This trial showed considerable infection of striperust at flag leaf stage through to grain filling stage.There were visual differences in stripe rust levels between the control and stripe rust treatments at flag leaf stage. A foliar fungicide application would have undoubtedly protected the plant in the later growth stages, thereby providing higher yields. The soil root disease test showed no
problem with the root diseases listed above. One disease, which cannot be commercially tested for at this stage, is pythium. Dividend does not claim to have any effect on stripe rust so the increase in yield in the Dividend treatment could be attributed to pythium. The other treatments have clearly had a yield benefit from stripe rust suppression, as this was the only visible foliar disease in the trial. The trial will be extended in 2005 to include foliar fungicide applications and other combinations of products used in this trial.

• Fungal diseases and aphids can affect yield dramatically in some years in some areas.
• Bayer CropScience is developing two new seed treatments which can help with fungal disease and aphid control and reduce the spread of barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) helping to increase yields.
• In this trial no aphids and very low levels of disease were recorded.
• The use of Hombre and Zorro in this situation did not increase yield.

2018

• Interestingly, the lower down force pressure across all press wheel type treatments yielded higher than the high down force pressure treatments, although this was not statistically significantly.
• When making decisions on which press wheel shape and down force pressure you need to account not only for yield, but also grain quality. The results from 2018 show that although yield was higher in some treatments these did not necessarily have highest gross margins due to grain quality.
• Being able to run a multi-year gross return analysis will provide more solid findings due to seasonal variability. 

2019

• Unlike 2018 where there was a clear trend of lower down force pressure across all press wheel types yielding higher than the high down force pressure treatments, this trend wasn’t evident for the 2019 season. This may have been due to the much drier season experienced in 2019 (average yield 0.71t/ha) compared to the 2018 season (average yield 3.59t/ha).

• Due to the poor finish to the 2019 growing season, the results from the trial site did not indicate a preference toward a seeding system. However, results from the 2018 season suggest that press wheel pressure has a greater influence on yield and profit than press wheel shape.

• Due to the poor finish to the 2019 growing season, the results from the trial site did not indicate a preference toward a seeding system treatment. However, it would seem in a higher rainfall year, as was experienced in 2018, press wheel pressure can impact on yield more than type of press wheel.

• A critical level of zinc is required in the soil before roots will either grow into it or function effectively.
•  It is likely that this requirement is frequently not met in deep sandy in fertile soils.
• This paper presents arguments for breeding cereal varieties with root system is better able to mobilise zink from soil sources of low availability.
• Significant genetic variation for this character is described for wheat, barley and oats.
• Linkage to other efficiency traits for example manganese, is poor suggesting independent mechanisms and genetic control not linked to gross root system geometry.
• Zinc efficiency traits for sandy and clay soils are appear be genetically different.
•  Zinc inefficient genotypes absorb more zinc from deficient soils.

• Genetic mutations in the Septoria tritici blotch (STB) pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici can differentially influence the performance of triazole fungicides in the laboratory.
• There should continue to be a focus on the principles of an integrated disease management (IDM) approach to control diseases such as STB, using rotation, cultivar resistance, later sowing, and other aspects of cultural control to compliment fungicide control.
• New research on foliar fungicide indicates that the principal fungicides still give good in-field control of STB up to 30 days after application when applied at full label rates.
• There are significant differences in disease control amongst the different fungicide products and rates of application when monitored leaves are assessed more than 30 days after application.
• Single spray timings of foliar fungicide for control of STB made during the late tillering phase gave less effective disease control than applications made at first node (GS31). Spray application delayed until flag leaf gave the poorest control of STB but gave superior leaf rust control later in the season.

 • Reduced sensitivity of the Septoria tritici blotch (STB) pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici to triazole fungicides is likely to be an increasing problem, following the discovery of more resistant biotypes (R8 strain or Isoform 11) on the mainland in 2016.
• The presence of this strain and its proportion in the population will influence disease management strategies differentially.
• In Tasmania, early season disease control in the field with flutriafol (2017 trials) and tebuconazole (2016 trials) has been reduced by the more resistant biotypes of the pathogen, whilst on the mainland trial sites the activity of flutriafol appears to have been maintained in 2017 for the control of STB.
• The performance of a new SDHI based seed treatment and to a lesser extent fluquinconazole (Jockey) has been better than flutriafol in Tasmanian trials.
• Triazole/strobilurin mixtures based on epoxiconazole and azoxystrobin (e.g. Radial, Tazer Xpert), along with new as yet unregistered combinations of triazole & SDHI have given excellent control of STB.
• In 2016 the advantage of these products was evident in disease control and yield response in wheat but in 2017 the yield response to these products was similar to that observed with Opus and Prosaro (registered in wheat but not registered for STB control).
• Single spray timings of foliar fungicide for control of STB made during the tillering phase gave less effective disease control than applications made between GS31 – GS39.
• The most effective control of STB on a canopy leaf layer is achieved by applying fungicide to that leaf shortly after it has fully emerged but before infection becomes established.
• Where more than one fungicide is used in wheat avoid using the same triazole active ingredient twice in a season, irrespective of diseases to be controlled. If it is not possible ensure it is mixed with another mode of action (strobilurin) at one of the timings.
• Since strobilurins are at higher risk of resistance avoid using products containing these active ingredients more than once in a season.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction; sheep’s mouths cause damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface; natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this.
• Grazing of stubbles and crops appears to make more N available to crops, which can increase yield; the mechanisms by which this is achieved remain uncertain.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this.
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this. 
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this.
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this.
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this. 
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this.
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this.
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

Flight, Velocity, Jaguar and the Agritone plus Affinity mix were the herbicides that provided the most effective wild radish control in wheat. A two-spray strategy is required to control later germinations of wild radish. Short-term pain for long-term gain: including new herbicides (with different modes of action) into the cereal phase will delay the onset of resistance.

