following Clearfield canola as long as the On-Duty has been applied prior to the end of August and that rainfall between spraying and sowing the next winter crop has been at least 250mm.

There was no forage production response to fertiliser nitrogen (N) at Yanac in 2012; a low rainfall, decile 1 season. District experience, however, has seen forage production respond to fertiliser N in better rainfall seasons. Consider the risk associated with the application of fertiliser on pastures. What is the likelihood of achieving a paying response from this investment? Ensure forage is meeting the nutritional requirements of stock to realise genetic potential for growth and production.

• Burning or cultivating 2015 stubbles tended to produce higher yields, however this was only significant at Ungarie.
• High rainfall and a soft finish removed the benefit of stored soil moisture that stubble retained systems may have provided.
• Nitrogen was the limiting factor for both yield and protein for 2016.
• Growers cannot let stubble negatively impact on weed control and timely sowing.
• Growers should use crop rotation to their advantage by aiming to sow the right crop into the least antagonistic stubble.
• Stubble retained systems can require more nitrogen due to increased nitrogen tie-up.

Root diseases such as 'Take all', cereal cyst nematode, and Rhizoctonia cost cereal farmers acorss the Mallee and the Wimmera millions or dollars each year.

Grain legumes are ideally suited for direct drilling into cereal stubble. Cereal stubble does not affect grain legume growth or yield. The legume's large seed size and tolerance to variations in sowing depth allows them to safely emerge through stubble. Stubble should be left on the soil surface. Attempts to break up and bury it with repeated harrowing and workings will damage the soil structure, negating any benefit from retaining it.

• Oats produced the most dry matter after repeated grazings.
• Manage timing of grazing to allow cereal recovery. • Establish as much bulk as possible in a cereal pasture by increasing.
• seeding rate and consider dry sowing.

• Prior to sowing, seed was treated with various products that are commercially available although no seed treatment improved crop performance relative to the untreated control.
• Rancona C had no negative effects on germination early vigour, establishment or yield of wheat when compared to other seed treatments or the untreated control.
• There was no evidence of wheat smut at the trial site this season, if disease pressure was greater we may expect to see difference in yield between treatments.

The trial went well in 2011 because the manure coverage was good. Michael was disappointed with the results from the deep rip treatments with or without lime, because there was no significant yield difference compared to the control and hence no economic gain. However applying chicken manure at 2t/ha resulted in an increase in yield (especially from the most acidic sand rises) with a considerable economic gain/return. Therefore, as a result of these trials Michael is going to implement a strategic manure application programme with the objective of increasing his paddocks yield and profitability while reducing the impact of the sand rises. Fellow growers in the area have embraced the trial outcomes and most of them are keen to adopt a similar strategy in their cropping system since chicken manure is widely available in the area.

It is too early to tell whether chickpeas are as sensitive to simazine on clay soils as they demonstrated to be on a sandy soil in 1995.

• Dry and hot conditions prevailed throughout late winter and spring limiting disease spread and plant growth.
• There was no fungicide treatment effect on grain yield in 2007.
• Fungicide treatments at early podding (pod), early and late podding (podplus) and strategic sprays (strat) had larger seeds than the control, but not significantly larger than fortnightly or systemic sprays.

• There was diversity in phenology between varieties.
• Early sowing extended the crop vegetative period, but increased exposure to frost damage during the flowering phase.
• Desi varieties PBA Striker, PBA Slasher, PBA Boundary and CICA1521 were the highest yielding varieties at both sites.
• Dry conditions severely limited chickpea grain yield in 2019, but favoured early maturing varieties, particularly with mid May sowing.

• Pod set in chickpeas was suppressed by the cool September and October in 2009. Dry spring conditions further suppressed grain yields and grain weights of late sown chickpea crops by terminating seed fill prematurely.
• The dry season favoured early sowing, and generally favoured the early maturing Genesis079. The desi’s Genesis509 and new release PBASlasher generally performed similarly, although PBASlasher has higher long term yields and improved seed quality over Genesis509 in NVT trials.
• Earlier sown chickpeas yielded higher than those sown later. However, when sowing was delayed, yield was maximised in some varieties by increasing the seeding rate above recommended, similarly to 2008. However current chickpea densities of 35 plants/m2 for kabuli’s (small and large) and 50 plants/m2 for desi’s remain best-practice when sown early.
• Higher grain weights in chickpeas were achieved in 2009 by sowing early, particularly in larger seeded kabuli’s. However this finding was opposite to that found in the past where later sowing dates have led to larger grain weights. Increasing plant density from current recommendations did not influence yield, but reducing density to 20 plants/m2 did show a reduction in grain weight.

• Favourable early winter seasonal conditions were followed by dry conditions during late
  winter and spring.
• Late spring rainfall events were beneficial to grain formation and the average trial yield was a very respectable 1.7 t/ha given the below average growing season rainfall.

No visual herbicide damage symptoms or yield effects were evident in 2008 wheat, barley, IT canola or lentil crops sown after the application of common herbicides to chickpeas in 2007.

• Doubling row spacing in chickpeas from 9” to 18” caused an 18% reduction in yield, although there were improvements in lodging and pod loss. Variety ranking was the same for both row spacings.
• Row spacing had no influence on grain weight in 2009.

• In dry years, sow faba bean and chickpea as early as possible in the recommended sowing window.
• Grain yield declined significantly as sowings were delayed from 30th April through to 7th July.
• Faba bean was far more sensitive to delays than chickpea –they lost on average 21 kgs seed/ha/day over this period compared to only 7 kgs seed/ha/day for chickpea.

• Results of this trial need to be treated with caution due to the low yields and adverse environmental conditions experienced throughout the season.
• Growing season rainfall was extremely low (190mm c.f. 265mm long term average) and there was no subsoil moisture due to low summer rainfall. Only 9mm rainfall was recorded in October (a critical period for crop growth and yield determination). There was an extremely hot day October 13 (37OC) followed by a frost (Oct 16, -3.4) which resulted in almost complete flower and pod abortion. Approximately 80mm rain fell in November and December, ensuring that we achieved grain yields up to 400kg/ha.
• Emergence was similar to target plant densities.
• Results highlight the yield potential of the new lines Flip 94-090c and Flip 94-509c.
• Low plant densities and later sowing tended to be higher yielding due to the late rainfall. This is the opposite trend of 2003 and needs further investigation.
• There was a greater proportion of large seed (>8mm) of Flip 94-090c at low plant densities compared with high plant densities (25% c.f. 5%).

• A dry (but mild) finish to the season meant that yields were less than the previous seasons but still above average, and there was less biomass production and disease pressure, resulting in low amounts of plant lodging.
• As expected, lodging was greater at the earlier sowing date, but was generally only minimal.

A strong negative effect on crop yield was found with sowing chickpeas shallow even with light rates of Simazine and Triflualin.

• In 1997, due to dry conditions, there was little effect of Simazine and Trifluralin on chickpea yield.
• On lighter soils it is still advisable to sow chickpeas relatively deep (7-8cm) when using Trifluralin and Simazine for weed control.

The yields are too poor to properly assess the three different treatment times.

Chickpeas should be sown from early June in the Southern Mallee.

• Given the moisture stress only the chickpea plot warranted harvesting, with the faba beans not handling the conditions as well.
• Yields were extremely low due to moisture stress

• Early sowing generally produced the highest yield for chickpeas in 2007.
• Chickpea varieties showed differences in response to plant density at each of the sowing dates.
• Generally Genesis 509 showed increased yield with higher plant densities, Almaz showed reduced yields and Genesis 090 was variable depending on sowing date.