A field trial was undertaken at Kinnabulla (VIC) in 2019 to investigate combinations of sowing time, seed rate and herbicide treatments to control brome grass in barley. Spartacus CL barley was used in this trial to enable the use of Intervix® for post-emergence control of brome grass. In 2019, the trial site received 181 mm rainfall during the growing season (April-October), which was 23% lower than the long-term average for the site. However in December 2018, the site received a heavy downpour of 199 mm, which created good growing conditions for barley crop grown in 2019. In this trial, barley seeding rate did not have a significant effect on either yield (P=0.213), brome panicles/m2 at maturity (P=0.889) or brome seed set/m2 (P=0.409). This lack of effect of crop seed rate on the number of brome panicles and seed set could be related to the high plant available water during the crop and weed life-cycle or due to Spartacus being a less competitive barley cultivar due to its erect architecture. Time of sowing had a significant effect on brome panicles/m2 at maturity and brome seed set/m2. TOS 2 had a lower brome panicle density at maturity than TOS 1 across all herbicide strategies, which was most likely due to low pre-sowing weed kill in TOS 1 as brome grass had not yet germinated. However, brome population that had germinated after the opening rains was killed by glyphosate application prior to seeding barley in TOS 2. As the numbers of panicles were lower in TOS 2, brome seed set was also reduced in TOS2 relative to TOS 1. Herbicide strategy had a significant effect on barley grain yield. As the herbicides reduced the impact of brome on barley, its yield increased from 3.24 t/ha in the knockdown treatment (NIL), to 3.72 t/ha in the pre-emergent herbicides only and to 3.96 t/ha when the pre-emergent herbicides were followed by post-emergent Intervix. Somewhat surprisingly, TOS 2 produced higher yields than TOS 1 across all the treatments, with the greatest difference being 0.46 t/ha in the Nil herbicide treatments. However, the yield difference between the two times of sowing decreased when more effective herbicides were used (0.08t/ha difference between TOS 1 and 2 in pre-emergent only and 0.04t/ha difference when pre-emergent herbicides followed by Intervix). Higher barley grain yield in the later sown crop is most likely due to a significantly greater weed density in barley in TOS 1 than in TOS 2, as large numbers of early germinating brome plants were controlled with glyphosate knockdown in TOS 2. TOS 1 also experienced a mild frost during flowering, resulting in patchy frost damage. Furthermore, May 23 (TOS 2) sowing date still falls within the optimum sowing window for Spartacus, which is an early maturity variety, and TOS 1 on April 29 was earlier than optimum for this variety.

A field trial was undertaken at Minnipa in 2019 to investigate combinations of barley sowing time, seed rate and herbicide treatments to control annual ryegrass. The average seedbank of annual ryegrass (ARG) at the site was 4168 ± 411 seeds/m². ARG plant density was significantly influenced by the time of sowing (P<0.001), herbicide treatment (P<0.001) and the interaction between the time of sowing and herbicide (P<0.001). There was a large impact of the 3 week delay in seeding barley on ARG plant density. This was particularly evident in the untreated control in which ARG density decreased from 676 plants/m² in TOS 1 to 379 plants/m² in TOS 2. This large reduction in ARG density due to delayed sowing is most likely related to rainfall events in early May, which would have caused weed emergence. Pre-emergence herbicides had higher efficacy in TOS 2 where the density of ARG plants had been reduced by the delay in seeding. This trend held through the season in the untreated control in which ARG spike density decreased from 306 spikes/m² in TOS 1 to 199 spikes/m² in TOS 2. In the trifluralin treatment, ARG produced 5078 seeds/m² in TOS 2 as compared to 9192 seeds/m² in TOS 1, a 45% reduction in ARG seed production. Unlike wheat in 2018, barley grain yield at Minnipa was not significantly influenced by the time of sowing (P=0.644). However, seed rate (P<0.001), herbicide treatment (P<0.001) and had a significant effect on barley grain yield. As stated earlier, there were large benefits of delayed sowing on weed control. In barley a three week delay did not significantly reduce grain yield as it had in the previous year in wheat. Lower yield penalty in barley from delayed sowing may be related to its earlier maturity than wheat.

