• Crop germination was poor on the mouldboard plots and compaction is still a big issue on these plots.
• Bentonite clay has shown no effect on organic carbon %.

 

• The Mooneys Gap phalaris site has shown that productive perennial grass and sub clover pastures can double the carrying capacity of a paddock when compared to a rundown annual pasture. The Mooneys Gap phalaris pasture has had an average increase in carrying capacity of 157% compared to the control annual pasture over the three years of the trial.
• The introduction of deep rooted perennial pastures has environmental as well as production benefits. Perennial pastures are more efficient users of water as they are able to access available moisture at deeper levels and for longer periods than annuals and therefore assist in lowering water recharge reducing the risk of salinity. Perennials slow the soil acidification rate by the increasing nitrogen uptake thereby reducing nitrate leaching. Well managed phalaris pastures maintain a level of ground cover well in excess of annual grass based pastures reducing the risk of wind and surface water erosion. The Mooneys Gap phalaris site clearly demonstrates the enhanced environmental outcomes that come with well managed perennial pastures.
• Soil testing is important to test for nutrient deficiencies and pH prior to phalaris establishment. Adequate lime and fertiliser should be applied to address deficiencies prior to establishment. Particular attention must be paid to ensuring that aluminium levels are suitable for phalaris production prior to sowing.
• Weed control is of critical importance before and during the establishment phase of phalaris pastures. Periodic annual weed control measures enhance the production of phalaris based pastures after establishment.
• A suitable fertiliser regime needs to be implemented to replace nutrients removed by the enhanced production of the phalaris based pasture.
• Rotational grazing increases the persistence of the phalaris pasture.
• The addition of phalaris pastures extends the period of available green feed when compared to an annual grass system.
• The recent availability of the Holdfast GT Phalaris variety is an important addition to the perennial grasses that can be established in the region.
• The claims that Holdfast GT will persist as well as Australian phalaris have not been tested due to the time required to obtain results from a new variety.
• PPS will continue to test the persistence of Holdfast GT in the PDS trials as well as other pastures in the project.

• On zones where wheat growth is not constrained the French and Schultz method gives a realistic potential yield estimate based on growing season rainfall (GSR) and a soil water evaporation term of 110 mm.
• Where soil water evaporation is higher because of sub-soil constraints and other factors that affect the growth of wheat, the soil water evaporation term must be adjusted.
• Zoning your paddocks into areas of performance and soil testing these areas separately for soil nutrients can improve decisions on where to apply nutrients for the best return.
• Fertiliser application rates at sowing should be strategic, i.e. based on the yield potential of the zone and soil test results (e.g. a sowing application of DAP or MAP on a soil with high yield potential should be supplemented with topdressing applications of N if seasonal conditions are good).

• Rhizoctonia solani AG8 inoculum levels were reduced over summer and this may be associated with summer rainfall events.
• Crop rotation does affect Rhizoctonia inoculum levels, i.e. levels were lowest immediately after canola compared to that after wheat.
• The incidence and severity of Rhizoctonia bare patch disease in cereals depend on the amount of pathogen inoculum, soil microbial community activity and crop/root vigour.
• Seed treatments did not reduce rhizoctonia levels in 2009 trials undertaken on EP and the Mallee.
• To reduce risk of yield loss caused by Rhizoctonia:

Control summer weeds to stop build-up of inoculum,

Encourage early seedling vigour, sow early,

Cultivate deep sow shallow (avoid disc seeders).

• Canola can help reduce inoculum for the following wheat crop.
• Barley and wheat are the most intolerant crops.
• Minimise N deficiency at seeding, particularly for cereal on cereal rotations where summer rainfall has been low, by deep banding N and minimising stubble incorporation at seeding.

• The high input plots all generally yielded below their comparable normal input plot (in the case of the raised beds it was quite significant) and this may also be due to the higher inputs resulting in excessive growth making the crops more prone to lodging.
• For further results please see the attached trial report.

• Pale deep sand has inherently poor yield potential and given the high cost of the water repellence amelioration treatments it can be difficult to determine whether the investment is worthwhile.
• At this site the productivity gains have been sufficient to offset the costs and be profitable for each of the options tested.
• Claying despite being expensive does have the advantage of being long-lasting and reduces wind erosion risk. Shallower cultivation with offset discs or one-way ploughing can give profitable improvements but the example of the one-way plough demonstrated that the benefits can be reduced or even negated by wind erosion damage.
• It should be noted that other research indicates that improving the effectiveness of the seeding operation can give yield gains of similar magnitude or even greater than those measured for the offset discs without the erosion risk. Exploring this possibility is probably a first step for growers looking to manage repellence on these soils.

The trial was dogged by non-wetting and kangaroo grazing problems and so the bioassay of the residual effect of the original source of P treatments was poor..

Recoveries of applied phosphorus in the surface layers was poorest for the water soluble, plant available source superphosphate which had large leaching losses below 50 cm.  the less immediately available but citrate soluble source retained more P in the surface layers while the very insoluble C ore source produced poor growth but had only very low P leaching to depth.  The compromise in choice of source, between plant availability and leaching into the ground water and subsequently the waterways, is  well illustrated by this trial

As a rule, soil fertility factors (non-wetting, organic carbon, CEC, soil organic nitrogen, acidification etc were all more affected by length of pasture ley than by pasture composition and cumulated production.  Cross plot transfer of surface soil may well have affected this finding..

Carbon is generating plenty of interest at present and the project aims to answer questions around increasing organic carbon in agricultural soils through the addition of carbon source. It would be expected that the results will show minimal impact on soil carbon levels in the first year of trialling however will to be tested by the Facey Group in continuance to the project. Harvest results however require further investigation with such variance between the remainder of the paddock and the treatments within the trial.

The laboratory results suggest that the inoculum load of the crown rot pathogen, which is normally stubble-borne, may be significantly reduced in the soil within 3-6 months of application of the control fungus to the stubble.

The West Midlands site had an average yielding year for the Moora area. The Liebe Long Term Research Site had a good growing season in terms of rainfall and seasonal distribution. The average yield was about 50% higher than previous wheat trial years. This was similar to Forrestdale which also had good rainfall and seasonal distribution.

