The simulation study suggests that the rate of root extension into the subsoil was dramatically slower in the presence of subsoil constraints. However, in the 2001 season, wheat yield was not limited by this factor, which reduced the use of soil moisture early in the season and thus delayed the onset of water stress during the dry grainfilling period.

• Grain yield across all crops were exceptional in 2016 despite a relatively late break and sowing date. Yields were aided by exceptional spring conditions where there was abundant moisture and cool finishing conditions.
• Field peas were the most productive crop grown across all soil types in 2016 and averaged an exceptional 2.9 t/ha. Vetch (2.2 t/ha), narrow leaf lupin (2.1 t/ha) and lentils (2.1 t/ha) also averaged over 2 t/ha across the four trial sites. Faba beans yielded just under 2 t/ha while both chickpea treatments yielded above 1.5 t/ha (Kabuli 1.5; Desi 1.8 (t/ha). Both canola and albus lupins averaged less than 1.5 t/ha.
• High value crops such as desi and kabuli chickpeas produced extremely high gross margins on approximately $2000/ha. Lentils also had an average gross margin of over $1000/ha across the four trial sites.
• Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types with the poorest break crop productivity and profitability on the deep sand at Loxton in 2016.

• Grain yield across all crops were exceptional in 2016 despite a relatively late break and sowing date. Yields were aided by exceptional spring conditions where there was abundant moisture and cool finishing conditions.
• Field peas were the most productive crop grown across all soil types in 2016 and averaged an exceptional 2.9 t/ha. Vetch (2.2 t/ha), narrow leaf lupin (2.1 t/ha) and lentils (2.1 t/ha) also averaged over 2 t/ha across the four trial sites. Faba beans yielded just under 2 t/ha while both chickpea treatments yielded above 1.5 t/ha (Kabuli 1.5; Desi 1.8 (t/ha). Both canola and albus lupins averaged less than 1.5 t/ha.
• High value crops such as desi and kabuli chickpeas produced extremely high gross margins on approximately $2000/ha. Lentils also had an average gross margin of over $1000/ha across the four trial sites.
• Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types with the poorest break crop productivity and profitability on the deep sand at Loxton in 2016.

• Grain yield across all crops were exceptional in 2016 despite a relatively late break and sowing date. Yields were aided by exceptional spring conditions where there was abundant moisture and cool finishing conditions.
• Field peas were the most productive crop grown across all soil types in 2016 and averaged an exceptional 2.9 t/ha. Vetch (2.2 t/ha), narrow leaf lupin (2.1 t/ha) and lentils (2.1 t/ha) also averaged over 2 t/ha across the four trial sites. Faba beans yielded just under 2 t/ha while both chickpea treatments yielded above 1.5 t/ha (Kabuli 1.5; Desi 1.8 (t/ha). Both canola and albus lupins averaged less than 1.5 t/ha.
• High value crops such as desi and kabuli chickpeas produced extremely high gross margins on approximately $2000/ha. Lentils also had an average gross margin of over $1000/ha across the four trial sites.
• Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types with the poorest break crop productivity and profitability on the deep sand at Loxton in 2016.

• Grain yield across all crops were exceptional in 2016 despite a relatively late break and sowing date. Yields were aided by exceptional spring conditions where there was abundant moisture and cool finishing conditions.
• Field peas were the most productive crop grown across all soil types in 2016 and averaged an exceptional 2.9 t/ha. Vetch (2.2 t/ha), narrow leaf lupin (2.1 t/ha) and lentils (2.1 t/ha) also averaged over 2 t/ha across the four trial sites. Faba beans yielded just under 2 t/ha while both chickpea treatments yielded above 1.5 t/ha (Kabuli 1.5; Desi 1.8 (t/ha). Both canola and albus lupins averaged less than 1.5 t/ha.
• High value crops such as desi and kabuli chickpeas produced extremely high gross margins on approximately $2000/ha. Lentils also had an average gross margin of over $1000/ha across the four trial sites.
• Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types with the poorest break crop productivity and profitability on the deep sand at Loxton in 2016.