A field trial was undertaken at Frances in 2019 to investigate combinations of barley sowing time, seed rate and herbicide treatments to control annual ryegrass. The average seedbank of annual ryegrass (ARG) at the site was quite low (472 ± 143 seeds/m²), which was reflected in low plant density at the site. ARG plant density was significantly influenced by the time of sowing (P=0.037), and herbicide treatment (P=0.009). There was a 37% reduction in ARG plant density between TOS 1 (20 plants/m²) and TOS 2 (13 plants/m²). Herbicide treatment had a significant effect on ARG plant density, with Boxer Gold showing lower efficacy on ARG than Treflan and Boxer Gold + Treflan. Unlike ARG plant density, ARG spike density was not influenced by time of sowing (P=0.171). ARG spike density was significantly influenced by barley seed rate (P=0.016), herbicide treatment (P=0.01) and the interaction between TOS and herbicide treatment (P=0.019). ARG spike density was 34% and 40% lower in medium and high seed rates respectively when compared to the low seed rate. These results suggest an improvement in ARG suppression from increasing barley competiveness with increased seed rate. Barley grain yield at the site averaged 6.6 t/ha. Herbicide treatment had a small (4-6%), but significant effect (P=0.009) on grain yield with Boxer Gold < Treflan ≤ Boxer Gold + Treflan for barley yield.

The herbicide treatment had a significant effect on annual ryegrass (ARG) plant density (P<0.001) in this field trial at Minnipa. Favourable rain events in May were highly suitable for the activity of both pre-emergent herbicides investigated in this trial. Averaged across the row spacing and seed boot treatments, Trifluralin and Boxer Gold reduced ARG plant density by 20% and 90%, respectively. The density of ARG spikes was significantly influenced by the row spacing (P<0.001), seed boot treatment (P=0.027), and the herbicide treatment (P<0.001). The 25cm row spacing had 20% lower ARG spike density than the 37.5cm row spacing treatment. The splitter seed boot treatment had 12% lower ARG spike density than the narrow seed boot treatment. Trifluralin only reduced ARG spike density by 20% compared to the untreated control, whereas Boxer Gold caused a 73% reduction in ARG spike density. ARG seed production was also significantly affected by the row spacing (P=0.003), seed boot (P=0.01), and the herbicide treatment (P<0.001). The normal (25 cm) row spacing set 38% less seed than the wide row spacing. The splitter seed boot treatment also had 32% lower ARG seed set compared to the narrow seed boot. ARG produced 4792 seeds/m² in the untreated control, which was reduced by 11% by Trifluralin and 69% by Boxer Gold. Presence of ARG at 262 plants/m² in the untreated control, reduced barley grain yield by 8% compared to Trifluralin or 16% compared to Boxer Gold. However, it was still profitable to control ARG with effective herbicide treatments. Based on cash grain price of Feed Barley of $250/t in 2019, Trifluralin would be expected to increase the gross margin by $32/ha as compared $71/ha increase for Boxer Gold.

Wheat, barley and canola were tested in 2018, and wheat and barley in 2019, representing a range of quality segregations. Trials were located close to Hyden, Kojonup, Jerramungup, South Stirling, Mt Madden, Munglinup, Gibson and Scadden and Salmon Gums.

The 2018 season was characterised by significant autumn rainfall and below average seasonal rainfall for most sites. The first time of sowing was seeded dry for most cereal and canola trials and the second sowing followed opening rains.

There was little evidence from the eight locations in 2018 to support the idea that the latest varieties differ in their response to increasing N and P inputs in wheat, barley and canola such that it could be exploitable by growers. Some interactions between variety and N and P nutrition were identified but responses were isolated and varied with crop and site. For example, significant interactions were measured for wheat yield at Gibson and protein percent at South Stirling; barley yield at Jerramungup, protein at Hyden, protein at South Stirling and screenings at Kojonup; canolayield at Gibson and oil content at Hyden.