On average, all Bioprime treatments combined resulted in a 4% yield increase. Treatment 2 (foliar Bioprime and granular fertiliser) performed best, achieving a 10% yield increase averaged across the three sites). At the WMG site, five Bioprime treatments resulted in positive yield responses whereas this number was lower at the Liebe site (2 treatments). With data corrected for outliers, all Bioprime treatments resulted in a positive yield response. Given that the Liebe site, relative to the WMG site had a higher soil pH, and higher pre-seeding phosphate and exchangeable cations concentrations (Table 2), an average higher yield was expected and achieved here compared to the WMG (3.36 t/ha and 2.15 t/ha, respectively in unamended control treatments). Thus, the higher soil quality and soil health present at the Liebe site combined with the good 2016 season in terms of rainfall likely narrowed the yield gap.

As such any management options aiming to close the gap between actual and potential yield, would have had less scope to achieve this at the Liebe site in 2016. In contrast, the lower soil fertility at the WMG allowed Bioprime to more consistently improve crop production. The 2016 data suggest the opportunity to improve yield on a poor soil in a poor year is greater than on good soil in a good year.

Ongoing research will continue to further develop Bioprime technology as a tool to improve soil biology and maintain plant health and yield. There is a substantial database of microbiological and yield results which continues to expand with the expectation of understanding the links between root and plant colonization by beneficial bacteria and fungi with Bioprime application and growth improvements.

• Acidic soil layers below 5 cm adversely affect root growth and architecture, nodulation, plant vigour, N2
fixation and yield potential of acid-sensitive pulses.
• Moderately (pHCa 4.6–5.0) and severely (pHCa <4.5) acidic layers in the 5–20 cm soil profile are not detected using soil samples collected over standard profile depths of 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm.
• Finer sampling at 5 cm intervals is recommended to detect pH stratification.
• The current standard industry practice of spreading lime with no incorporation and sowing with knife point press wheels or disc seeders confines the lime effect to the surface layers.
• Careful paddock selection and forward planning is required to correct pH stratification in the topsoil (0–10 cm).
• Lime application and incorporation with a full cultivation operation at least 6–12 months before sowing acid-sensitive species could be necessary.
• Appropriate lime rates should be used to ensure pHCa >5.5 in the entire top 10 cm layer.
• The effect of pH stratification on more acid-tolerant species, including canola, lucerne and cereals, should also be monitored.

• Boron (B) efficiency of oilseed rape (Brassica napus) and mustard (B. juncea) genotypes was determined on a low B soil at Mt. Compass, South Australia.
• B efficiency was observed in oilseed rape genotypes, Zhongyou 821, Dunkeld and Zheyou 2, and in mustard genotypes Pusa Bold and CSIRO 6.
• Genotypes grown in the field were also grown under glass-house conditions, in pots filled with pre-washed sand extracted from the Mt. Compass field site.
• Two B treatments, one B adequate (0.25 mg B /kg soil) and one B deficient (imposed by omission) were used to indicate whether vegetative response to B could predict final yield response and provide a more convenient selection criterion for identifying B-efficient germplasm .
• Vegetative response of 35 d old (D35) genotypes grown in pot culture closely reflected field response, indicating the expression of B efficiency traits in early growth, and its potential use in selection.

Wheat yields were highest when grown after chickpeas or lupins at both low and moderate phosphorus (P) sites. Benefits provided by the previous chickpea or lupin crops could not be attributed to an increase in residual P sources alone.

• Field pea, vetch, faba bean and lentil had 3-125% higher biomass yield and 51-110% higher grain yield than chickpea and canola at Minnipa, 2018.
• Current high demand and grain prices for faba bean meant they were the most profitable break crop species.
• Low grain yield of canola (0.43 t/ha) and chickpea (0.39 t/ha) resulted in these crop species not being profitable as grain crops.
• Field pea and vetch, in particular, have multiple alternative end-use options in dry seasonal conditions that can be utilised to recover crop input costs.

• Wheat grain yield can be expected to be reduced by around 0.5 t/ha for every tonne of in-crop grass weed dry matter present in spring.
• Wheat following break crops were consistently more profitable than wheat on wheat. This in part reflected the  relatively low wheat grain prices experienced during experimentation, and the high returns for canola, but was also related to the efficacy and costs of ryegrass control.
• Growing pulses for brown manure (Bm) lost money in the year that they were grown, but achieved excellent weed control, provided high inputs of N and a residual carry-over of soil water, and more ground cover than if they had been cut for hay.
• In the presence of a high density of herbicide resistant ryegrass a ‘single break’ was not adequate to reduce weed seedbanks and subsequent in-crop weed competition. ‘Double breaks’ (two broad leaf break crops, or break crop - cereal hay sequence) reduced ryegrass seedbank numbers to manageable levels and were amongst the most profitable sequences.
• Break crop choice and selection should be based on individual farm management and ability to manage the various break crops options in the rotation. If growers remain flexible in break crop and end-use decisions, and make suitable choices, risks associated with producing them can be greatly reduced.
• A cropping program that includes break crops is likely to be more sustainable in terms of N inputs and risk of build-up of root diseases than continuous wheat, and provided cheaper, more effective strategies for controlling herbicide resistant grass weeds.

• Field pea had higher biomass and grain yield production than other break crop species at Minnipa, although @RISK analysis suggests field pea is only profitable as a grain crop in 41% of years.
• @RISK analysis model outcomes indicate chickpea, vetch hay and lentil are lower risk break crop species, and are profitable in more than 50% of years.
• Field pea and vetch have multiple alternative end-use options in dry seasonal conditions that can be utilised to recover crop input costs and salvage a financial return.

 

The grain yield of wheat sown after pulses were 300 kg/ha higher on average compared to wheat sown after canola. The yield gap between the canola-wheat rotation and canola-pulse rotation was a result of reduced soil nitrogen levels following harvest of the break crop phase in 2018.

The grain yield of wheat sown after pulses were 300 kg/ha higher on average compared to wheat sown after canola. The yield gap between the canola-wheat rotation and canola-pulse rotation was a result of reduced soil nitrogen levels following harvest of the break crop phase in 2018.

Biomass and grain yield performance of varieties differed between environments, particularly when there were major differences in soil characteristics and rainfall.

• Crop sequence experimentation undertaken in Central West NSW in 2011 and 2012, has demonstrated that crop sequences which include a brassica or legume break crops can be as profitable as, and in many instances more profitable than, continuous wheat.
• Growing pulses for hay was found to provide high quality feed as good as from cereals but hay from canola was less nutritious. However, canola hay provided an alternative option in cases where a possible crop failure is likely due to adverse weather.
• Growing pulses for hay was found to be profitable across a range of season types, achieves excellent grass weed control and provides greater N inputs and higher carry-over of soil water than when the same crop is grown for grain.