•  Grower practice N rates at both sites were the most economical
•  Applying higher rates of N to maintain or increase protein was not profitable if yield did not also increase
•  Grain markets should be watched in case higher quality grades fetch significantly higher prices
•  Increased nitrogen can lead to increased incidence of powdery mildew if not controlled early in the season.

After six years of running the Systems Site comparing farming systems it has become clear that the critical issues are as follows.

Conserving soil water into dry seasons, which can be achieved using either mechanical in a conventional system or chemical means in a reduced till or no till system (assuming there is enough stubble to protect the soil surface from evaporation).

Since the introduction of Frame and Yitpi (CCN resistant wheats) CCN has not been a problem.

Take-all and Pratylenchus neglectus appear to more closely correlate to specific areas in a paddock rather than levels changing because of crop choice or the rotation (field peas did lower Pratylenchus levels). Certainly there did not appear to be any influence of farming system on these two soil borne diseases.

Weed levels have not changed markedly over the duration of the trial and there were no differences between systems after six years. Brome grass is now present at the site at very low levels whereas it was not recorded in 1999 and 2000.

Wind erosion susceptibility and risk is lowest in the No Till plots because of good stubble cover and aggregation of soil particles. The three other systems all had plots which were moderately susceptible to wind erosion, primarily as a result of low stubble cover.

Using current technology and sampling intensity it is not possible to pick up changes in soil available nitrogen levels between different farming systems.

Soil changes in soil biological characteristics are currently being assessed and will be reported by the BCG update in February 2006.

• Stubble retention and reduced stocking pressures increase soil microbial activity.
• Activity of soil microbes give soils natural suppression of root diseases.
• Disease suppression has been shown to be substantially increased through retention of stubbles over a 5-10 year period.
• Microbial activity has a strong influence on the availability of soil nutrients to crops, Nitrogen is the nutrient most influenced by microbial activity.
• There are many microbes that can break down chemicals and this break down is often enhanced with increased stubble retention.

• The trial provides strong support for the use of soil-specific N management to improve profitability and risk management on Mallee dune-swale paddocks.
• Sandy soil types have consistently shown yield responses to increased inputs of N, while the heavy swale soils have not shown a yield benefit of increased N inputs.
• Nil fertiliser (N and P) has been the most profitable fertiliser treatment on the heaviest swale soil and the least profitable elsewhere.
• Upfront N at a higher rate still appears to generate the most consistent yield increase and profit outcome on the sandy soil types.

• The trial provides strong support for the use of soil-specific N management to improve profitability and risk management on Mallee dune-swale paddocks.
• Sandy soil types have consistently showing yield responses to increased inputs of N, while the heavy swale soils have not shown a yield benefit of increased N inputs.
• Nil fertiliser (N and P) has been the most profitable fertiliser treatment on the heaviest swale soil and the least profitable elsewhere.
• There was still a measurable response in 2013 to a pasture break in 2009.

• 55% of paddocks tested in 2014 and 80% of paddocks in 2015 had crown rot.
• 90% of paddocks tested in 2014 and 2015 had take all.
• The previous crop grown in the paddock can greatly influence the pre-sowing levels of crown rot and take all in the following year, particularly in a cereal on cereal rotation.
• Most paddocks with pre-sowing levels of crown rot and take all had increased inoculum levels throughout the growing season.
• Crop rotation and duration, and stubble management can reduce crown rot and take all infection risk.

Early sowing is essential in order to maximise yield of wheat crops grown on long (18 month) fallow. Long fallowing and early sowing are complementary practices, as the fallow reduces weeds and diseases which can be difficult to control in early sown crops, and early sowing with slow developing cultivars allows the crop to better use soil water that is stored during the fallow. Stored soil water also helps to establish early sown crops when there is minimal autumn rainfall. This fact sheet outlines how farmers can maximise wheat yield on long fallow by sowing early with slow developing cultivars, and is based on two years of GRDC funded research conducted by AgGrow Agronomy, CWFS and CSIRO in western NSW.

The trials clearly showed that high levels of control of resistant radish populations could be achieved with a 2 spray program that used both old and new chemistries. The trials clearly showed that growers don’t need to use 2 applications of pyrasulfatole in one crop to achieve satisfactory control if small weeds are targeted with robust herbicide rates and good spray coverage.

Growers should be using a 2 spray regime on bad wild radish paddocks as a matter of course. Growers should be targeting radish as early as possible i.e. from the 2 leaf stage of the cereal crop and be coming back 3 - 4 weeks later with a second application using alternative modes of action to those used in the first spray. An example of this would be to use Velocity at 2 leaf stage of the crop and follow up with 24,D amine plus Ecopar as a second spray application.

• Oats can be included as a minor component (up to 25% on a denstiy basis) in peas with aroudn a 10% increase in yield compared to growing the crops separately.
• Higher proportions of oats are too competitive with the peas and the pea yield is greatly reduced.
• Spring sown fodder crops yield substantially less than autumn sown crops but they may be a viable option where waterlogging affects autumn sowings. 

• The highest yielding variety for the 2008 Inverleigh wheat trial programme was Espada with 4.18 t/ha. The mean yield for hte fungicide treated trial was 3.44 t/ha, with the treated mean yield in 2007 being 4.18 t/ha.
• For the full list of take home messages please see the attached trial report.

• The average yield for the spring wheat trial at Inverleigh was 5.12 t/ha. The highest yields were achieved by the shorter seaons varieties Beaufort (6.95 t/ha) and Derrimut (6.10 t/ha). Both varieties yielded well in the 2008 wheat variety trial at Inverleigh.
• For further take home messages please see the attached trial report.