• Grain yield across all crops were exceptional in 2016 despite a relatively late break and sowing date. Yields were aided by exceptional spring conditions where there was abundant moisture and cool finishing conditions.
• Field peas were the most productive crop grown across all soil types in 2016 and averaged an exceptional 2.9 t/ha. Vetch (2.2 t/ha), narrow leaf lupin (2.1 t/ha) and lentils (2.1 t/ha) also averaged over 2 t/ha across the four trial sites. Faba beans yielded just under 2 t/ha while both chickpea treatments yielded above 1.5 t/ha (Kabuli 1.5; Desi 1.8 (t/ha). Both canola and albus lupins averaged less than 1.5 t/ha.
• High value crops such as desi and kabuli chickpeas produced extremely high gross margins on approximately $2000/ha. Lentils also had an average gross margin of over $1000/ha across the four trial sites.
• Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types with the poorest break crop productivity and profitability on the deep sand at Loxton in 2016.

• Grain yield across all crops were exceptional in 2016 despite a relatively late break and sowing date. Yields were aided by exceptional spring conditions where there was abundant moisture and cool finishing conditions.
• Field peas were the most productive crop grown across all soil types in 2016 and averaged an exceptional 2.9 t/ha. Vetch (2.2 t/ha), narrow leaf lupin (2.1 t/ha) and lentils (2.1 t/ha) also averaged over 2 t/ha across the four trial sites. Faba beans yielded just under 2 t/ha while both chickpea treatments yielded above 1.5 t/ha (Kabuli 1.5; Desi 1.8 (t/ha). Both canola and albus lupins averaged less than 1.5 t/ha.
• High value crops such as desi and kabuli chickpeas produced extremely high gross margins on approximately $2000/ha. Lentils also had an average gross margin of over $1000/ha across the four trial sites.
• Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types with the poorest break crop productivity and profitability on the deep sand at Loxton in 2016.

• Grain yield across all crops were exceptional in 2016 despite a relatively late break and sowing date. Yields were aided by exceptional spring conditions where there was abundant moisture and cool finishing conditions.
• Field peas were the most productive crop grown across all soil types in 2016 and averaged an exceptional 2.9 t/ha. Vetch (2.2 t/ha), narrow leaf lupin (2.1 t/ha) and lentils (2.1 t/ha) also averaged over 2 t/ha across the four trial sites. Faba beans yielded just under 2 t/ha while both chickpea treatments yielded above 1.5 t/ha (Kabuli 1.5; Desi 1.8 (t/ha). Both canola and albus lupins averaged less than 1.5 t/ha.
• High value crops such as desi and kabuli chickpeas produced extremely high gross margins on approximately $2000/ha. Lentils also had an average gross margin of over $1000/ha across the four trial sites.
• Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types with the poorest break crop productivity and profitability on the deep sand at Loxton in 2016.

• This large scale on-farm demonstration has shown how soil inversion with a mouldboard plough can provide wheat yield benefits on sandplain soil.
• The mouldboard ploughing reduced the soil water repellence by about a third, but moderate repellence was still present. In this trial frost affected the mouldboard plough treated area more than the untreated area which is opposite to what some growers have reported who felt that crops on mouldboard ploughed soil were less affected by frost.
• Soil type, soil moisture, crop biomass and timing of the frost event may have had an impact in 2014.
• Short-term grain yield responses to cultivation on sandplain soils are typical and the potential benefits need to be studied for several more seasons before the value of the practice can be properly assessed.
• Other deep soil cultivation practices, such as deep ripping, can also give wheat yield responses in the first year.

• Addition of clay-rich subsoil improved crop establishment at this site in 2010.
• There was a very dry finish to the growing season with <15 mm in total for September and October so those cultivation and claying treatments with increased biomass and higher yield potential would have been more prone to haying off.
• Poor incorporation of surface applied clay-rich subsoil can also hold more moisture near the surface which is then subject to evaporation and competes with the roots for water with small rainfall events.
• Despite these factors cultivation with or without the addition of clay-rich subsoil did increase grain yields from <700 kg/ha in the uncultivated situation to an average yield of 1.3 t/ha for the rotary hoe and rotary spaded treatments combined.
• Ongoing monitoring of this trial will be required to see the longer-term benefits of these cultivation and clay incorporation treatments on establishment and yield in seasons with a better finish.

FARMER COMMENTS

Usability of Yield Prophet

·         High input requirement to get detailed data out, but once it is setup the online format is easy to use and generates good reports.

·         Easy to use once you are familiar with the program.

Usefulness of Yield Prophet set-up process

·         Farmers commented that the exercise of opening up a deep soil pit was on one the most informative and useful aspects of the Yield Prophet process.

·         Good training with a consultant on how to use the tool was vital as well.

Yield Prophet reports

·         Farmers had mixed comments about the reports with each having their favorite report- one farmer chose to use only the crop report to make his decisions.