Canola, juncea canola, vetch and pea hay were all more profitable than wheat on both sand and clay soil types.

• Liming to help reduce some of the inherent nutritional problems of low soil pH.
• Application of Molybdenum pre seeding to assist with nodulation.
• Improving nodulation by either increasing the number of rhizobia applied, ensuring rhizobia survival in those acid soils or ensuring both collar and lateral nodules develop.
• Early tissue testing and subsequent nutrient correction with foliar applications to overcome some of the deficiencies associated with lower soil pH.
• Raised beds for water logging control in wetter areas, or sowing the beans into a ‘hill’ rather than a ‘furrow’.
• Retention of cereal stubble to improve soil moisture status prior to and at sowing may assist with improving germination and nodulation.

The use of Lexone on both barley and wheat was quite safe in 1996, spray conditions were quite good with moist soil and some dew on hte crop, and no heavy rain occurred within a week of appying the herbicie.

There was no significant difference between the lentil counts, but there was a trend evident of some of the group C herbicides causing some slowness and even plant death. Rain events in the first month post planting were below average, it is likely that those herbicides that are known to have some level of toxicity to lentils (such as Metribuzin) were concentrated in the furrow and thus negatively affected some of the germinating plants.This apparent damage  highlights the importance of understanding how herbicides interact with the soil type, stubble loading and the planted crop.

• If early sowing, Morava vetch is the best choice for brown manuring, particularly if brown manuring for early weed control is the objective since early desiccation will preclude any persistence of hard-seeded vetch into subsequent crops. Field peas are the preferred option for later (mid May) sowing for either brown manuring or crop topping
• TOS 1 field peas had disease problems in early winter reducing biomass.

• Spader generally produced a positive yield response (grain and biomass) on sandier soils that had previously been clay spread and /delved.
• The inclusion of organic matter prior to spading generally improved the level of response to spading.
• Know your soils that you are spading; (not recommended on shallow red loam soils over clay where there is a sodic A2 horizon)

• With low rainfall and poor growth at many sites, crops required little P to maximise grain yield.
• On a red sandy clay loam at Minnipa, wheat only needed a Colwell P value of 10-15 mg/kg to achieve maximum grain yield without P fertiliser.
• Canola appears to have a lower critical P level than wheat.

• Compared to 2008 map, rezoning based on 2009 yield monitor map improved variable rate technology (VRT) performance in 2009, 2010 and 2011 seasons.
• The highest gross margin was returned from paddock N1 as a result of zoning whereby no fertiliser was being applied to 89% of the paddock.
• A limited yield response to applied fertiliser has restricted any gross margin benefit from the VRT technology from this paddock with high soil P reserves.

• Timeliness of operations is essential. The paddock may need to be dry sown as once the soil wets up you may not get back on the site again.
• Whilst the results from 2005 were very encouraging, for the technique to be cost effective the delved areas will need to produce increased yields for at least two years.
• Care must also be taken with the run-off flows to ensure there are no negative off-site impacts.

• Incorporation of lime has not shown a yield response above that of surface applied lime in the first year with wheat or canola in a wet year.
• Acid layers exist within soils and are mainly confined within the topsoil on basalt soils and can extend deeper in other soil types.
• Sampling soil in 5 cm increments is useful for identifying exactly where acidity is the profile so that lime can be potentially incorporated within the acid area.
• Surface-applied lime takes time to move down the soil profile and ameliorate acidity.
• To minimise yield losses where acidity issues exist (pH less than 5.0), sow acid tolerant cereals (eg. wheat) following liming or look to incorporate lime. 

Perennial based pasture systems can offer numerous benefits, including increased access to fresh summer feed,
lowered water table with a decrease in associated salinity issues, and minimisation of surface erosion. While it
is premature to apply these results broadly across KI, these results suggest that the decision to switch to a perennial
pasture should not be made based solely upon anticipated changes in soil carbon levels.

• Fifty alkaline cropping soils form southern Australia were sampled and analysed for micronutrients.
• Mid infrared spectra for eahc soil was also obtained and partial least squared regression used to estimate micronutrient content.
• Very good correlations wbetween MIR and measured micronutrient concentrations and offfers an attactive alternative to traditional techniques.

• Three seeding systems, disc (slot), tyne and tyne-after cultivation were tested over two  seasons in a paddock with a long history of minimal soil disturbance. Soil water repellence, plant establishment and yield were compared.
• In the wet 2016 season, the effect of soil water repellence was minimal and soil disturbance caused by disc, tyne or tyne-after-cultivation did not significantly affect plant establishment or yield.
• In the dry 2017 season, plant establishment and yield of field peas was higher in the disc seeder treatment than the tyne or tyne-after-cultivation treatment.

• Results from experimentation undertaken in southern NSW in 2011 and 2012, have demonstrated that crop sequences which include a brassica or legume break crops can be as profitable as, and in many instances more profitable than, continuous wheat.
• Canola was consistently the most profitable break crop option. However, the rotational benefits of canola were usually restricted to just the first subsequent wheat crop whereas additional wheat yields can occur for two years after a legume.
• Growing pulses for grain maximises profit, particularly in favourable seasons, but compromises grass weed control and (depending upon species) reduces N available to subsequent crops compared to brown manuring.
• Growing pulses for hay was found to be profitable across a range of season types, achieves excellent grass weed control and provides greater N inputs and higher carry-over of soil water than when the same crop is grown for grain.
• Growing pules for brown manure loses money in the year they are grown, but achieves excellent grass weed control, high N inputs, residual carry-over of soil water, provides more ground cover, and requires less labour than when grown for hay or grain.

• Eight trial sites were established across South Eastern Australia to investigate whether soil organic carbon levels can be increased in no-till farming systems, inclusive of adding nutrients to aid the biological breakdown of stubble into soil organic matter.
• After three or five years of treatment, no increase in soil organic carbon could be confirmed across four trial sites. However, it is well known that no-till and stubble retention protects the soil from wind and water erosion and over a longer time-frame soil organic carbon levels may increase. But, based on these results it is likely that any potential increase in soil organic carbon will be small.