• The risk of rust outbreaks in 2007 will be high if there is a build up of inoculum on volunteer cereals over summer.
• Rust diseases will need to be managed to protect returns.
• Resistant varieties are the best form of management where possible.

• In wet years, barley sown into cereal stubble can suffer badly from yellow leaf spot.
• In dry years, this is not a problem.
• However, the barley still performed better where the wheat stubble has been burnt.

• Cereal stubble should be burnt when sowing wheat, barley or canola.
• The smaller the cereal and canola seedlings do not thrive when grown in stubble.
• Larger seeded crops such as chickpeas and lupins performed best in stubble retained situations.

• On black soil the average wheat yield increase due to zinc was of the order of 240 kg/ha between 1939 and 1949.

Despite the prevalence of cereal leaf disease in the Wimmera in 2003, these sites were relatively clean. Low levels of spot form of net blotch (SFNB) were present at most sites.

Results from a demonstration in December of 2012 suggest weed control had an impact on stored soil moisture and consequent yield in 2013 across a range of soil types at seven locations across the Eastern Wheatbelt. Another factor that could have been quantified in this work, was the effect of weed control on nitrogen status (and consequent effect of N on yield). Opening values were collected at the beginning of the trial but no closing N values were measured. Removing summer weeds has an impact on the nitrogen levels in the soil, and this will be further quantified with more field work in 2014.

• Changes in farming practices in the past 15 years have increased crop disease pressure in southern NSW.
• Annual crop surveys are important for monitoring disease incidence and severity between districts and years. They also identify emerging disease issues and provide forewarning of potential problems.
• Sclerotinia diseases were widespread in broadleaf crops across the region in 2020, especially in narrow-leaf lupin and canola crops. This will have implications in 2021 and beyond.
• Blackleg was observed in every canola crop assessed as part of the integrated disease management (IDM) crop survey.
• Canola sown into a double break scenario will potentially require pre-emptive management to minimise disease risk.
• The decision to use fungicides is not always clear and should be assessed every year, depending on your crop’s disease risk profile.

UWA trials on an MLA funded project showed that using more disease-resistant or disease-tolerant cultivars across Australia in 2015 and 2016 significantly increased plant productivity by up to 4 to 5-fold. This opportunity to identify cultivar resistances and cultivar field tolerances to the soil borne pathogen complex offers the best and most cost-effective, long term, and economically feasible means of managing damping-off and root diseases in subterranean clover across southern Australia. However, despite this tremendous opportunity to benefit producers, this opportunity is unlikely to be realised unless there is ongoing commitment by Industry funding to support such an approach and to realise this potential.

• Yield Prophet- the crop simulation model- is a great tool for assessing crop risk and predicting potential yields.
• For renovating overgrazed perennial pasture paddocks, the sowing of cereals is a low risk strategy.
• Pasture establishment is extremely difficult in the Mallee in years with limited spring rainfall.
• Cereal biomass production may be greater by an order of 10 times than either perennial or leguminous pastures in the first year of establishment.
• Best pasture options for a June sowing in terms of biomass in the first year of establishment are either forage brassica or Italian Ryegrass

• Ancient barley germplasm from Ethiopia harbours resistance to scald and other diseases.
• Twenty-eight out of 355 Ethiopian lines were moderately resistant to scald.
• Careful selection for disease-resistant lines is important to retain other desirable traits.

• All two year break options increased yield by 0.5–1.0 t/ha compared to continuous wheat.
• Single year breaks improved wheat yields in 2012 and also appeared to increase them slightly in 2013.
• Grassy weeds had a major impact on wheat yields.
• Only 2 year breaks reduced grassy weed seed banks substantially compared to the continuouswheat control.

Wild oat control in dryland cereals is important for yield maximisation and profit. Even low levels of wild oats (50 plants per m2 ) can reduce yields by 17% (PISA Weed Decide Calculator). In a trial conducted at Birchip, Victoria Hussar® and Atlantis ® (group B herbicides) were shown to give similar wild oat control when compared to the current standards and can be used to rotate modes of action. Hoegrass® and Decision™ were shown to be less effective than current standards for wild oat control, at the rates used. Yields varied greatly within replicates so little can be derived from them.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Sowing date and varietal phenology both affected the exposure of canola to rain days and potential disease infection.
• Early sowing increased the level of pod blackleg infection.
• Early sowing increased sclerotinia infetion in the early flowering variety Hyola 575CL but not in the slower variety Pioneer 45Y88 (CL). 
• Grain yield was higher from the later sowing date (22 April) than the early sowing date (7 April).
• Grain yild was closely correlated to total biomass accumulation, which was greater from the 22 April sowing time than 7 April sowing time.

The effect of planting date on grain protein is less clear when viewed over the full planting date range. Past mid June however, the figures would suggest that delaying sowing date in fact increases grain protein.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Cereal stubble should be thought of as a source of C for microbes, not as a source of N for crops. In the Mallee under no-till systems, only 1-2% of the N requirement of wheat crops is derived from the previous wheat stubble.
• N tie-up in cropping soils is only a temporary constraint as the immobilised N will be released through microbial turnover, generally later in the crop season in spring.
• N tie-up by cereal residue is not just a problem following incorporation – it also occurs in surface-retained and standing-stubble systems.
• Management of tie-up is reasonably straightforward – supply more N (5 kg N for each t/ha of cereal residue) and supply it early to avoid impacts of N tie-up on crop yield and protein.
• Deep-banding N can improve the N uptake, yield and protein of crops, especially in stubble-retained systems.

• Total number, severity and length of frosts increased as surface residues increased.
• Increasing the amount of surface residue delayed plant growth, lengthened growth phase duration, and overall time to maturity for both chickpea and lentil.
• For both chickpea and lentil, high surface residues, above 9 t/ha, significantly reduced biomass accumulation and grain yield.

