Previous research has shown good snail control comes from snails being able to come across baits and feed on them. The more even the bait distribution, the more likely the snails will come across a bait, feed on it and die.

It is becoming more common to apply baits aerially, but there have been no previous studies on the distribution of baits applied from aircraft.

In this study, we found the distribution of baits varied depending on the distance from the flight path of the plane and that bait application swath widths of the plane needed to be 15 metres rather than 30 metres. This trial highlighted that better calibration techniques are needed for aerially applied bait applications.

Canola yields in low and medium rainfall regions of south-western Australia are inherently low and variable.  We have shown that although N fertilisation increases the yield of canola, the yield increases are often relatively low.  Nitrogen also reduces the concentration of oil in the seed of canola and the rate of decrease can be rapid in low rainfall areas. 

The combined effect of N on yield and oil, along with the current payment structure for high oil canola, results in uncertain economic returns from N fertilisation in low to medium rainfall areas. 

We found that 90% of maximum gross margin was achieved at an average nitrogen rate of 17 kg N/ha, and the first 10 kg N/ha gave a return on investment in N greater than $1.50 per $1 in 80% of occurrences (experiments x variety combinations).  The next 20 kg N/ha applied gave a return on investment in N of $1.25 for every $1 spent on N in 80% of occurrences, and further increases were most likely to breakeven. 

We have shown that while farmers should continue to plan to apply N onto canola within the first eight weeks, delaying top-up N until 12 weeks after sowing – when the canola crop is near flowering, is a viable second option which provides some level of risk management for canola growers in low and medium rainfall areas in south-western Australia.

• Time of weed removal at the high rainfall site did not affect canola yield but the canola had a higher biomass when weeds were removed earlier.
• The medium rainfall site had consecutively higher wheat yields with earlier times of weed removal; however these were not significantly different.
• At the low rainfall site plots sprayed for summer weeds had significantly higher oat yields than unsprayed plots. Timely control of summer weeds increased soil moisture and nitrate conservation.

Both invertebrate pests and beneficials are found in association with chaff in paddocks. However, the species composition depends on the location of the paddock. Paddocks located in the Albany port zone are more likely to have higher densities of pests associated with chaff, whereas paddocks located in the Kwinana East port zone had the least pest densities and highest numbers of seed-harvesting ants associated with chaff.

The most abundant beneficials were weed seed harvesting ants which were found in close association with chaff. As these ants predate on weed seeds and live in holes in the ground, it is unlikely they are using chaff as a refuge, it is more probable that they are foraging in the chaff. This trend presents an opportunity to investigate in greater detail whether seed-harvesting ants provide an economic benefit to growers by consuming weed seeds from HWSC systems left to rot-in-situ.

Pitfall trapping was able to capture a higher diversity of invertebrate species than direct sampling of chaff. As pitfall trapping did not rely on samplers locating an invertebrate, it is more likely to be a more accurate representation of species presence and diversity in a paddock. However, this technique does rely on invertebrates moving and falling into a pitfall trap.

Leaving chaff to rot-in-situ does not affect abundances of pests such as desiantha weevil. However, other pests do use chaff as refuges. For instance, pest beetles, Rutherglen bugs, European earwigs were found in association with chaff. It is unlikely these species are feeding on chaff, but rather are using chaff as a refuge. This survey was not able to determine if long term retention of chaff will increase abundances of these pests.

• None of the products tested repelled snails from senesced barley plants in the laboratory experiment.
• No treatment caused significant mortality of conical snails when assessed after 21 days compared to a water treatment.
• The Esperance field trial demonstrated pyroligneous acid having no repellence effect on the snails.
• This reinforces that products should only be used at registered rates, times and methods of application in crops for which they are registered.

• Quality of on-farm lime and distance from coastal limesand sources are important factors in determining economic advantage over coastal limesand
• Cultivation of sources resulted in higher net present values after the 20 year iLime simulation, and improved return on investments at 5 and 10 years compared to when uncultivated
• In 2019 cultivation consistently improved yield and the high rates of local dolerite and limesand improved yield by 0.55t/ha and 0.57t/ha respectively.
• Due to the 2020 season and in season challenges there were no significant differences in yield between sources and cultivation

• In 2017, the crown rot index (incidence x severity) of wheat was influenced by nutrition strategy, with disease index being the greatest at the highest N rate. There was a strong negative correlation between crown rot index and yield under different nutrition strategies.
• In 2017, the crown rot index of barley was only influenced by variety: nutrition had no significant effect.