• In 2016, the soil mixing (grizzly or spader) had a greater wheat yield than the control (0.27-0.42 t/ha), regardless of product applied. The incorporation treatments are still being paid off and therefore have not produced the greatest net margin.
• Limesand/No till returned the best net margin for the 2nd consecutive year due to the low yield increases from either application of product or mixing treatment.
• The lime or dolomite treatments had greater yields (0.22-0.5 t/ha) regardless of mixing treatment.
• Care must be taken in interpretation of results due to pH variation across the site.
•  

• Tedera geminated well on gutless sand in Watheroo
• It is expected that the first tedera cultivars will be released to a commercial partner in 2015.
• Tedera can persist with an average rainfall of 150mm and up to 5 months in drought.

 

• My conclusion is that Conservation Farming practices are just as applicable in a marginal environment as in a more reliable one, perhaps more so. The trick here is to establish a blend of the existing knowledge (e.g. need to store moisture when possible, weed control, fertility management, sound pasture phase, timeliness of sowing, disease management), plus the newly available technology of seeders and herbicides that can continue to grow solid yielding, but importantly more profitable crops into the future.

• Our standard package of 100 kg 18:20/ha at seeding under the seed row (to avoid fertiliser toxicity),  and two top-ups of nitrogen during the season (50 kg N/ha as broadcast urea each time) was not the right combination for wheat at our site last year. It would appear that we were far too generous with our N inputs because we could leave out all fertiliser N and not suffer any yield loss. However, some N would appear to have been necessary to maintain high protein levels.
• In addition, our standard package of one trial spray in September did not cope with the stripe rust  infection in such a susceptible crop as Wyalkatchem. A Jockey seed dressing helped but another foliar spray of Tilt at flag leaf emergence gave the best control of the options tested.
  • This trial showed that under the high productivity conditions of Kangaroo Island, P fertiliser is still a vital requirement, even if the soil has high P reserves.
  • There was no evidence that extra management options provided any further benefits to wheat performance (ie extra seed dressings, an early aphid spray, B or K fertiliser or use of a growth regulant) under the conditions of last year’s trial.
  • All yields fell far short of the French/Schultz potential yield of 8.4 t/ha (based on the growing season rainfall in 2005 of 532 mm) which suggests that we still have a lot to learn about growing wheat under Kangaroo Island conditions, although the delayed seeding date of 28 June would have contributed to the relatively low yields.

• Reducing P inputs has a risk attached to it, but excessive use of P fertiliser is also a risk to profit making.
• After several seasons with high crop yields, reduced P inputs are not maintaining soil P fertility.
• Monitoring soil P fertility can be a cost-effective method to manage the risk associated with reduced P inputs.

• Applications of gypsum and lime did not increase canola emergence in 2015.
• This result was expected as May rainfall was not sufficient to induce slaking of the soil.

• Canola is best sown shallow (1-2cm) on hard setting and crusting soils.
• On lighter soils or better structured soils canola can be sown a bit deepter (5-8cm) if there is more moisture at this depth.

Establishment was highest where stubble was removed, however sufficient plants were established for a commercial crop where stubble remained standing rather than laying on the ground.

Conditions post spreading of the seed were perfect for establishment - seed spread onto moist soil, 30 mm of rain and cool temperates post rainfall - and a similar level of success may not be achievable evry season.

• Soil analysis obtained from the site indicated that most nutrients were in adequate supply with the exception of Phosphorus. Gypsum was applied to both sites in 1995 at 2.5 T/Ha. DAP was applied to the crop at sowing at the rate of 100 kg/ha. 
• For further discussion please see the attached trial report.

• Limited results are available from 2006 due to the dry season.
• Only limited seed is available for many of the new canola varieties.
• Review available data and always try new varieties in conjunction with proven varieties.
• Plant back residues may be an issue – check the labels!
• Match cultivar selection to available soil moisture and the break of the season.
• 14 new varieties are expected to be released in 2007 in Victoria.

The 2009 season was one we would like to forget, with decile 1 growing season rainfall for nearly all grain growing regions in Victoria. Despite the season, crops in many areas looked excellent, but those without stored subsoil moisture at sowing struggled considerably with no effective rainfall in spring. Oil contents were highly variable, and generally low. Frosts on 23 October and 17 November wiped off about one-third of the crop in the Western District

• Time of nitrogen application was not as important as the quantity available to the plant.
• Nitrogen is an important driver of canola yields across dune-swale soil types and must be managed in the low rainfall zone for the crop to be profitable.

 

• Subsoil acidity, topsoil water repellance and herbicide resistance weeds are often found in combination on sandplain soils in Western Australian wheatbelt.
• One-off mouldboard ploughing is being investigated as a way to decimate herbicide resistant weed seed banks. bury water repellant top soil and incorporate lime into into acid subsoils.

• I see the value of canola in an intensive cropping system but I believe it is more profitable for me to grow wheat with a good pasture phase in the rotation to manage soil structure and nutrients.

• In 2019, approximately 40% of barley grass seeds had already dropped on the ground before the first swathing opportunity.
• Barley grass seed retention declines with every successive week and by crop maturity retained only 20% of its seed on the head.
• If growers are aiming to collect grass seed using harvest weed seed management strategies (chaff carts or windrows) they need to harvest grassy paddocks as early as possible to maximise weed seed collection.

 

• Although high below-ground carbon input by plants is important to enhance soil organic matter, only a few studies have quantified carbon allocation dynamics in crop-soil systems in dryland regions under contrasting management practices.
• There seems to be environmental constraints and features of dryland farming systems (such as high aridity and low rainfall, low soil carbon and low moisture) that limit the extent of below-ground carbon allocation as found in this study. It is thus challenging to enhance soil organic matter stocks in the dryland regions through conservation tillage only.
• The majority of newly assimilated carbon remained in aboveground plant material, particularly in the wheat-soil system at Condobolin, which is a relatively drier climate than Wagga Wagga.
• A larger proportion of newly assimilated carbon was translocated to below-ground carbon pools in the canola-soil system at Wagga Wagga (7%−11%) than in the wheat-soil system at Condobolin (2%).
• Tillage practices had no effect on the allocation and storage of newly assimilated carbon in the crop-soil systems. Moreover, the management practices had no significant effect on grain yield, soil carbon stocks or bulk density.
• These results suggest that reduced tillage or no-till can maintain equivalent soil functionality relative to conventional tillage while reducing operational costs associated with energy and machinery inputs.