·         One farmer found the profit comparison report the most useful where as another found it the least useful report commenting ‘it is pretty obvious through the comparison report if the is likely to be a financial response, the seasonal risk is too great to compare nitrogen profitability to the last dollar.’

·         Farmers found the climate and weather aspects to the crop report of interest, specifically the breakdown of chances of certain weather characteristics influencing yield, however in reality this didn’t really clarify decision making.

·         The reports reference the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) which is generally considered irrelevant to the Western Australia.

·         Growth stages of crops were very accurate for all sites.

Other aspects that limited yield

·         Three of the four sites experienced a three week dry spell that was accompanied by warm, weather at the beginning of September. The yield prophet crop reports at all three sites did not indicate that crop was experiencing moisture stress or heat shock. The three farmers commented separately that this dry spell had impacted the crop yield.

·         One of the potential issues is the assumption of root growth and rooting depth. If there is low soil nutrition at depth it is likely that the roots are "lazy" during the growing season and don't go as deep as the model suggests. This would then affect the modeling of water use down the profile and water stress on the plant.

·         One farmer generated a report on 26 September which indicated the crop was under moisture stress, however this did not convert to yield penalty in the crop report.

 

Future of Yield Prophet in West Midlands region

The low water holding capacity of sands in the West Midlands region means that the effect of short term dry spells has greater significance than total rainfall on production- this seems to be difficult to simulate in Yield Prophet.

Simulated yield on two out of the four sites was far from what would be considered an acceptable level of variation (1 t/ha for yellow sand and 1.85 t/ha for shallow loamy duplex). However the other two sites simulated yield very well.

Typical farm paddock of 60-70ha within the West Midlands region has multiple soil types present. At this stage Yield Prophet only allows the user to simulate one soil type per paddock. There is the ability to separately log each soil type however this requires a great deal of information input and the user has to pay a ‘paddock’ subscription for each soil type.

Unfortunately, there are very few soils classified in the West Midlands region, to WMG’s knowledge the five soils classified as part of this project are the only fully characterized soils in the West Midlands region. This project has estimated that the cost of fully classifying a soil is $3,000. When there is so few soil types classified in the West Midlands region coupled with farmers having multiple soil types (sometimes more than a dozen) on their farm this cost is the key barrier to adoption of this tool in the West Midlands region.

FARMER COMMENTS

Usability of Yield Prophet

·         High input requirement to get detailed data out, but once it is setup the online format is easy to use and generates good reports.

·         Easy to use once you are familiar with the program.

Usefulness of Yield Prophet set-up process

·         Farmers commented that the exercise of opening up a deep soil pit was on one the most informative and useful aspects of the Yield Prophet process.

·         Good training with a consultant on how to use the tool was vital as well.

Yield Prophet reports

·         Farmers had mixed comments about the reports with each having their favorite report- one farmer chose to use only the crop report to make his decisions.

·         One farmer found the profit comparison report the most useful where as another found it the least useful report commenting ‘it is pretty obvious through the comparison report if the is likely to be a financial response, the seasonal risk is too great to compare nitrogen profitability to the last dollar.’

·         Farmers found the climate and weather aspects to the crop report of interest, specifically the breakdown of chances of certain weather characteristics influencing yield, however in reality this didn’t really clarify decision making.

·         The reports reference the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) which is generally considered irrelevant to the Western Australia.

·         Growth stages of crops were very accurate for all sites.

Other aspects that limited yield

·         Three of the four sites experienced a three week dry spell that was accompanied by warm, weather at the beginning of September. The yield prophet crop reports at all three sites did not indicate that crop was experiencing moisture stress or heat shock. The three farmers commented separately that this dry spell had impacted the crop yield.

·         One of the potential issues is the assumption of root growth and rooting depth. If there is low soil nutrition at depth it is likely that the roots are "lazy" during the growing season and don't go as deep as the model suggests. This would then affect the modeling of water use down the profile and water stress on the plant.

·         One farmer generated a report on 26 September which indicated the crop was under moisture stress, however this did not convert to yield penalty in the crop report.

 

Future of Yield Prophet in West Midlands region

The low water holding capacity of sands in the West Midlands region means that the effect of short term dry spells has greater significance than total rainfall on production- this seems to be difficult to simulate in Yield Prophet.

Simulated yield on two out of the four sites was far from what would be considered an acceptable level of variation (1 t/ha for yellow sand and 1.85 t/ha for shallow loamy duplex). However the other two sites simulated yield very well.