In 2019 the Western Australian wheatbelt experienced a late start to the winter growing season and one of its driest. Data from the Bureau of Meteorology show all sites tested in 2019 experienced a Decile 1 season with well below average seasonal rainfall.

The 8 locations for wheat and barley in 2019 tested N rate and timing and supported the findings of 2018 with very little evidence to support the idea that varieties differed in their response to increasing N inputs. In fact, the opposite was true with the four varieties of wheat and barley tested responding in very similar ways for yield and grain quality.

The lack of consistent variety x fertiliser interactions in these environments suggests growers need only consider a crop and not specific varieties in their agronomic management.

N and P nutrition in 2018 and N nutrition in 2019 data supports current farmer practices of adequate basal nutrient upfront for the season, followed by post-emergent nitrogen as season and yield potential warrant.

Conclusions of this study are limited by the site-specific growing conditions and choice of varieties.

• Deep ripping provided a 260kg/ha yield increase in barley in 2016,
• Deeper ripping and the use of inclusion plates did not improve barley yield at this site,

• Multiple machinery pass trafficking decreased crop yields for at least four years on a Loxton deep sand.
• Single pass machinery trafficking did not result in yield decreases at Loxton and rarely at any of the other trafficking soil types in this project.
• Most soils in the south-eastern Australian Low rainfall zone are not likely to remediate from compaction naturally.

• Yield increases from deep ripping ranged from 220 to 750 kg/ha.
• Deep ripping demonstrations provide a tool to assess possible yield gains across various soil types.
• Replicated trials are needed to validate the yield increases seen at this demonstration site.

Barley grain yield as significantly influenced by the time of sowing (P=0.025), seed rate (P<0.001) and the herbicide treatment (P<0.001). The delay of 4 weeks between the two sowing dates caused 22% (0.69 t/ha) reduction in grain yield or 25 kg/ha/day. Averaged over the two sowing dates and three seed rates, Boxer Gold treatment (2.996 t/ha) produced significantly greater barley grain yield than Treflan (2.634 t/ha) and the control (2.648 t/ha). Barley sown early (TOS 1) at high seed rate and sprayed with Boxer Gold produced 3.6 t/ha grain yield as compared to later sown crop (TOS 2) at low seed rate but treated with the same herbicide which produced 2.4 t/ha.

Barley plant density was significantly influenced by the time of sowing (P=0.025) and crop seed rate (P=0.002).  Averaged across the seed rates and herbicide treatments, the first time of sowing (TOS 1) had barley density of 125 plants/m² compared to 82 plants/m² in TOS 2, which was related to dry soil conditions after sowing in TOS 2. Brome grass plant density was significantly affected by the time of sowing (P=0.018) and the herbicide treatments (P<0.001).  The 4-week delay in sowing between TOS 1 and TOS 2, allowed greater emergence of brome grass seedlings before the sowing of the TOS 2.  Consequently, barley sown at TOS 2 had 48% lower brome grass infestation (107.9 plants/m²) than in TOS 1 (207 plants/m²). As expected, herbicide treatments had a significant (P<0.001) effect on brome grass density. When averaged across the sowing time and seed rates, the treatment of Treflan + Avadex was only moderately effective and reduced brome grass density by 36% (173 plants/m²) relative to the untreated control (271 plants/m²). In contrast, the same pre-emergent treatment (Treflan + Avadex) followed by Intervix reduced brome grass density by 90% (28 plants/m²). When averaged across seed rates and herbicide treatments, the time of sowing barley had a significant effect on its grain yield (P=0.011). TOS 1 produced 940 kg/ha greater barley grain yield than TOS 2. The post-emergence application of Intervix to the crop treated with Treflan + Avadex further increased barley grain yield by 872 kg/ha. These results are consistent with the trends in brome grass density and panicle production. The untreated control plots produced 40% lower grain yield than the Intervix treatment, which completely controlled brome grass. These results highlight the strong competitive ability of brome grass in cereals.