There is considerable uncertainty regarding the future of carbon trading in agriculture. The UNFS group is working on several project to help identify how growers might take advantage of the carbon market in the future. Improved production and sustainability needs to be the key driver of any management changes with carbon credits being a bonus, not the drivers of change.

• Yield and biomass can be used to assess variation and identify soil sampling points (more than five may be needed).
• However, the cause of yield variation can vary within production zones so zones may differ depending on management input targeted.
• Ground truthing is  essential including grower knowledge.

The relationship of the different layers varied across the case studies. The cause of yield variation commonly varied within production zones. EM and gamma can help interpret causes of yield variation. EM strongly correlated with yield in landscapes with highly contrasting soils i.e. sands to clays at Corrigin and Wickepin. Gamma helps delineate different soil types in combination with EM. These layers were used to determine variable ripping zones and gypsum. No layers were very useful on their own. Topsoil pH did not correlate with any data layer therefore grid sampling is recommended to accurately map pH.

Irrigators should be advised by policy makers in the strongest possible terms to utilise continual logging soil moisture monitoring in their irrigation management plans. Soil moisture monitoring should not be viewed as an optional extra in an irrigation system but rather as the control centre that determines when to irrigate and how much to apply. The role of irrigation for crop production and salinity management requires soil moisture monitoring to determine the optimal time and volumes to achieve measurable objectives. Further research is needed to qualify and quantify the use of salt leaching irrigations as well as the use of gypsum applications to manage surface compaction created by stock and irrigation impact. White clover seed producers need to improve their attention to irrigation efficiency and focus on the net $ return/ML of irrigation applied. They are also advised to review their agronomic practices including paddock selection and rotations to aid in mitigating their current high end herbicide use on the white clover seed crops.

• Ryegrass is a “pussy” in dry seasons, but a “panther” in wet seasons!
• Crop competition does not suppress ryegrass when the soil remains waterlogged.

• Increasing inputs from low to district practice significantly increased crop emergence for all four varieties, reflecting the increased seeding rate.
• Crop head density was higher under district input practice, reflecting the higher seeding rate and crop nutrition, and was positively correlated with seedling establishment.

• Burning or cultivating 2015 stubbles tended to produce higher yields, however this was only significant at Ungarie.
• High rainfall and a soft finish removed the benefit of stored soil moisture that stubble retained systems may have provided.
• Nitrogen was the limiting factor for both yield and protein for 2016.
• Growers cannot let stubble negatively impact on weed control and timely sowing.
• Growers should use crop rotation to their advantage by aiming to sow the right crop into the least antagonistic stubble.
• Stubble retained systems can require more nitrogen due to increased nitrogen tie-up.

Grain legumes are ideally suited for direct drilling into cereal stubble. Cereal stubble does not affect grain legume growth or yield. The legume's large seed size and tolerance to variations in sowing depth allows them to safely emerge through stubble. Stubble should be left on the soil surface. Attempts to break up and bury it with repeated harrowing and workings will damage the soil structure, negating any benefit from retaining it.

• A diagnostic service is available to farmers and industry for diseased plant specimens.
• Samples of all leaf and aerial plant parts should be kept free of moisture and wrapped in paper not a plastic bag. Roots should be dug up carefully, preserving as much of the root system as possible and preferably kept damp. Samples should be sent to the following address:

SARDI Diagnostic Centre
Plant Research Centre
Hartley Grove
Urrbrae SA 5064

 

• Current standard practices of 50 kg/ha DAP or 50 kg/ha MAP balanced with urea below the seed provides adequate P nutrition.
• With adequate soil moisture, no large differences in grain yield were observed in 2019 at Streaky Bay with different granular fertiliser treatments.

• Application of nitrogen fertiliser significantly increased yield compared to no fertiliser.
• Grain protein results suggest that in 2014 nitrogen was not the limiting factor to yield especially at the higher rates; incremental increases in mean grain protein were recorded with each increase in N, up to 300 kg N/ha.
• Variety choice had a significant effect on final grain yield and protein, however individual variety response to applied N rates were relatively similar.
• There was a strong link between N rate and what was left in the soil after harvest, and the higher rates left a considerable amount.
   

Key messages: There was a significant effect of deep ripping on both dry matter production and grain yield for all three crops. Conversely the was no significant effect of organic matter inputs in any of the trials.

It is too early to tell whether chickpeas are as sensitive to simazine on clay soils as they demonstrated to be on a sandy soil in 1995.

• A direct relationship between grain yield and ascochyta blight infection, and grain yields varying from 0.4t/ha (Howzat) to 2.45t/ha (PBA Slasher), highlight the achievements of the chickpea breeding program in developing varieties with improved ascochyta blight resistance.
• The kabuli variety Genesis090 (rated as R) has the highest level of ascochyta blight resistance of all the varieties tested in this trial, supporting previous findings.
• Despite higher levels of ascochyta blight infection, some desi varieties, including PBA Slasher, may have higher yield potential due to better general adaptation to South Australian growing environments eg earlier maturity and better tolerance to variable soil types.

• Both desi and kabuli chickpea varieties suffered severe plant establishment reductions from fertiliser placement with the seed and with increasing fertiliser rates.
• Fertiliser rates of 20 kg P/ha and above placed with the seed had a significant negative effect on grain yields.
• Yields increased with fertiliser rate up to about 20kg/ha of P in this particular season and soil type
• Over two seasons fertiliser placement has been shown to influence plant establishment and yield of chickpea.

• Response of 13 chickpea genotypes to zinc nutrition was studied in a pot experiment under glasshouse conditions.
• When grown with no added zinc, zinc deficiency symptoms appeared 3–4 weeks after planting.
• Zinc efficiency based on shoot dry weight showed marked differences among genotypes.
• Root:shoot ratio was increased and proportionally more zinc was transported to the shoot when the soil was deficient.
• Cultivars that were very sensitive to zinc deficiency tended to have their root:shoot ratio increased by zinc deficiency more than less sensitive cultivars.
• The insensitive lines transported more than 70% of the total absorbed zinc to the shoot .
• Chickpea genotypes vary in their sensitivity to zinc deficiency.

Grain Yield results of these trials need to be treated with caution due to the adverse environmental
conditions experienced throughout the season.