Typical farm paddock of 60-70ha within the West Midlands region has multiple soil types present. At this stage Yield Prophet only allows the user to simulate one soil type per paddock. There is the ability to separately log each soil type however this requires a great deal of information input and the user has to pay a ‘paddock’ subscription for each soil type.

Unfortunately, there are very few soils classified in the West Midlands region, to WMG’s knowledge the five soils classified as part of this project are the only fully characterized soils in the West Midlands region. This project has estimated that the cost of fully classifying a soil is $3,000. When there is so few soil types classified in the West Midlands region coupled with farmers having multiple soil types (sometimes more than a dozen) on their farm this cost is the key barrier to adoption of this tool in the West Midlands region.

FARMER COMMENTS

Usability of Yield Prophet

·         High input requirement to get detailed data out, but once it is setup the online format is easy to use and generates good reports.

·         Easy to use once you are familiar with the program.

Usefulness of Yield Prophet set-up process

·         Farmers commented that the exercise of opening up a deep soil pit was on one the most informative and useful aspects of the Yield Prophet process.

·         Good training with a consultant on how to use the tool was vital as well.

Yield Prophet reports

·         Farmers had mixed comments about the reports with each having their favorite report- one farmer chose to use only the crop report to make his decisions.

·         One farmer found the profit comparison report the most useful where as another found it the least useful report commenting ‘it is pretty obvious through the comparison report if the is likely to be a financial response, the seasonal risk is too great to compare nitrogen profitability to the last dollar.’

·         Farmers found the climate and weather aspects to the crop report of interest, specifically the breakdown of chances of certain weather characteristics influencing yield, however in reality this didn’t really clarify decision making.

·         The reports reference the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) which is generally considered irrelevant to the Western Australia.

·         Growth stages of crops were very accurate for all sites.

Other aspects that limited yield

·         Three of the four sites experienced a three week dry spell that was accompanied by warm, weather at the beginning of September. The yield prophet crop reports at all three sites did not indicate that crop was experiencing moisture stress or heat shock. The three farmers commented separately that this dry spell had impacted the crop yield.

·         One of the potential issues is the assumption of root growth and rooting depth. If there is low soil nutrition at depth it is likely that the roots are "lazy" during the growing season and don't go as deep as the model suggests. This would then affect the modeling of water use down the profile and water stress on the plant.

·         One farmer generated a report on 26 September which indicated the crop was under moisture stress, however this did not convert to yield penalty in the crop report.

 

Future of Yield Prophet in West Midlands region

The low water holding capacity of sands in the West Midlands region means that the effect of short term dry spells has greater significance than total rainfall on production- this seems to be difficult to simulate in Yield Prophet.

Simulated yield on two out of the four sites was far from what would be considered an acceptable level of variation (1 t/ha for yellow sand and 1.85 t/ha for shallow loamy duplex). However the other two sites simulated yield very well.

Typical farm paddock of 60-70ha within the West Midlands region has multiple soil types present. At this stage Yield Prophet only allows the user to simulate one soil type per paddock. There is the ability to separately log each soil type however this requires a great deal of information input and the user has to pay a ‘paddock’ subscription for each soil type.

Unfortunately, there are very few soils classified in the West Midlands region, to WMG’s knowledge the five soils classified as part of this project are the only fully characterized soils in the West Midlands region. This project has estimated that the cost of fully classifying a soil is $3,000. When there is so few soil types classified in the West Midlands region coupled with farmers having multiple soil types (sometimes more than a dozen) on their farm this cost is the key barrier to adoption of this tool in the West Midlands region.

• 2 genotypes of chickpea were grown at 5 levels of zinc in the glasshouse • After 8 weeks of growth chlorosis occurred in the zero zinc treatments • The critical concentration in the shoot tissue associated with 90% of maximum growth was 20 mg per kilogram at the flowering stage • In a 2nd experiment to genotypes were grown at 3 zinc levels and to moisture regimes • The critical zinc concentration institutes was 21 mg per kilogram and thus neither genotype nor soil moisture influence the critical zinc concentration