• There is the potential to increase plant dry matter production and grazing using mixtures of plant species.
• Kaspa peas produced the greatest dry matter overall with 1.7 t DM/ha, and an oats/medic mix also did well (1.3 t DM/ha). The short season oats variety, Durack, produced the greatest dry matter for oats with 1.1 t DM/ha. Toreador disc medic (bred for sandy soils) produced the best dry matter (0.75 t DM/ha) amongst the pasture species.
• In a poor season like 2018, dry matter production in pastures could be improved compared to the current district practice of volunteer annual medics.
• Further research needs to be done on regeneration and herbicide tolerance of newer pasture species.

• Statice seedbanks reduced with targeted management options in three years, providing no new seeds are allowed to set.
• Crop competition and crop-topping to prevent seed set can help to control statice.
• Statice can be hard to control, so good farm biosecurity is important to prevent the introduction of statice. This includes controlling statice in non-crops areas, such as laneways and fence-lines.

1. Inversion ploughing of water repellent sands can significantly reduce repellence and increase critical components of grain yield.
2. Deep ripping in the presence of problem background ryegrass can stimulate ryegrass emergence and worsen weed competition with the crop.
3. The strength of the subsoil resource (i.e. clay component) appears important in sustaining the crop production potential and realisation of grain yield improvement.

Subsurface soil compaction has been shown to be a major constraint to crop production and the removal of
this compaction via deep ripping can lead to large yield increases.

• Removing soil compaction increased barley yield by between 710kg/ha and 1,130kg/ha in 2016.
• Very deep ripping (1200mm) gave the greatest yield increases at this site though there are factors that may inhibit the ability to rip this deep on a large scale.

• A literature search was conducted of research into trace elements in crop production systems of south eastern Australia.
• References found in the "grey" literature (primarily printed material not available on-line) was summarised into key points and entered into the On Farm Trials database.
• All of these entries, plus those found from searching the international peer reviewed journal literature were entered into an Endnote database.
• The Endnote database is made available here, along with a text version for use by researchers.
• This activity was funded by the GRDC More Profit from Crop Nutrition program.
• Keywords: zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iron, copper, boron, trace elements, micronutrients.

• Early sown Planet with a plant population of 200 pl/m2 was the highest yielding treatment.
• Increased plant populations were not shown to significantly increase yields.
• Early sowing times showed a significantly higher yield results (p=0.05) however this results could be influenced by frost events.

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.

This research highlights how important a tactical approach to STNB management is in the medium rainfall zone.  In dry seasons there is lower disease pressure, resulting in a potentially expensive fungicide strategy which can be marginal in returns.  Conversely, where there is high disease pressure usually from wet conditions early in the season, then a double spray strategy can improve grain quality, yield and returns to the grower.

Where growing barley on barley, growers should budget for a fungicide spray at Flag-1 every year to protect the top 3 leaves in the canopy.  Where conditions are wet early post emergent (especially if stubble is retained) allowing early disease pressure and high yield potential then a fungicide spray at Z31-Z32 can reduce disease pressure and protect the canopy until the Flag-1 spray is applied.

Under high disease pressure situations (wet conditions early post emergent) removing stubble prior to sowing barley on barley can reduce inoculum levels and the build up of early disease pressure.  This will also help to reduce the selection pressure for fungicide resistance.

Where there is a dry start to the season and a slow build up of disease then stubble management has minimal impact on the buildup of STNB levels.

Burning barley stubble prior to planting barley on barley has shown to increase yield buy between 325 and 400kg in 2017 and 2015. While removing stubble can reduce early disease pressure, not all the yield increase can be accounted for by disease.  Other factors are involved that may require additional work to understand (N mineralization, allelopathic impacts of stubble or improved seed bed).  Where erosion risk is low growers should consider burning to remove barley stubble if planting consecutive barley crops.