• Growing season rainfall was extremely low (157mm c.f. 230mm long term average) and there was no subsoil moisture due to low summer rainfall. Only 8mm rainfall was recorded in r (a critical period for crop growth and yield determination). There was an extremely hot
  period during October which resulted in significant flower and pod abortion. Many plots had
  died without setting pods prior to harvest. The late rainfall of 50mm in November was too late to be of any benefit.
• Emergence was similar across all treatments and varieties.
• All varieties responded similarly to the herbicide treatments.
• The most significant damage was in simazine + imazethapyr and simazine + isoxaflutole
  treatments. Simazine + isoxaflutole applied at double rates caused a significant reduction in
  crop height.
• The trial was not harvested and grain yields not recorded as there was almost no pods set (see above).

Key findings:

• In a wet season, substantial yield losses (94%) from Phytophthora root rot (PRR) occurred in susceptible chickpea varieties such as PBA BoundaryA.
• Varieties with improved resistance to PRR (PBA HatTrickA and YorkerA) can also have large yield losses (68–79%) in a season highly conducive to PRR.
• Although yield losses will occur in seasons highly conducive to PRR, crosses between chickpea and wild Cicer species, such as the PBA breeding line CICA1328, currently offer the best levels of PRR resistance.

Summary

Under conditions that are highly conducive to PRR, substantial (94%) yield losses occur in susceptible varieties such as PBA Boundary.  However, significant losses (68-79%) can also occur in varieties with improved resistance to PRR (PBA HatTrick and Yorker).  Crosses between chickpea and wild Cicer species such as the PBA breeding line CICA1328 offer the best resistance to PRR.

• The yields were to low to providing meaningful information on effects of plant population on yield, with moisture stress and varietal maturity having a major impact on plant reactions.
• There was a significant variety by density curvature.
• Genesis 509 shows a maximum yield at approximately 35 plants/m2, whilst the other two varieties show no real maximum, with Flipper showing a decline in yield with greater plant densities.

• The trial site was too affected by moisture stress to provide any meaningful results, with the site plot yields extremely low.

• Results of this trial need to be treated with caution due to the low yields and adverse environmental conditions experienced throughout the season.
• Growing season rainfall was extremely low (190mm c.f. 265mm long term average) and there was no subsoil moisture due to low summer rainfall. Only 9mm rainfall was recorded in October (a critical period for crop growth and yield determination). There was an extremely hot day October 13 (37OC) followed by a frost (Oct 16, -3.4) which resulted in almost complete flower and pod abortion. Approximately 80mm rain fell in November and December, ensuring that we achieved grain yields up to 400kg/ha.
• Emergence was similar to target plant densities.
• Results highlight the yield potential of the new lines Flip 94-090c and Flip 94-509c.
• Low plant densities and later sowing tended to be higher yielding due to the late rainfall. This is the opposite trend of 2003 and needs further investigation.
• There was a greater proportion of large seed (>8mm) of Flip 94-090c at low plant densities compared with high plant densities (25% c.f. 5%).

• Given the moisture stress only the chickpea plot warranted harvesting, with the faba beans not handling the conditions as well.
• Yields were extremely low due to moisture stress

• The first ascochyta blight resistant desi chickpea variety, Genesis 508™, is available to growers this year.
• A small-medium seeded kabuli variety, Genesis 090™, will be commercially available in 2006.
• Both varieties have been commercialised through Australian Agricultural Commodities (AAC).
• These varieties require fewer fungicide applications to manage ascochyta blight and much reduced risk.
• Each must be considered separately based on regional yield and quality.

• There is a benefit in inoculating chickpeas where there are limited rhizobia present in the soil. Granular inoculants present an opportunity to potentially improve nodulation under dry sowing conditions and assist with sowing logistics, with no reduction in nodulation or grain yield. It is important to understand how your seeding system may impact on efficacy of inoculants, including liquid placement, seed dressings and seed box. 

• Treatments which included Nodulaid peat and Nodulator or TagTeam granular at twice the recommended rate produced the greater number and highest weight of nodules.  Nodulator and TagTeam granular applied at recommended rates and the EasyRhiz liquid treatment produced similar outcomes for both variables.  The application of Alosca at both label and twice label rate produced very few nodules and therefore total nodule weight was the lowest of all commercial products evaluated.  There were no nodules produced in the nil treatments which confirms there was not a background population of chickpea rhizobia in the soil and highlights the importance of inoculating pulses such as chickpea.
• For further results and interpretation see attached trial report summary.

• Grain yield was very low and variable in 2018 due to low soil pH at the site and water logging in part of the trial. The removal of phosphorus from the fertiliser significantly reduced plant biomass and showed a trend towards reduced grain yield. However, results should be treated with caution due to high variability in the trial.   

• Grain yields were generally low in 2018 due to dry seasonal conditions and frost events during the vegetative and reproductive stages. There was no yield response to the soil nutrition treatments on both soil types. All the treatments except all nutrient minus phosphorus resulted in significantly higher biomass than the nil on the swale.
• The dry growing season conditions may have reduced movement and uptake of the applied macro and micro-nutrients by the crop. Hence, results should be treated with caution.

• NDVI indicated that on the heavier soil types (bay 1- 4), the All – trace elements treatment had the highest growth and this was significant in bays 1,3 and 4.  On the sander soils in bays 6 to 10 there appeared to be a response to the addition of nitrogen with the All – N and Nil treatments having the lowest NDVI values.
• Biomass data was collected from bays 3, 5 and 9. There was a response to nutrients in bay 3 with the all nutrients treatment having the highest biomass and no nutrients treatment the lowest.  The All-N treatment also had low biomass in bay 1.  There were no significant differences for biomass in the sandier soil types however productivity from these bays was very low.   

The resulting time of sowing (TOS) information will be used to confirm and update current agronomic recommendations for chickpea in this region.

• Positive crop production responses still remain at Cadgee five years after amelioration treatments were applied.
• Application of clay improved establishment and flowering biomass, regardless of incorporation depth (shallow, 10 cm and spaded, 30 cm), compared to the control and the spaded lucerne treatments (see Fig. 1 in attached trial report).
• Grain yield response to clay application increased with the depth of incorporation, and were doubled in the spaded clay + Luc treatment compared to the control, adding 1.58 t/ha in 2018.
• Over the long term, this treatment has produced an additional 95 % grain (4.5 t/ha) since 2014 (four years grain data; Fig. 2). 
• Changes in soil chemical, hydrological and physical characteristics as a result of spading and lucerne and clay addition were the focus of 2019 soil measurements at the site.
• A full report detailing temporal trends and long term soil fertility changes will be released soon.
   