• The Mooneys Gap phalaris site has shown that productive perennial grass and sub clover pastures can double the carrying capacity of a paddock when compared to a rundown annual pasture. The Mooneys Gap phalaris pasture has had an average increase in carrying capacity of 157% compared to the control annual pasture over the three years of the trial.
• The introduction of deep rooted perennial pastures has environmental as well as production benefits. Perennial pastures are more efficient users of water as they are able to access available moisture at deeper levels and for longer periods than annuals and therefore assist in lowering water recharge reducing the risk of salinity. Perennials slow the soil acidification rate by the increasing nitrogen uptake thereby reducing nitrate leaching. Well managed phalaris pastures maintain a level of ground cover well in excess of annual grass based pastures reducing the risk of wind and surface water erosion. The Mooneys Gap phalaris site clearly demonstrates the enhanced environmental outcomes that come with well managed perennial pastures.
• Soil testing is important to test for nutrient deficiencies and pH prior to phalaris establishment. Adequate lime and fertiliser should be applied to address deficiencies prior to establishment. Particular attention must be paid to ensuring that aluminium levels are suitable for phalaris production prior to sowing.
• Weed control is of critical importance before and during the establishment phase of phalaris pastures. Periodic annual weed control measures enhance the production of phalaris based pastures after establishment.
• A suitable fertiliser regime needs to be implemented to replace nutrients removed by the enhanced production of the phalaris based pasture.
• Rotational grazing increases the persistence of the phalaris pasture.
• The addition of phalaris pastures extends the period of available green feed when compared to an annual grass system.
• The recent availability of the Holdfast GT Phalaris variety is an important addition to the perennial grasses that can be established in the region.
• The claims that Holdfast GT will persist as well as Australian phalaris have not been tested due to the time required to obtain results from a new variety.
• PPS will continue to test the persistence of Holdfast GT in the PDS trials as well as other pastures in the project.

• The Mooneys Gap phalaris site has shown that productive perennial grass and sub clover pastures can double the carrying capacity of a paddock when compared to a rundown annual pasture. The Mooneys Gap phalaris pasture has had an average increase in carrying capacity of 157% compared to the control annual pasture over the three years of the trial.
• The introduction of deep rooted perennial pastures has environmental as well as production benefits. Perennial pastures are more efficient users of water as they are able to access available moisture at deeper levels and for longer periods than annuals and therefore assist in lowering water recharge reducing the risk of salinity. Perennials slow the soil acidification rate by the increasing nitrogen uptake thereby reducing nitrate leaching. Well managed phalaris pastures maintain a level of ground cover well in excess of annual grass based pastures reducing the risk of wind and surface water erosion. The Mooneys Gap phalaris site clearly demonstrates the enhanced environmental outcomes that come with well managed perennial pastures.
• Soil testing is important to test for nutrient deficiencies and pH prior to phalaris establishment. Adequate lime and fertiliser should be applied to address deficiencies prior to establishment. Particular attention must be paid to ensuring that aluminium levels are suitable for phalaris production prior to sowing.
• Weed control is of critical importance before and during the establishment phase of phalaris pastures. Periodic annual weed control measures enhance the production of phalaris based pastures after establishment.
• A suitable fertiliser regime needs to be implemented to replace nutrients removed by the enhanced production of the phalaris based pasture.
• Rotational grazing increases the persistence of the phalaris pasture.
• The addition of phalaris pastures extends the period of available green feed when compared to an annual grass system.
• The recent availability of the Holdfast GT Phalaris variety is an important addition to the perennial grasses that can be established in the region.
• The claims that Holdfast GT will persist as well as Australian phalaris have not been tested due to the time required to obtain results from a new variety.
• PPS will continue to test the persistence of Holdfast GT in the PDS trials as well as other pastures in the project.

• The Mooneys Gap phalaris site has shown that productive perennial grass and sub clover pastures can double the carrying capacity of a paddock when compared to a rundown annual pasture. The Mooneys Gap phalaris pasture has had an average increase in carrying capacity of 157% compared to the control annual pasture over the three years of the trial.
• The introduction of deep rooted perennial pastures has environmental as well as production benefits. Perennial pastures are more efficient users of water as they are able to access available moisture at deeper levels and for longer periods than annuals and therefore assist in lowering water recharge reducing the risk of salinity. Perennials slow the soil acidification rate by the increasing nitrogen uptake thereby reducing nitrate leaching. Well managed phalaris pastures maintain a level of ground cover well in excess of annual grass based pastures reducing the risk of wind and surface water erosion. The Mooneys Gap phalaris site clearly demonstrates the enhanced environmental outcomes that come with well managed perennial pastures.
• Soil testing is important to test for nutrient deficiencies and pH prior to phalaris establishment. Adequate lime and fertiliser should be applied to address deficiencies prior to establishment. Particular attention must be paid to ensuring that aluminium levels are suitable for phalaris production prior to sowing.
• Weed control is of critical importance before and during the establishment phase of phalaris pastures. Periodic annual weed control measures enhance the production of phalaris based pastures after establishment.
• A suitable fertiliser regime needs to be implemented to replace nutrients removed by the enhanced production of the phalaris based pasture.
• Rotational grazing increases the persistence of the phalaris pasture.
• The addition of phalaris pastures extends the period of available green feed when compared to an annual grass system.
• The recent availability of the Holdfast GT Phalaris variety is an important addition to the perennial grasses that can be established in the region.
• The claims that Holdfast GT will persist as well as Australian phalaris have not been tested due to the time required to obtain results from a new variety.
• PPS will continue to test the persistence of Holdfast GT in the PDS trials as well as other pastures in the project.