Grazing of the cereals up to growth stage 31 had no significant impact on grain yield but it did reduce the amount of stubble remaining post harvest.

• Summer weeds use significatn amounts of stored soil water.
• The long-term impact of summer weeds amounts to a loss in production of 1t/ha in cereal yield in the southern Mallee.
• In a changed climate scenario, where our region is likely to receive more summer rain at the expense of spring rain, the impact of summer weeds on potential crop yield is likely to increase.

• Although time of heading and flowering are considered the most sensitive stages for frost damage in cereals, sensitivity to early frost damage occurs from the start of stem elongation and is referred to as ‘stem frost’.

• Stem frost can be minimised by matching sowing date and cultivar phenology so that stem elongation starts after the period of greatest frost risk.

• Varieties that started stem elongation early (fast developing varieties sown early) were exposed to an increased number of frosts during the susceptible development stages, whilst winter types sown early had an extended vegetative period and were not exposed to the same frost risk, which reduced damage from stem frost.

• Crops can recover from stem frost where there is moisture available to support new tiller growth. However, the resulting effect on phasic development stage synchrony leads to delayed maturity and harvest issues.

• There was no observed difference in frost tolerance of specific cereal species observed in 2017.

Executive summary

Recently interest in the role of renovation cropping in the farming systems of the Western Australian wheatbelt has increased.  It has been proposed as a means of addressing the apparent decline in soil quality in some intensively cropped areas and the increased incidence of herbicide resistance. 

Renovation cropping involves either turning a crop into the soil at flowering or cutting the crop and leaving it on the soil surface.   This is done to maximise the amount of organic matter added to the soil and to control weeds most effectively.  In the Western Australian wheatbelt the focus has been on using pulses, although a range of crops can be used.  The pulse phase of a rotation is favoured as pulses improve the nitrogen status of the soil. In addition the returns to pulses are lower relative to cereals and canola, so the forgone profit in the year of renovation cropping is lowest.

Renovation cropping leads to changes in soil conditions that persist for at least the following season.  It reduces weed numbers in the following crop by reducing seed set, increases the availability of nutrients and may improve soil structure.  Lower weed numbers reduce the carry-over of root diseases thus providing a disease break for the following cereal crop.  Recent trials have shown likely yield increases of 20-30% above those after a pulse crop and increased grain protein levels in the following cereal.

The main cost of green manuring is the income lost by sacrificing grain production.  The loss in income plus any additional costs associated with soil renovation need to be recouped in the following season(s).  Therefore the income from the yield increase(s) in the subsequent year(s) needs to be equal to or greater than the total costs of renovation, including the income forgone.

Despite the increase in interest in renovation cropping, no comprehensive economic analysis has been undertaken to determine its role in Western Australian farming systems.  This study investigates circumstances under which renovation cropping is likely to be profitable and estimates the needed increase in farm profit, given the variability of yields that result from seasonal influences.

To investigate the consequence of risky yields historical rainfall data was used to generate yield distributions for different rainfall zones, soil types and crops.  The yield distributions were used as input to a simulation model to determine the distribution of income, resulting from renovation cropping, in a lupin:wheat:wheat rotation.  The mean yield boost resulting from renovation cropping was estimated to be 3% based on trial results (F. Hoyle, pers. comm.). 

The results of the analysis showed that there is a 30-40% chance of increasing profit if yield is increased by 30% on average.  However, the results were very sensitive to the average increase in yield.  The probability that profit will be increased was halved when yield boost was reduced to 20%. 

The yield increase required to make renovation cropping profitable can vary between 100% under the worst case and below 10% under the best case.  The variability depends on grain prices, grain yield in the renovation phase (if a commercial crop had been was harvested), and the cost of renovation and grain yields in the following crop phase.

The likelihood that profit will be increased depends largely on minimising income forgone relative to the increase in income in the following years.  Therefore green manuring will be most profitable when done in years when the grain yield of the pulse crop is low, and/or when the following cereal yield is very high. 

Weather forecasts are not yet sufficiently developed to predict potentially good years over 12 months ahead, so renovation needs to be undertaken in poor years to maximise the chances of increasing profit.

Identifying poor yielding years prior to renovation does present some difficulty although weather forecasts may improve the chances of undertaking renovation in the 'right' year.  .  Also yield potential is determined directly by biomass of the crop, so this may be used as an early indicator of yield.  Where waterlogging or disease has caused low vegetative growth, resistant weeds are widespread in a paddock, or where frost has damaged the crop green manuring is more likely to be a profitable option. 

This suggests a role for tactical use of renovation cropping so that it is undertaken in years where the forgone income is minimised (i.e. it is done in poor yielding years).  The results of the analysis show that only small yield increases in the following cereal crop are necessary to break even in these circumstances. 

The analysis highlighted gaps in the knowledge of the impact of renovation cropping that may be important for more comprehensive economic analysis, or information that may improve the grower’s ability to undertake the practice profitably.  Further research into green manuring could include:

• Determining whether the profitability of green manuring can be increased using long term weather forecasts.  Improving the estimates of the probability of achieving different yields may allow farmers to renovate soils in years that have lower risk.
• More information on the effects of green manuring on yield and protein for different crops under different conditions is required to better assess the economic advantages of green manuring
• The profitability of green manuring relative to other methods of improving sustainability of cropping also needs to be addressed.

 

Executive summary

Recently interest in the role of renovation cropping in the farming systems of the Western Australian wheatbelt has increased.  It has been proposed as a means of addressing the apparent decline in soil quality in some intensively cropped areas and the increased incidence of herbicide resistance. 