• Incorporating clay into the sand has led to yield increases that are improving with time.
• Yield response to clay application increased with the depth of incorporation; a cumulative increase of 0.74 t/ha (23%) over the control was achieved when clay was incorporated in the top 10 cm (Fig. 1 Shallow clay), increasing to 1.41 t/ha (44%) when the clay was incorporated to 30 cm (Fig. 1 Spading + clay).
• A similar response was achieved when 10 t/ha of Lucerne hay (organic matter (OM)) was spaded in, resulting in a 1.62 t/ha (50%) increase in yield (Fig. 1 Spading + OM).
• The combination of OM plus clay gave the best grain yield result in all years, with a cumulative 2.95 t/ha (92% increase) achieved across the 2014, 2015 and 2017 seasons (Fig. 1 Spading + Clay + OM).
• Spading alone led to cumulative decreases in yield of 0.39 t/ha (-12%), which is in contrast to results on Mallee sands, where the effect of spading has remained positive over time.
• Changes in soil chemical, hydrological, physical and biological characteristics as a result of clay and OM addition are the focus of 2018 soil measurements at the site.
• The response to deep disturbance and placement of OM and nutrition, in contrast to spading, is the focus of future research conducted by PIRSA at Murlong on the Eyre Peninsula in 2018.

A summary of the main results from the first season at the Moora trial are presented in Figures 1 and 2.  Due to technical issues, the trial was not seeded at the same time as the rest of the paddock, which was supposed to be used as an untreated control. For this reason, a comparison of the treatments to a control treatment without tillage and clay spreading is not available.  A statistically significant effect of tillage on early plant establishment was found when analysing the plant counts measured about four weeks after sowing (Figure 1, left). All the treatments with the off-set disc (in combination or not with clay spreading) had more plants per linear meter in comparison to the one-way plough treatments. This is likely due to uneven seeding depth following tillage with the one-way plough (deep tillage) compared to the shallower tillage with the off-set disc. Surprisingly, incorporation of subsoil clay at any given rate did not show any significant effect on early plant establishment although this result could be explained by the wetter than usual weather in April-May reducing the severity of soil water repellence.

Again, when looking at the tiller counts recorded 8 weeks after sowing (Figure 1, right) the addition of clay at different rates did not affect the number of tillers. However, the wheat growing in the one-way plough treatments overcame the initial delay in germination giving higher tiller number than those recorded in the treatments with the off-set disc (except for the treatment with 250 t/ha of clay). This trend continued at harvest, with the one-way plough treatments producing higher yields (4.5-4.6 t/ha on average) than the off-set disc treatments (4.1-4.3 t/ha on average) at any given rate of subsoil clay.

Due to the low rates of clay spreading and the low cost of the incorporation methods, all treatments provided a positive return of investments in the first year (ROI= ($/ha gain – $/ha total direct costs) / $/ha total direct costs), based on mean values in Table 1. Not surprisingly, the best ROI in the first year was obtained by the one-way plough treatment without clay spreading (1.42 $/ha), followed by the off-set disc without clay spreading (1.22 $/ha) and the treatments clay spread at 50 t/ha incorporated with one-way plough (1.17 $/ha). These estimates are indicative only, as indirect costs and interests on the initial capital investment are not included in the calculations. For more accurate estimates of ROI, yield results from multiple seasons and crops will be collected in the next 3 years.

 

A summary of the main results from the first season at the Moora trial are presented in Figures 1 and 2.  Due to technical issues, the trial was not seeded at the same time as the rest of the paddock, which was supposed to be used as an untreated control. For this reason, a comparison of the treatments to a control treatment without tillage and clay spreading is not available.  A statistically significant effect of tillage on early plant establishment was found when analysing the plant counts measured about four weeks after sowing (Figure 1, left). All the treatments with the off-set disc (in combination or not with clay spreading) had more plants per linear meter in comparison to the one-way plough treatments. This is likely due to uneven seeding depth following tillage with the one-way plough (deep tillage) compared to the shallower tillage with the off-set disc. Surprisingly, incorporation of subsoil clay at any given rate did not show any significant effect on early plant establishment although this result could be explained by the wetter than usual weather in April-May reducing the severity of soil water repellence.

Again, when looking at the tiller counts recorded 8 weeks after sowing (Figure 1, right) the addition of clay at different rates did not affect the number of tillers. However, the wheat growing in the one-way plough treatments overcame the initial delay in germination giving higher tiller number than those recorded in the treatments with the off-set disc (except for the treatment with 250 t/ha of clay). This trend continued at harvest, with the one-way plough treatments producing higher yields (4.5-4.6 t/ha on average) than the off-set disc treatments (4.1-4.3 t/ha on average) at any given rate of subsoil clay.

Due to the low rates of clay spreading and the low cost of the incorporation methods, all treatments provided a positive return of investments in the first year (ROI= ($/ha gain – $/ha total direct costs) / $/ha total direct costs), based on mean values in Table 1. Not surprisingly, the best ROI in the first year was obtained by the one-way plough treatment without clay spreading (1.42 $/ha), followed by the off-set disc without clay spreading (1.22 $/ha) and the treatments clay spread at 50 t/ha incorporated with one-way plough (1.17 $/ha). These estimates are indicative only, as indirect costs and interests on the initial capital investment are not included in the calculations. For more accurate estimates of ROI, yield results from multiple seasons and crops will be collected in the next 3 years.

The topsoil sand at Yanda was severely repellent (Figure 1, left), as measured by the molarity of ethanol droplet test (MED). Clay spreading and tillage (either combined or separated) significantly reduced the severity of water repellency. When the subsoil clay was not incorporated by tillage or was incorporated using an off-set disc, the soil water repellency generally decreased with an increasing amount of subsoil clay. However, low-repellency (MED<1) was obtained only at rates over 150 t/ha of subsoil.

In contrast, spading (either at standard speed of the tractor or at half speed) was the most effective method for the alleviation of soil water repellency. In these treatments, the MED values were completely reduced to zero (non-repellent soil) and, most importantly, this was achieved independently from the presence, or not, of clay-rich subsoil. The significant reduction of the soil water repellency however did not convert to better plant establishment measured five weeks after sowing (Figure 1, Right).  This result could be explained by the wetter than usual weather recorded during April-May 2016 that reduced the impact of the soil water repellency on plant establishment. Nevertheless, tiller counts collected five weeks after plant counts showed a significant effect of tillage on the number of tillers. In particular, the spader treatments (standard and ½ speed) had the most tillers while the control had the fewest.