• The Mooneys Gap phalaris site has shown that productive perennial grass and sub clover pastures can double the carrying capacity of a paddock when compared to a rundown annual pasture. The Mooneys Gap phalaris pasture has had an average increase in carrying capacity of 157% compared to the control annual pasture over the three years of the trial.
• The introduction of deep rooted perennial pastures has environmental as well as production benefits. Perennial pastures are more efficient users of water as they are able to access available moisture at deeper levels and for longer periods than annuals and therefore assist in lowering water recharge reducing the risk of salinity. Perennials slow the soil acidification rate by the increasing nitrogen uptake thereby reducing nitrate leaching. Well managed phalaris pastures maintain a level of ground cover well in excess of annual grass based pastures reducing the risk of wind and surface water erosion. The Mooneys Gap phalaris site clearly demonstrates the enhanced environmental outcomes that come with well managed perennial pastures.
• Soil testing is important to test for nutrient deficiencies and pH prior to phalaris establishment. Adequate lime and fertiliser should be applied to address deficiencies prior to establishment. Particular attention must be paid to ensuring that aluminium levels are suitable for phalaris production prior to sowing.
• Weed control is of critical importance before and during the establishment phase of phalaris pastures. Periodic annual weed control measures enhance the production of phalaris based pastures after establishment.
• A suitable fertiliser regime needs to be implemented to replace nutrients removed by the enhanced production of the phalaris based pasture.
• Rotational grazing increases the persistence of the phalaris pasture.
• The addition of phalaris pastures extends the period of available green feed when compared to an annual grass system.
• The recent availability of the Holdfast GT Phalaris variety is an important addition to the perennial grasses that can be established in the region.
• The claims that Holdfast GT will persist as well as Australian phalaris have not been tested due to the time required to obtain results from a new variety.
• PPS will continue to test the persistence of Holdfast GT in the PDS trials as well as other pastures in the project.

• Canola is best sown shallow (1-2cm) on hard setting and crusting soils.
• On lighter soils or better structured soils canola can be sown a bit deepter (5-8cm) if there is more moisture at this depth.

• Canola is best sown shallow (1-2cm) on hard setting and crusting soils.
• On lighter soils or better structured soils canola can be sown a bit deepter (5-8cm) if there is more moisture at this depth.

• Canola is best sown shallow (1-2cm) on hard setting and crusting soils.
• On lighter soils or better structured soils canola can be sown a bit deepter (5-8cm) if there is more moisture at this depth.

• Limited results are available from 2006 due to the dry season.
• Only limited seed is available for many of the new canola varieties.
• Review available data and always try new varieties in conjunction with proven varieties.
• Plant back residues may be an issue – check the labels!
• Match cultivar selection to available soil moisture and the break of the season.
• 14 new varieties are expected to be released in 2007 in Victoria.

Key Points from 2016
 Burning or cultivating 2015 stubbles tended to produce higher yields, however this was only significant at Ungarie.
 High rainfall and a soft finish removed the benefit of stored soil moisture that stubble retained systems may have provided.
 Nitrogen was the limiting factor for both yield and protein for 2016.

Key Points from the Stubble Initiative
 Growers cannot let stubble negatively impact on weed control and timely sowing.
 Growers should use crop rotation to their advantage by aiming to sow the right crop into the least antagonistic stubble.
 Stubble retained systems can require more nitrogen due to increased nitrogen tie-up.