In this 2014 trial at Kojonup-West:

• Canola grain yield and gross margins were more dependent on nitrogen rates than the application timings.
• There was no effect of delayed nitrogen application on grain yield or gross margins up to 100 kg N/ha.
• At 125 kg N/ha, a significant yield and gross margins reduction was observed when nitrogen was applied as a 3-way split (50 kg within 8 weeks, 50 kg/ha at 12 and 25 kg/ha at 16 weeks after seeding) compared to when all of the nitrogen was applied within 8 weeks of seeding.

• Canola grain yield and gross margins were more dependent on nitrogen rates than the application timings.
• Delaying application of nitrogen after 8 weeks reduced canola yield.  The reduction was greater the higher the proportion of total applied N delayed.  
• Hyola 404RR produced significantly higher grain yield and oil than ATR Wahoo, but similar gross margins.

• Canola responded to N applied as late as 12 weeks after seeding but not as much as to N applied at 4 or 8 weeks.  Hyola 404 RR and CB Telfer responded similarly in terms of yield.
• Nitrogen reduced oil %, and late N reduced it more than early N.  Oil was more sensitive to applied N in CB Telfer than in Hyola 404 RR.
• Grain yield continued to respond to 100 kg N/ha but the highest gross margin was at 75 kg/ha in Hyola 404 RR and at 100 kg/ha in CB Telfer.

In this 2013 trial;

• Canola grain yield responded positively to nitrogen application.
• Canola oil content responded negatively to nitrogen application.
• Therefore a wide number of treatments produced equal highest gross margins.
• The lowest rate of nitrogen treatment to produce maximum returns was 25 kg N/ha applied 4 weeks after sowing.
• We found treatments applied 12 weeks after sowing when the canola was flowering produced. similar results to applications applied at 8 weeks after sowing – which is the industry norm.
• Hyola 404RR produced higher oil but equal yield and gross margins to CB Telfer.

In this 2013 trial

• Time of nitrogen application had a minor effect on grain yield, oil and gross margins

applying 50 kg N/ha in a split application with 25 kg N/ha applied at seeding and 25 kg N/ha applied 12WAS was the equal of any other treatment.

• Both CB Telfer and Hyola 404RR responded similarly to nitrogen rate and timing of application.

Consequently due to lower seed costs, CB Telfer produced on average higher gross margins of $415/ha compared to $307/ha for Hyola 404RR.

• Canola grain yield increased with nitrogen application up to 50 kg N/ha
• Timing of nitrogen application had no effect on grain yield
• Canola oil decreased as nitrogen rate increased
• Applying nitrogen late (12 weeks after sowing) reduced oil%, but only if total N applied was 50 kg/ha
• Overall gross margins were similar at all rates of applied nitrogen or timing of nitrogen application - due to the decline of oil% as nitrogen increased
• Hyola 404RR produced higher yields, oil and gross margins than CB Telfer TT - at all rates and timings of nitrogen application.

• Grain yield responded to applied nitrogen up to 70 kg/ha.
• Oil did not decrease as nitrogen rate increased, unlike what we have observed at other trials – probably a reflection of the continued grain yield response to N.
• Positive gross margin returns were seen at 40-70 kg/ha of applied nitrogen.
• Overall when nitrogen was applied did not alter the response to nitrogen – but avoid putting the majority of N at 12 weeks.

• Pioneer 43Y23 (RR) had higher grain yield, oil yield (kg/ha) and gross margins, than Sturt (TT).
• Grain yield responded to applied nitrogen up to ~ 40 kg N/ha.
• Both varieties responded similarly to applied nitrogen with no variety x N rate interaction for grain yield. 
• Oil yield and gross margins did not respond to applied nitrogen.
• Timing of nitrogen application did not alter the response to nitrogen of both varieties for GY, oil %, oil yield or gross margin.

• With grain yield of less than 1 t/ha, there was only a small grain yield response to applied N and no economic response to applied N.
• Top-up N at 12 weeks gave a similar response to top-up N at 8 weeks.