We feel that there is no further work required to investigate the hypothesized link between STNB levels and pre-harvest head loss.

Growers, advisors and the wider barley industry are the key beneficiaries of this research.  Being able to manage disease to maintain grain quality, yield and economic returns to the grower is critical for a competitive barley industry.

This research highlights how important a tactical approach to STNB management is in the medium rainfall zone.  In dry seasons there is lower disease pressure, resulting in a potentially expensive fungicide strategy which can be marginal in returns.  Conversely, where there is high disease pressure usually from wet conditions early in the season, then a double spray strategy can improve grain quality, yield and returns to the grower.

Where growing barley on barley, growers should budget for a fungicide spray at Flag-1 every year to protect the top 3 leaves in the canopy.  Where conditions are wet early post emergent (especially if stubble is retained) allowing early disease pressure and high yield potential then a fungicide spray at Z31-Z32 can reduce disease pressure and protect the canopy until the Flag-1 spray is applied.

Under high disease pressure situations (wet conditions early post emergent) removing stubble prior to sowing barley on barley can reduce inoculum levels and the build up of early disease pressure.  This will also help to reduce the selection pressure for fungicide resistance.

Where there is a dry start to the season and a slow build up of disease then stubble management has minimal impact on the buildup of STNB levels.

Burning barley stubble prior to planting barley on barley has shown to increase yield buy between 325 and 400kg in 2017 and 2015. While removing stubble can reduce early disease pressure, not all the yield increase can be accounted for by disease.  Other factors are involved that may require additional work to understand (N mineralization, allelopathic impacts of stubble or improved seed bed).  Where erosion risk is low growers should consider burning to remove barley stubble if planting consecutive barley crops.

We feel that there is no further work required to investigate the hypothesized link between STNB levels and pre-harvest head loss.

Growers, advisors and the wider barley industry are the key beneficiaries of this research.  Being able to manage disease to maintain grain quality, yield and economic returns to the grower is critical for a competitive barley industry.

• Capital value improvement of $61,000 by using the stripper front.
• The cost per rotor hour of the machine increased as the capital cost went up and the number of hours decreased.
• There was a 24% reduction in fuel usage and a 16% reduction in labour costs.
• Harvest was completed on average two to three days faster with a stripper front.

• Eight trial sites were established across South Eastern Australia to investigate whether soil organic carbon levels can be increased in no-till farming systems, inclusive of adding nutrients to aid the biological breakdown of stubble into soil organic matter.
• After three or five years of treatment, no increase in soil organic carbon could be confirmed across four trial sites. However, it is well known that no-till and stubble retention protects the soil from wind and water erosion and over a longer time-frame soil organic carbon levels may increase. But, based on these results it is likely that any potential increase in soil organic carbon will be small.

• Oxford, Fleet, Hindmarsh and Keel were the highest yielding feed barley varieties at Hart averaging 4.57 t/ha.
• Navigator, GrangeR and LaTrobe were the highest yielding malt barley varieties averaging 4.68 t/ha.
• RGT Planet (undergoing malt accreditation) was the highest yielding barley variety at Hart, at 5.85 t/ha.

Neither crop establishment, grain yield nor quality were changed by on-row seeding or by increased seeding rate in 2017, similar to results in 2016.

Crop establishment in the non-wetting soil was poor in 2017.

In 2015, with low moisture at seeding, improved crop establishment from on-row seeding in the non-wetting soil increased crop competition and lowered brome grass weed seed set.

Standing stubble cut low (15-17 cm) resulted in the highest level of stubble being maintained into the following season.

Stubble management and seeding position had little effect on grass weeds.

Snail numbers were higher in standing stubble cut high (30 cm) and stubble removed had the lowest numbers.

Stubbles can be estimated using 1.3-2.8 times the grain yield, but it may underestimate the stubble in an average season following a good year, or after a very poor season.

In many low rainfall farming systems livestock are still a very important part of the farming system and the level of stubble carryover is reduced after grazing.