Renovation cropping involves either turning a crop into the soil at flowering or cutting the crop and leaving it on the soil surface.   This is done to maximise the amount of organic matter added to the soil and to control weeds most effectively.  In the Western Australian wheatbelt the focus has been on using pulses, although a range of crops can be used.  The pulse phase of a rotation is favoured as pulses improve the nitrogen status of the soil. In addition the returns to pulses are lower relative to cereals and canola, so the forgone profit in the year of renovation cropping is lowest.

Renovation cropping leads to changes in soil conditions that persist for at least the following season.  It reduces weed numbers in the following crop by reducing seed set, increases the availability of nutrients and may improve soil structure.  Lower weed numbers reduce the carry-over of root diseases thus providing a disease break for the following cereal crop.  Recent trials have shown likely yield increases of 20-30% above those after a pulse crop and increased grain protein levels in the following cereal.

The main cost of green manuring is the income lost by sacrificing grain production.  The loss in income plus any additional costs associated with soil renovation need to be recouped in the following season(s).  Therefore the income from the yield increase(s) in the subsequent year(s) needs to be equal to or greater than the total costs of renovation, including the income forgone.

Despite the increase in interest in renovation cropping, no comprehensive economic analysis has been undertaken to determine its role in Western Australian farming systems.  This study investigates circumstances under which renovation cropping is likely to be profitable and estimates the needed increase in farm profit, given the variability of yields that result from seasonal influences.

To investigate the consequence of risky yields historical rainfall data was used to generate yield distributions for different rainfall zones, soil types and crops.  The yield distributions were used as input to a simulation model to determine the distribution of income, resulting from renovation cropping, in a lupin:wheat:wheat rotation.  The mean yield boost resulting from renovation cropping was estimated to be 3% based on trial results (F. Hoyle, pers. comm.). 

The results of the analysis showed that there is a 30-40% chance of increasing profit if yield is increased by 30% on average.  However, the results were very sensitive to the average increase in yield.  The probability that profit will be increased was halved when yield boost was reduced to 20%. 

The yield increase required to make renovation cropping profitable can vary between 100% under the worst case and below 10% under the best case.  The variability depends on grain prices, grain yield in the renovation phase (if a commercial crop had been was harvested), and the cost of renovation and grain yields in the following crop phase.

The likelihood that profit will be increased depends largely on minimising income forgone relative to the increase in income in the following years.  Therefore green manuring will be most profitable when done in years when the grain yield of the pulse crop is low, and/or when the following cereal yield is very high. 

Weather forecasts are not yet sufficiently developed to predict potentially good years over 12 months ahead, so renovation needs to be undertaken in poor years to maximise the chances of increasing profit.

Identifying poor yielding years prior to renovation does present some difficulty although weather forecasts may improve the chances of undertaking renovation in the 'right' year.  .  Also yield potential is determined directly by biomass of the crop, so this may be used as an early indicator of yield.  Where waterlogging or disease has caused low vegetative growth, resistant weeds are widespread in a paddock, or where frost has damaged the crop green manuring is more likely to be a profitable option. 

This suggests a role for tactical use of renovation cropping so that it is undertaken in years where the forgone income is minimised (i.e. it is done in poor yielding years).  The results of the analysis show that only small yield increases in the following cereal crop are necessary to break even in these circumstances. 

The analysis highlighted gaps in the knowledge of the impact of renovation cropping that may be important for more comprehensive economic analysis, or information that may improve the grower’s ability to undertake the practice profitably.  Further research into green manuring could include:

• Determining whether the profitability of green manuring can be increased using long term weather forecasts.  Improving the estimates of the probability of achieving different yields may allow farmers to renovate soils in years that have lower risk.
• More information on the effects of green manuring on yield and protein for different crops under different conditions is required to better assess the economic advantages of green manuring
• The profitability of green manuring relative to other methods of improving sustainability of cropping also needs to be addressed.

 

• The application of N increased yields of all cereals grown on a wheat stubble.
• The application of fungicides controlled leaf diseases in wheat and barley, and increased the grain yield of wheat.

• Early sowing of cereals, wheat, barley or oats, gave excellent grazing, hay or grain outcomes in 2009.
• The barley gave similar or better all round performance than the wheat or oats.

• The 2000 season was not conducive to the spread of leaf rust with the hot dry summer preventing the carry over of rust spores on volunteer cereals.
• For further results please see the attached trial report.

For a full list of take home messages please see the attached trial report.

Please see attached trial report for take home messages.

• Fluid trace elements banded under the seed row is an effective system for delivering these nutrients to cereal crops.
• Rates of trace element application as banded fluids may be lower than for other seeding strategies and cheap sulphates can be used
• Mixes of trace elements as banded fluids are effective.
• Trial was not trace element deficient.

With pasture growing in a dry spring, not accessing stored water and producing little biomass, the effect on soil water/nitrogen and on the following crop is minimal. Prioritise paddocks which need medic seed set for retaining as pastures, but terminate more pastures later if feed is an issue. In a year when pasture is growing fast and using water and possibly fixing nitrogen, the trade-off may not be so flat (or simple) and will depend more on the following season (unpredictable).

• An unusual result with Silverstar out-yielding both Frame and Schooner. Previous trial work showed that Silverstar is especially sensitive to trifluralin even at recommended rates.
• Frame seedling establishment was significantly lower at the 2.4L/ha rate than at the registered rate of  Silverstar and Schooner.
• Trifluralin in not registered on wheat at rates higher than 1.0L/ha.

• The average yield for the Bairnsdale tritical trial was 2.77 t/ha. The highest yielding variety was AT5731 with 3.07 t/ha, a new variety due for commercial release in 2010.
• Grain quality was reduced due to unfavourable seasonal conditions during grain fill, the main parameter affected were test weights and screenings.
• The yield potential of the trial may have been reduced due to the later sowing in comparison to the Bairnsdale wheat and barley variety trials.
• An evaluation of sowing date and effect of grazing was conducted in the 2009 Cereal Grazing Trial at the Bairnsdale research site.