• With grain yield of less than 400kg/ha, there was no grain yield response to applied N and no economic response to applied N.
• At ‘low rainfall’ N rates of 30 kg/ha top-up N at 12 weeks gave a similar response to top-up N within 8 weeks.

• Pioneer 43Y23 (RR) perform better in terms of higher grain yield, oil yield and gross margins than Sturt TT, with both varieties producing similar oil %.
• Grain yield responded to applied nitrogen up to 30 kg N/ha.
• Maximum oil% was produced with no applied nitrogen.
•  Gross margins also responded to nitrogen application up to ~ 30 kg N/ha after which further increases in nitrogen led to no further financial gain.
• Overall when nitrogen was applied it did not alter the response to nitrogen of both varieties for GY, oil, oil yield and GM. 

•  In a dry year, there was no economic response to applied N.  

• Grain yield responded to applied nitrogen up to 30 kg N/ha.
• Highest oil %, oil yield and gross margins were obtained with no applied nitrogen.
• When nitrogen was applied, did not alter the yield, oil or $/ha response to nitrogen of both varieties.
• Thus 30, 50 or 70 kg N/ha applied either in splits at seeding and 8 weeks or seeding and 12 weeks provided similar responses.

The Cunderdin trial saw Pioneer 43Y23 (RR) perform better in terms of higher grain yield, oil yield and gross margins than Sturt TT, with both varieties producing similar oil %. Grain yield responded to applied nitrogen up to 30 kg N/ha.  As the rate of applied nitrogen increased the % oil in the seed of both canola varieties decreased at a rate of 0.02% oil per kg applied N/ha.  Gross margins also responded to nitrogen application up to ~ 30 kg N/ha after which further increases in nitrogen led to no further financial gain.  Overall when nitrogen was applied it did not alter the response to nitrogen of both varieties for GY, oil, oil yield and GM.   

Cu fertiliser greatly increased yield from 0.6 t/ha to 1.60 t/ha.  

In general oxide source was equal to or superior to the sulfate source in wet mixes. In dry mixes in the same trial Cu oxide was only 66 % as effective as the sulfate.

A recent development in diagnosing Cu problems by a technique of using the youngest fully emerged leaf. Copper concentrations of less than 1.3 ppm (mg/kg) in the yougest fully emerged tissue , suggest that soil Cu deficiency will reduce grain yield .

The tissue testing technique was used on arange of Cu trila in the district to confirm the method (UWA Lonragan, Robson , Snowball)

For the first time it has been possible to distinguish crop damage caused by Cu deficiency from that caused by other factors such as frost, drought and root rots which produce similar symptoms.

Cu fertiliser greatly increased yield from 0.6 t/ha to 1.60 t/ha.  

In general oxide source was equal to or superior to the sulfate source in wet mixes. In dry mixes in the same trial Cu oxide was only 66 % as effective as the sulfate.

A recent development in diagnosing Cu problems by a technique of using the youngest fully emerged leaf. Copper concentrations of less than 1.3 ppm (mg/kg) in the yougest fully emerged tissue , suggest that soil Cu deficiency will reduce grain yield .

The tissue testing technique was used on arange of Cu trila in the district to confirm the method (UWA Lonragan, Robson , Snowball)

For the first time it has been possible to distinguish crop damage caused by Cu deficiency from that caused by other factors such as frost, drought and root rots which produce similar symptoms.

• In 2017 no consistent differences in wheat yield were observed among plots established with different sowing implements.

• The wetting agent /humectant SE14 was applied at seeding to see if crop establishment was improved in a dry sown oat crop near Lake Grace on a soil without non-wetting issues
• Significantly more oat plants germinated at SE14 3L/ha + water 47L/ha compared to the nil
• There was no significant difference in plant establishment between two different water rates used for applying the wetting agent
• It is unknown whether the increased plant establishment resulted in increased yield, as yield was not recorded.

• SclerotiniaCM is an app to aid growers and consultants in making economic fungicide application decisions to manage Sclerotinia in canola.
• The SclerotiniaCM app correctly identified the value of applying a fungicide spray in trials and large-scale demonstrations in commercial crops in the Geraldton port zone while suggesting spraying would not be worthwhile on the south coast.
• Apothecia observations, petal infection, disease progress and yield results from both the Geraldton and Albany port zones confirmed the SclerotiniaCM app offers an easy and useful tool for making decisions on whether or not to apply fungicide for Sclerotinia management.