Stubble management and seeding position have not impacted greatly on crop production, weeds, disease and pests over three years with relatively high stubble loads for low rainfall farming systems.

• In wheat an application rate of 20 kg N/ha in-season was sufficient to achieve the highest yield at Hart in 2017. However, it was the 80 kg/ha treatment which maximised yield and protein to achieve the best return on nitrogen fertiliser invested.
• For barley an application of 40 kg N/ha was adequate to produce the highest yield and quality within the trial.

• Growers should check the grain weight, germination of retained seed and calibrate accordingly to achieve consistent plant establishment from season to season.
• Correct seeder calibration amounted to a 0.3t/ha yield or $60/ha gain.
• If phosphorus (P) soil reserves are low, consider increasing P fertiliser rates to achieve optimal yields.

• ‘Compass type’ varieties with good early vigour, combined with a prostrate growth habit are the best competitors (Compass, Fathom, Scope CL, RGT Planet).
• ‘Hindmarsh type’ and ‘Urambie type’ varieties with very slow early vigour are poor competitors (Hindmarsh, Spartacus CL, Urambie).
• In the presence of grass weeds there was an average of 0.9t/ha yield loss across all barley varieties.
• Three years of data has reinforced that certain varieties can be used as a non-herbicide option for grass weed control.

• Effective management of clethodim-resistant ryegrass can be achieved by using combinations of control tactics, effective herbicide strategies, and more competitive crops.
• Oaten hay remains one of the most effective phases for ryegrass management but effective control of ryegrass regrowth and seed set are of critical importance.

• There were significant increases in dry matter (DM) accumulation, nitrogen (N) uptake and crop canopy greenness where barley was established following cultivation with one pass of the multidisc, which was most evident where additional nitrogen was added at sowing.
• Although there was a trend for cultivated stubble with additional sowing nitrogen to yield more than burning, there were no significant yield differences in the trial.
• Growing a faba bean crop instead of a second wheat crop increased the yield of the following wheat by 0.34–0.47t/ha in 2016 compared with a 2t/ha advantage in the following wheat crop in 2015.
• Adequate nitrogen availability in the third wheat crop, combined with higher yield potential, and poor nodulation in the faba beans, appears to be partly the reason for the smaller yield benefit in 2016.
• Across three years of field trials, none of the different stubble management treatments have been superior to the no-till stubble retention (NTSR) control, despite differences in DM production.

While the idea of early timings for improved tillering and survival of the key primary tillers was not necessarily any worse or better
than standard timings in 2016, when applying this practice into a large farming system the cost of doing two nitrogen applications
does need to be taken into account.

• Earlier times of sowing for barley in the HRZ can have many advantages, but should be carefully weighed up in terms of added costs involved with an earlier time of sowing
• Westminster was once again a standout variety across all sowing dates, performing well in both April sown and May sown conditions
• The use of PGRs can significantly reduce the height of early sown crops, and significantly improve yields across all varieties

• The 2016 trial results looking at cultural control techniques on barley grass largely confirmed the 2015 findings.
• Increasing the seeding rate of barley in the presence of barley grass can provide substantial benefits to both yield and reduced weed seed carry-over. This applies particularly to competitive varieties such as Fathom, but also to less competitive varieties such as Hindmarsh.
• In contrast, doubling the seeding rate of wheat had no beneficial effect on yield or weed carry-over.
• Doubling the district practice seeding rate in barley substantially reduced the competitive effect of barley grass to the stage where crop yields were similar to those check plots where herbicide was appliedD.
• uring the trials, barley has consistently outperformed wheat in its ability to compete with barley grass, particularly when sown at high seeding rates.

• When the maximum rate of nitrogen (N) was applied, La Trobe achieved malt grade and the greatest profitability.
• Fathom was the most N efficient variety, converting the most supplied nitrogen to grain, whereas Compass and Commander were the least responsive.
• The highest rate of N (120kg N/ha) was the most profitable for all varieties in a Decile 10 growing season

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.