• Triticale tolerance of low manganese was much greater than for wheat or barley, but not as good as rye.
• Higher seen Mn in triticale varieties was correlated with greater yield.
• There was significant variation in manganese efficiency between triticale genotypes.

• There was a significant step up in 2013 wheat yields from rotations which included a one year break previously compared to where there had been a two year break.
• The break crop benefit of a one year break may only last one season if grass weeds are a significant factor.
• Large break crop benefits of 0.5-1.25 t/ha were achieved following a two year non-cereal break phase compared to continuous wheat.
• The benefit of a two year break had little to do with the phases chosen for those two breaks.
• The eight most profitable crop sequences over a three year period in this trial had two year breaks in them.

This project has demonstrated that diversified cropping sequences have an important role to play in low rainfall Mallee farming systems. Including 1- and 2-year break phases were shown to significantly increase the productivity of subsequent wheat crops.

Results indicate that Uniform significantly improved crop yields in a second-year barley crop and in a wet season; in dry years’ root diseases such as rhizoctonia generally have even greater effects on grain yield and quality.

Problems potentially identified by maps include:

• nutrient deficiencies,
• in crop weeds, and 
• root disease.

At a basic level, simply overlaying in season aerial photography with yield data can provide some insight into
potential problems:

• If yield deficiencies correlate with high growth areas, then weeds could be the issue.
• Root diseases can show patterns of growth that are particular to that problem.
• With aerial photography or  a NDVI, it may be possible to see colour differences that may indicate areas of nutrient deficiency and ground truth work is crucial to confirm suspicions.

• Vigorous growth in all crops and pasture treatments in 2009 has set up the trial for 2010, when the impact of soil mineral N on disease suppression will be assessed.
• At the start of the 2009 season there were already small differences in mineral nitrogen levels in the soil profile, spray topped medic having the highest with 63 kg N/ha and the control wheat the least with 44 kg N/ha.
• Since healthy medic will fix around 25 kg N/t DM, the medic spray topped treatment should have fixed around 125 kg N/ha during 2009.
• There were slight changes in Rhizoctonia inoculum in some treatments early this season but there were no visual differences in Rhizoctonia patches in the cereal plots in 2009.

In 2010, at Wass brothers’ property in Nyngan, a very wet season caused the normally poor performing areas to perform just as well as the good areas in this paddock regardless of additional nitrogen application. In other paddocks across the farm, there were significant yield differences across each paddock. However, in the previous years Wass’s have always wanted to apply N and have had mixed results possibly because of soil and water variability. Most seasons they have areas that burnout and areas which could use a higher application of N and give a better yield. In 2011, Hayden intended to try to understand what was driving these differences, and yield maps are a way of spatially determining different zones. Therefore, this trial was set up.

KEY FINDINGS:

• Cereal variety choice can have a large impact on Pratylenchus thornei (Pt) population build-up within paddocks, which can then affect how following crops and/or varieties perform in the rotation.
• Significant differences were evident between varieties with an 8.9-fold difference in final Pt populations between the best (Commander) and worst (Mitch) entries.
• Very susceptible varieties should be avoided in paddocks with known root lesion nematode (RLN) populations as they can increase the population to high risk levels in one season (e.g. 19.1-fold increase with Mitch).
• There was no significant difference between varieties in crown rot inoculum level that developed during the season based on postharvest PreDicta B assessment.

Conclusions

Cereal variety choice can have a significant impact on the build-up of Pt populations within paddocks with an 8.9  fold difference in final populations between the best and worst variety at this site in 2015. Starting Pt populations of below 2.0 Pt/ g soil are considered low risk, populations between 2.0 and 15.0 Pt/g soil are considered medium risk and above 15.0 Pt/g soil are considered high risk for yield loss in intolerant crops or varieties in the northern region. This could have serious consequences for the production of following Pt intolerant crops and/or varieties within the rotation with all but two entries (Commander and Suntop) increasing the Pt population from a medium to a high risk level in one season or with one variety (Mitch) increasing the Pt population as high as 105.0 Pt/g soil at this site in 2015. Recent NSW DPI research has also demonstrated that significant yield loss still occurred in the moderately tolerant wheat variety EGA Gregory with high risk (>15.0 Pt/g)  populations in the top 30 cm of soil at sowing. Very susceptible varieties should be avoided in paddocks with known RLN populations as they can blowout the population to high risk levels in one season.

Although varieties appear to significantly differ in their yield in the presence of crown rot infection, differences in the levels of partial resistance, which limits the rate of spread of the crown rot fungus through the plant during the season, do not appear to result in significant variation in inoculum levels at harvest. Partial resistance does not actually prevent the plant from being infected but rather slows the rate of fungal growth in the plant arguably delaying expression of the disease which can translate into a yield and grain quality (reduced screenings) benefit. However, the crown rot fungus, while being a pathogen when the winter cereal plant is alive, is also an effective saprophyte once the plant matures and dies. This saprophytic colonisation of infected tillers late in the season as the crop matures is the likely reason why limited practical differences in residual inoculum levels are created between varieties and winter cereal crop types.

 

Further research across sites is required to confirm differences in resistance of barley and wheat varieties to Pt as this can have significant implications for the build-up of Pt populations within a paddock and hence following rotational choices. For instance, while it appears that Mitch has a useful level of tolerance to crown rot (average 0.54 t/ha higher yielding than EGA Gregory in 2015), its increased susceptibility to Pt resulted in it taking nematode populations from a medium risk level at sowing to an extremely high risk level by harvest at Macalister in 2015 (Figure 1). Hence, Mitch should only be considered for production in paddocks known to be free of Pt as its increased susceptibility to Pt is likely to override the yield gain in the presence of crown rot when considering the whole rotational sequence.