Key Points from 2016
 Burning or cultivating 2015 stubbles tended to produce higher yields, however this was only significant at Ungarie.
 High rainfall and a soft finish removed the benefit of stored soil moisture that stubble retained systems may have provided.
 Nitrogen was the limiting factor for both yield and protein for 2016.

Key Points from the Stubble Initiative
 Growers cannot let stubble negatively impact on weed control and timely sowing.
 Growers should use crop rotation to their advantage by aiming to sow the right crop into the least antagonistic stubble.
 Stubble retained systems can require more nitrogen due to increased nitrogen tie-up.

Key Points from 2016
 Burning or cultivating 2015 stubbles tended to produce higher yields, however this was only significant at Ungarie.
 High rainfall and a soft finish removed the benefit of stored soil moisture that stubble retained systems may have provided.
 Nitrogen was the limiting factor for both yield and protein for 2016.

Key Points from the Stubble Initiative
 Growers cannot let stubble negatively impact on weed control and timely sowing.
 Growers should use crop rotation to their advantage by aiming to sow the right crop into the least antagonistic stubble.
 Stubble retained systems can require more nitrogen due to increased nitrogen tie-up.

Key Points from 2016
 Burning or cultivating 2015 stubbles tended to produce higher yields, however this was only significant at Ungarie.
 High rainfall and a soft finish removed the benefit of stored soil moisture that stubble retained systems may have provided.
 Nitrogen was the limiting factor for both yield and protein for 2016.

Key Points from the Stubble Initiative
 Growers cannot let stubble negatively impact on weed control and timely sowing.
 Growers should use crop rotation to their advantage by aiming to sow the right crop into the least antagonistic stubble.
 Stubble retained systems can require more nitrogen due to increased nitrogen tie-up.

Key Points from 2016
 Burning or cultivating 2015 stubbles tended to produce higher yields, however this was only significant at Ungarie.
 High rainfall and a soft finish removed the benefit of stored soil moisture that stubble retained systems may have provided.
 Nitrogen was the limiting factor for both yield and protein for 2016.

Key Points from the Stubble Initiative
 Growers cannot let stubble negatively impact on weed control and timely sowing.
 Growers should use crop rotation to their advantage by aiming to sow the right crop into the least antagonistic stubble.
 Stubble retained systems can require more nitrogen due to increased nitrogen tie-up.

Key Points from 2016
 Burning or cultivating 2015 stubbles tended to produce higher yields, however this was only significant at Ungarie.
 High rainfall and a soft finish removed the benefit of stored soil moisture that stubble retained systems may have provided.
 Nitrogen was the limiting factor for both yield and protein for 2016.

Key Points from the Stubble Initiative
 Growers cannot let stubble negatively impact on weed control and timely sowing.
 Growers should use crop rotation to their advantage by aiming to sow the right crop into the least antagonistic stubble.
 Stubble retained systems can require more nitrogen due to increased nitrogen tie-up.

Key Points from 2016
 Burning or cultivating 2015 stubbles tended to produce higher yields, however this was only significant at Ungarie.
 High rainfall and a soft finish removed the benefit of stored soil moisture that stubble retained systems may have provided.
 Nitrogen was the limiting factor for both yield and protein for 2016.

Key Points from the Stubble Initiative
 Growers cannot let stubble negatively impact on weed control and timely sowing.
 Growers should use crop rotation to their advantage by aiming to sow the right crop into the least antagonistic stubble.
 Stubble retained systems can require more nitrogen due to increased nitrogen tie-up.

Key Points from 2016
 Burning or cultivating 2015 stubbles tended to produce higher yields, however this was only significant at Ungarie.
 High rainfall and a soft finish removed the benefit of stored soil moisture that stubble retained systems may have provided.
 Nitrogen was the limiting factor for both yield and protein for 2016.

Key Points from the Stubble Initiative
 Growers cannot let stubble negatively impact on weed control and timely sowing.
 Growers should use crop rotation to their advantage by aiming to sow the right crop into the least antagonistic stubble.
 Stubble retained systems can require more nitrogen due to increased nitrogen tie-up.

• Under the current dry conditions there is limited water in the subsoil which makes this project difficult.
• Soil sampling throughout the year on various paddocks showed plants using what little subsoil moisture was available.
• Since subsoils were not very wet, it is unlikely that the sodic nature of the subsoils was expressed.

• Under the current dry conditions there is limited water in the subsoil which makes this project difficult.
• Soil sampling throughout the year on various paddocks showed plants using what little subsoil moisture was available.
• Since subsoils were not very wet, it is unlikely that the sodic nature of the subsoils was expressed.