This trend was repeated with the barley grain yields at harvest time (Figure 2). Both tillage and rate of clay spreading, significantly improved grain yield in comparison to the control treatments (no clay and no tillage). The lowest yield were recorded in the control treatments and in the off-set tillage only (no clay) with an average of 1.41 t/ha and 1.36 t/ha respectively. The shallow tillage (or incorporation) using off-set discs did not yield significantly differently from the treatments with no incorporation at any given rate of subsoil clay. Clay spreading at 250 t/ha followed by spading at standard speed produced the highest yield on average (2.93 t/ha). Nonetheless, all treatments with spading (standard and ½ speed) were able to yield over 2.5 t/ha, even without the addition of subsoil clay (Figure 2). 

Field observations showed that the trial was also affected by frost, which explained the lower than expected yields. Head samples were collected in early November 2016 from all the treatments (except spading at ½ speed) for the assessment of frost induced sterility (FIS= number of sterile florets / total number of florets) and the results are shown in Figure 3.

The results on FIS showed that frost damage might be one of the main reasons of low yields and responsible of the large yield differences between treatments. The control treatments and the off-set treatment (no clay) had over 60% frost induced sterility. Even though increasing amounts of subsoil clay significantly reduced FIS (Figure 3c), the treatments with no incorporation or with incorporation by off-set discs still recorded FIS values above 50%. Spading was the most effective treatment to significantly reduce frost damage to below 40%, regardless of the presence or not of subsoil clay (Figure 3a and b).

Spading was the most successful treatment in this first year of the trial at Yanda. Most importantly, spading was able to produce the highest yields and significantly reduce the frost damage regardless of the addition subsoil clay. This was particularly evident when estimating the simple return of investments on the first year of the trial (ROI= ($/ha gain – $/ha total direct costs) / $/ha total direct costs), based on the mean values presented in Table 3. Because of the high crop-specific costs with barley at Yanda (500 $/ha) and the yield reduction due to frost, spading alone at standard speed was the only treatment that gave a positive ROI on the first year (+0.4 $/ha) followed by negative ROI with spading at ½ speed (-0.18 $/ha) and the control (-0.35 $/ha). These estimates are indicative only, as indirect costs and interests on the initial capital investment are not included in the calculations. For more accurate estimates of ROI, yield results from multiple seasons and crops will be collected in the next 3 years.

 

• This trial clearly demonstrates the importance of matching clay application rate and incorporation method when clay spreading for water repellence. For subsoils with a clay content of about 30% using a rate of 100-150 t subsoil/ha incorporated with offsets to a depth of 120-150 mm was sufficient to overcome the repellence and given wheat yield increases of 11-18%.
• Alternatively subsoil application rates of 250-350 t/ha are probably required if the clay is to be incorporated to 250-300 mm with a rotary spader and this gave similar yield increases of 11-14% on what is a better soil type with higher inherent yield potential.
• The main benefit of higher clay application rates and deeper incorporation seemed to be in the canola year, although more seasons with canola need to be assessed to confirm the validity of this finding.

• In 2004 there were no measurable differences in dry matter production between Safeguard ryegrass and Itialian/Wimmera ryegrass.
• The sheep grazing assessment between Safeguard and Wimmera/Italian ryegrass we inconclusive.
• The large differences in nematode galls between Safeguard and the Wimmera areas at the Driscoll site indicates that Safeguard successfully inhibited nematode gall formation.

• An intended comparison between native ryegrass and Safeguard ryegrass became a comparison between what is probably Italian ryegrass and Safeguard ryegrass.
• It was observed that in early November sheep grazed the Italian ryegrass in preference to the Safeguard ryegrass.

• Under the current dry conditions there is limited water in the subsoil which makes this project difficult.
• Soil sampling throughout the year on various paddocks showed plants using what little subsoil moisture was available.
• Since subsoils were not very wet, it is unlikely that the sodic nature of the subsoils was expressed.

Mouldboard ploughing changed the soil structure, inverting the top 30cm of soil and creating a new profile including soil pH. Interestingly there was also a pH response to deep 
ripping.

• Break crops faced a range of tough environmental conditions in the Mallee in 2015 including multiple frost and heat shock events.
• Timely rainfall in April and hence early sowing resulted in excellent biomass production with most crop options producing on average more than 2 t DM/ha and several break crop options producing greater than 2.5 t DM/ha.
• The highest grain yields tended to be crops with the quickest maturity such as lentils (0.73 t/ha), vetch (0.64 t/ha) and field peas (0.63 t/ha).
• High value crops such as lentils and vetch were highly profitable due to both excellent prices and reasonable grain yields. (v) Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types.

• Break crops faced a range of tough environmental conditions in the Mallee in 2015 including multiple frost and heat shock events.
• Timely rainfall in April and hence early sowing resulted in excellent biomass production with most crop options producing on average more than 2 t DM/ha and several break crop options producing greater than 2.5 t DM/ha.
• The highest grain yields tended to be crops with the quickest maturity such as lentils (0.73 t/ha), vetch (0.64 t/ha) and field peas (0.63 t/ha). 
• High value crops such as lentils and vetch were highly profitable due to both excellent prices and reasonable grain yields.
• Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types.

• Break crops faced a range of tough environmental conditions in the Mallee in 2015 including multiple frost and heat shock events.
• Timely rainfall in April and hence early sowing resulted in excellent biomass production with most crop options producing on average more than 2 t DM/ha and several break crop options producing greater than 2.5 t DM/ha.
• The highest grain yields tended to be crops with the quickest maturity such as lentils (0.73 t/ha), vetch (0.64 t/ha) and field peas (0.63 t/ha).
• High value crops such as lentils and vetch were highly profitable due to both excellent prices and reasonable grain yields.

• Varieties with the longest coleoptiles on average were Cutlass and Yitpi with 81 mm and 80 mm, respectively.
• Varieties with the shortest coleoptiles on average were Cobra and Wedgetail with 61 mm and 62 mm, respectively.
• Increasing soil temperature had a negative impact on coleoptile length with an average length of 67 mm recorded at 21°C, compared to 72 mm at 16°C.

Significant differences were found in grain protein % only with treatments 3, 7 and 2 all having the highest grain protein. There were no significant differences in other grain quality parameters or in yield. This is likely to be due to the late timing of all nitrogen applications and a reasonably high soil Nitrogen content to start with (approximately 176 kg/ha).