• Compaction is a subsoil constraint in North Hyden sandy soils.
• The first year of results indicate that deep ripping can be profitable in these soil types in North Hyden.
• The site variation and the design of the demonstration highlighted the response is not guaranteed; more investigation is required to identify why certain parts of the demonstration were more responsive than others to deep ripping and how to map and identify soils responsive to deep ripping.

• Vegetable beetle and slater activity is correlated to high relative humidity, mild temperatures and time of day, and that these conditions overlap with other crop emergence pests such as conical snails.
• Vegetable beetles and slater movement was not correlated with soil moisture content, unlike conical snails.
• There may be a wider window of opportunity to apply chemical controls to target these pests pre-sowing especially in dry sowing situations. Whereas when baiting for snails, efficacy is improved when baits are applied immediately following rain when the soil surface is moist and there is high relative humidity overnight.

• Early sowing is the key to maximising canola yield in the northern region;
• Delaying sowing by 15 days after March 31 led to 195kg/ha less yield – a loss of 13kg/ha/day.
• When sowing in March at Wongan Hills the mid and mid/late maturity varieties performed best.
• When sowing in mid-April early and early/mid maturity varieties performed best.

Match the maturity of a variety with sowing date to maximise biomass accumulation, flowering during the optimum time and maximise grain yield potential: – “If sowing early, sow long, or don’t sow wheat at all”.

• There is an opportunity cost and yield penalty of sowing short-mid season varieties too early (early to late April) in the central and southern production zones, similar to sowing mid-long season varieties too late.
• If sowing mid-April in the northern, eastern and southern wheatbelt without frost risk sow mid-long season varieties. If sowing in late May sow short-mid season wheats.
• If sowing in areas of frost risk in the northern, eastern and southern wheatbelt, don’t sow wheat in April, in early May sow mid-long season varieties in areas of low to moderate frost risk and sow areas of severe frost risk in late May to mid-long varieties.
• Highest yields at all sites have typically been achieved by mid-long maturing varieties sown from late April onwards, and short-mid maturing varieties sown in mid-May. At moderate to severe frost prone sites and with disease pressure, however, delaying sowing of mid-long maturities into mid-May, and the use of winter/long wheats when sowing in early to late April, is essential to minimise frost and disease risk.

• Canola grown in wide rows (50-60cm) yielded well enough to consider this row spacing as an option.
• Canola plants were able to compensate for being sown in wide rows - biomass similar to narrow rows.
• We may be able to reduce input costs, seed and fertiliser by refining the production package in wide rows.
• Wide rows offer benefits of reduced fuel costs at seeding, easy stubble handling and safety of IBS herbicides.

• Canola grown in wide rows (50-60cm) yielded well enough to consider this row spacing as an option.
• Canola plants were able to compensate for being sown in wide rows - biomass similar to narrow rows.
• We may be able to reduce input costs, seed and fertiliser by refining the production package in wide rows.
• Wide rows offer benefits of reduced fuel costs at seeding, easy stubble handling and safety of IBS herbicides.

• Canola grown in wide rows (50-60cm) yielded well enough to consider this row spacing as an option.
• Canola plants were able to compensate for being sown in wide rows - biomass similar to narrow rows.
• We may be able to reduce input costs, seed and fertiliser by refining the production package in wide rows.
• Wide rows offer benefits of reduced fuel costs at seeding, easy stubble handling and safety of IBS herbicides.

• Amira albus lupin is a good break crop option for high and medium rainfall areas of the northern region
• Albus lupin grown in 44 cm rows yielded 81% of 22 cm rows.
• Maintaining a high seed rate maximised yield at both 22 and 44 cm row spacing’s.
• In dry conditions fungal disease were not evident, therefore we could not assess the impact of row spacing and density on foliar diseases.

Windrow burning can reduce small pointed snail populations by over 90%. If there are weeds or fallen stubble that are not burnt then snails can still be present in the paddock.

Windrow burning can reduce small pointed snail populations by over 90%. If there are weeds or fallen stubble that are not burnt then snails can still be present in the paddock.