 

• Cereal variety choice can have a large impact on the build-up of Pratylenchus thornei (Pt) populations within paddocks which can then impact on the performance of following crops and/or varieties in the rotation.
• Significant differences were evident between varieties with a 22-fold difference in final Pt populations between the best (SuntopA) and worst (MitchA) variety.
• Very susceptible varieties should be avoided in paddocks with known Root Lesion Nematode (RLN) populations as they can increase the population to high risk levels in one season.
• There was no significant difference between varieties in the level of crown rot inoculum they developed during the season based on post-harvest PreDicta B assessment.

• Growers should utilise the tools, knowledge and rule of thumb guidleines accessible on GRDc website. 
• The correct variety should be sown at the correct time for maximum yield potential.
• Be prepared to sow early in a suitable paddock, knowing that seasonal conditions can dictate the success of dual purpose crops.
• Don't graze too early and remove stock before stem elongation. 

• Vetch grain and dry matter yields were very good at Minnipa in 2015, the grain trial mean was 1.4 t/ha with the top lines achieving 2.1 t/ha, mean dry matter yields were 4.1 t/ha with the top line achieving 4.3 t/ha.
• The Piednippie SAGIT trial was poor, suffering from moisture stress post emergence which stunted growth and limited the potential once the crop received rain in mid-June, the site mean was only 1.1 t/ha of dry matter.
• Early sowing (mid-April) can achieve good results but is heavily reliant on either good subsoil moisture or follow-up rain.
• The new varieties, Volga and Timok continue to out yield all existing varieties in both grain and hay production on the EP.
• Herbicide choices for vetch are very dependent on local conditions so talk to your local agronomist about the best options for your conditions.

Vetch can decrease cereal diseases and pests for subsequent cereal crops.

When vetch is establised in March and is terminated 'early' (three to four months later, in June, July), soil water will be conserved for the subsequent wheat crop; the risk of haying off due to high nitrogen will be lower than if the vetch were terminated 'later' (August, September),

Vetch biomass production of approximately 2t/ha is unlikely to cause a subsequent wheat crop to hay off given dry seasonal conditions. 

Residual nitrogen from vetch brown manure can carry over for two years and influence cereal crop growth, but the conservation of soil water is more critical in seasons of Decile 2 or lower. 

When vetch is establised in March and is terminated 'early' (three to four months later, in June, July), soil water will be conserved for the subsequent wheat crop; the risk of haying off due to high nitrogen will be lower than if the vetch were terminated 'later' (August, September),

Vetch biomass production of approximately 2t/ha is unlikely to cause a subsequent wheat crop to hay off given dry seasonal conditions. 

Residual nitrogen from vetch brown manure can carry over for two years and influence cereal crop growth, but the conservation of soil water is more critical in seasons of Decile 2 or lower. 

When vetch is establised in March and is terminated 'early' (three to four months later, in June, July), soil water will be conserved for the subsequent wheat crop; the risk of haying off due to high nitrogen will be lower than if the vetch were terminated 'later' (August, September),

Vetch biomass production of approximately 2t/ha is unlikely to cause a subsequent wheat crop to hay off given dry seasonal conditions. 

Residual nitrogen from vetch brown manure can carry over for two years and influence cereal crop growth, but the conservation of soil water is more critical in seasons of Decile 2 or lower. 

All sites in this trial suffered from severe moisture stress and the effects of rust.

Environmental conditions were not conducive for disease development. Good biomass yields were achieved due to favorable rainfall and likely to provide good profits. Varieties did not differ in biomass production but sowing earlier resulted in greater biomass. Timok produced more grains when sown early but Morava preferred late sowing. Although differences in grain yield due to fungicide were observed these are unlikely due to disease.

• Early to mid season wheat varieties (Axe, Gladius and Wyalkatchem) sown in March yielded less than May and June sown crops.
• A mid to late season wheat variety (Yitpi) and two barley varieties (Barque and Maritime) produced similar yields from a March and April sowing.
• The earlier the sowing the later maturing variety and vica versa.

• Our standard package of 100 kg 18:20/ha at seeding under the seed row (to avoid fertiliser toxicity), Jockey-treated seed, endosulfan and simazine pre-seeding, a follow up spray of atrazine and a grass herbicide mid-season, and two top-ups of nitrogen during the season (50 kg N/ha as broadcast urea each time) gave us a clean, high yielding and good quality crop with no pests or diseases.
• There was no evidence that extra management options provided any further benefits to canola performance (ie a fungicide spray, B fertiliser or use of a growth regulant) under the conditions of last year’s trial.
• However, it would appear that we may have been a bit generous with our N and P inputs in the standard package because we could halve the mid-season N rate and not suffer any yield or quality loss. Additionally, leaving out P altogether had little impact so a rate lower than 20 kg P/ha may have been the best compromise last year.
• There seems little reason to change from a management strategy of plenty of N at seeding (providing you can avoid seedling toxicity by separating the N and the seed) followed up by an early season top-up. Delayed aapplications of N produced yields or quality no better than our standard.

• This trial showed that under the extremely dry conditions of 2006, wheat yield at this site was largely determined by water supply because major diseases were absent and the soil had abundant nutrients in reserve for the small demands of such a low yielding crop.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

Results on a Wimmera clay illustrate that nitrogen application gave a yield increase of 0.82t/ha at 50kg/ha N and 1.13t/ha at 100kg/ha N over the zero N yields of 2.86t/ha.