Controlling summer weeds conserved both water and nitrogen and doubled wheat yields in 2011 on both sand and clay soil types. Retaining or removing stubble has only minor effects on wheat yield. Complete control of summer weeds pays, and there is no excuse for weedy paddocks during summer in the Wimmera and Mallee!

Controlling summer weeds conserved both water and nitrogen and doubled wheat yields in 2011 on both sand and clay soil types. Retaining or removing stubble has only minor effects on wheat yield. Complete control of summer weeds pays, and there is no excuse for weedy paddocks during summer in the Wimmera and Mallee!

• Weeds have the biggest impact on summer water storage.
• Over the last two summers, the method of weed control had little effect on moisture storage
• Even under adequate growing season rainfall, weed control is necessary because weeds tie up and/or prevent significant amounts of nitrogen mineralizing, which cost 0.5t/ha of the canola yield.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Overall imposing a fallow allowed for a small amount of extra water to be stored in the soil and a small amount of extra nitrogen. As a result there was a small yield gain of 0.2 t/ha in 2012. 
• In this trial the fallow treatment was planted then sprayed out in August to replicate what is known as an ‘opportunistic’ fallow compared to a ‘strategic’ fallow where no crop is planted for 18 months. 18 month fallows would have different results to the ones reported here.
• Other benefits of fallow that were not recorded in this trial but could have contributed to the yield gain are improved weed control, disease breaks and opportunity for early sowing. 

• This is the second season in which this trial has been run and the fallow has yielded higher than continuous cropping in both 2011 (0.4 t/ha) and 2012 (0.2 t/ha). Other research indicates that fallows produce yield benefits in dry seasons which are not the case in the crop in 2011, which received 231mm for the growing season. The yield difference in 2011 was therefore more likely to have been the result of extra nitrogen in the soil, or weed or disease control rather than soil water benefits, however, these were not measured.
• Farm economics need to be carefully considered before implementing a fallow, the opportunity cost of not producing a crop needs to be weighed up, and benefits of yield, extra N, weed control and disease breaks carefully factored into the decision. 
• In 2012 the yield benefit from fallow was 0.2 t/ha and likely to be due to extra nitrogen and water being present in the soil. However, this is an unreplicated demonstration and thus it is hard to tell whether yield differences are the result of fallow or random variation in the paddock. 

Neither crop establishment, grain yield nor quality were changed by on-row seeding or by increased seeding rate in 2017, similar to results in 2016.

Crop establishment in the non-wetting soil was poor in 2017.

In 2015, with low moisture at seeding, improved crop establishment from on-row seeding in the non-wetting soil increased crop competition and lowered brome grass weed seed set.

• Crop establishment was not improved by on-row seeding or by increasing seeding rate in 2016.
• Higher seeding rate increased early dry matter but this effect declined during the growing season.
• In 2016 row placement or seeding rate did not affect grain yield or grain quality.
• Sowing on-row may be an advantage on non-wetting soils with low moisture at seeding.

• Crop establishment increased with on row sowing. Stubble from the previous season helps soil moisture infiltrate into non-wetting sands and into a position closer to the seed.
• Initial germination of brome grass weeds was higher with inter row sowing.
• Late brome grass weed numbers was also greatest with inter row sowing. Sowing on row may also increase crop and weed competition as will a higher seeding rate.

• All the legumes sown - peas, lupins, sub clover and faba beans - were equal in terms of their nitrogen-fixing capabilities, reflecting the importance of having well nodulated legumes.
• The average amount of N fixed by the legumes was calculated at approx. 86kg/ha.
• In year 2, this residual N gave rise to a approx. 1 t/ha canola yield advantage.
• In yera 3, no differences in residual nitrogen from legumes were measured.
• Linseed extracted more moisture, from a greater depth, than the faba beans in the same year and all subsequent crops - canola and oats.
• The linseed was able to dry the soil profile in a decile 10 year (812mm rainfall). This is a potential solution for farmers wanting to dry out their soil profile.
• Two years after growing linseed, soil moisture levels were even.

Effective control of summer weeds before cropping can increase both grain yield and quality. The key to increased yield potential lies in additional sub-soil moisture available to the crop during the subsequent growing season. Summer weeds also deplete mineralised N reserves. Provided there are no limitations preventing crop roots from accessing the subsoil, the additional soil moisture can be seen in higher grain yields and generally grain protein and test weight.