• It was a relatively low yielding site, perhaps reflecting the fact that the site was in cereal in 2001 and the soil nitrogen status at planting was very low. Protein figures certainly indicate the fact that soil nitrogen was low 
• All varieties performed equally, although the winter wheat types had slightly lower grain protein than the spring wheat types. 
• The season tended to favour the earlier maturity types such as Chara, although given this, the performance of MacKellar and Brennan was quite acceptable. 

It is important to consider the seasonal risk posed by diseases when developing an appropriate disease management strategy. Avoiding susceptible barley and wheat varieties will significantly reduce the risk of grain yield and quality loss due to disease Both foliar and fertiliser fungicides can both provide effective disease management when applied to coincide with the critical development stages of disease epidemics.

• Previous crop (legume, oaten hay, cereal or fallow) had no effect on wheat grain yield in 2014.
• Grain protein values were lower following a cereal where there was less available soil N at the start of the season.

Traditionally sowing wheat in Western Australia was not recommended until after Anzac Day.  A date based on the yield performance and maturities of commercially available wheat varieties in the 1990s. Since then growers have seen the release of Mace, a high yielding and very adaptable variety which at 67% dominates the area sown to wheat in WA in 2015 (Data courtesy of CBH group). Growers are now set up and keen to take advantage of any summer rainfall, but there is limited information on which wheat varieties to grow with a very early sowing opportunity.

Research carried out by James Hunt et al. (2014) suggested that the faster maturing winter wheat Whistler appeared well adapted to WA. When sown in mid-April Whistler was able to yield equivalent or better than Mace planted in late May (Crop Updates 2015). Results from Dandaragan and Katanning trials do support this suggestion but this research also suggests there are commercial varieties currently available in WA which can yield similar or higher and have a superior grain quality classification compared to Whistler. However these varieties can still be at the risk of frost and grain quality problems associated with very early sowings.

At all three sites in this trial series, barley out yielded wheat with both the mid-April and the early May planting (note we have included the predicted yield for barley with mid-April planting at Dandaragan of 7t/ha in this assessment). Barley was over 1.5t/ha better than wheat with both mid-April and early May planting. Whilst this research continues to highlight the need for a wheat variety which is more suitable for early sowing opportunities in Western Australia, growers looking for a cereal to sow in April could consider barley as being their new wheat variety until such wheats are released. Whilst this is only one year of observations there are many reasons to consider barley particularly with mid-April planting ahead of planting a wheat variety, including reduced (but still possible) frost risk.

The feed barley varieties Lockyer, Oxford, Rosalind and Urambie did not provide any yield advantage over those with a ‘malt’ classification at Dandaragan in 2015. The ‘malt’ varieties would therefore have been more profitable than the feed varieties as they were received with a premium over the feed barley varieties (either Malt 1 or Malt 2) at a similar grain yield.

With any early planting opportunity growers need to factor in increased fungicide costs. At Dandaragan powdery mildew and barley leaf rust in the barley plots and yellow spot in the wheat plots had to be controlled, particularly in the mid-April planting.

 

• The harvest results show the gains to be made from the banded application of phosphorus and nitrogen to wheat crops grown in the southern Mallee.
• Carefully assess soil fertility prior to sowing of cereals and canola to ensure dollars spent on the most profitable nutrient combination for each paddock.
• Plan on balanced nutrition of crops to optimise farm profits.

The plant roots in this trial were not assessed for disease incidence and there were no above ground symptoms of any diseases, however results (although not statistically significant) show some modest yield increases at Gnarwarre that are consistent with the other trials conducted in Victoria.

• Average treated wheat yields in the trial were 4.81 t/ha.
• The late timing of the rain in November tended to favour the longer season varieties which were just starting to grain fill at this time.
• Of the 20 varieties included in the trial, 5 are not commercially available at present.
• The highest yielding commercially available variety was Amarok at 111% of the site mean.
• The top four yielding varieties were red grained wheat.
• Stripe rust pressure was extremely high at the site giving an average yield increase of 0.21t/ha from applying a two spray fungicide programme.

• Average treated wheat yields in the trial were 4.2 t/ha.
• The late timing of the rain in November tended to favour the longer season varieties which were just starting to grain fill at this time.
• Of the 14 varieties included in the trial 6 are commercially available at present.
• The highest yielding commercially available variety was Mackellar at 120% of the site mean.
• Stripe rust pressure was extremely high at the site giving an average yield increase across all varieties of 0.2t/ha from applying a two spray fungicide programme.
• Chara increased yield from 1.93t/ha to 3.83t/ha with a $30/ha fungicide programme.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• In the dry season of 2001, lentils, field peas and canola yielded poorly whereas whet and barley yielded well.
• Hostile subsoil conditions limited the rooting depth of pulses and canola, while wheat and barley were more tolerant and able to extract moisture down to a dep of 1m.
• Pulses and canola will always struggle to perform in dry springs unless they are grown on soils where their roots can extrac soil water deeper than 50cm.

• Amira albus lupin is a good break crop option for high and medium rainfall areas of the northern region
• Albus lupin grown in 44 cm rows yielded 81% of 22 cm rows.
• Maintaining a high seed rate maximised yield at both 22 and 44 cm row spacing’s.
• In dry conditions fungal disease were not evident, therefore we could not assess the impact of row spacing and density on foliar diseases.

The results, even after relatively good spring rains, support the idea of conserving soil moisture between wide rows and reducing drought effects.

• The winter wehat variety trial yielded an average of 5.72 t/ha. Revenue had the highest yield with 6.67 t/ha after topping the 2008 Mininera variety trial. Mackellar again yielded well with 6.05 t/ha and was the highest yielding variety at Dunkeld in 2008.
• Most varieties were classified as feed wheats, and were all able to achieve this grade. Revenue had the highest gross margin of $750/ha, however consideration must also be given to the value of grazig these dual purpose varieties.
• For further take home messages please see attached trial report.