• Results must be interpreted with caution due to metribuzin damage in this trial. Damage scores
  showed varieties performed in line with our current understanding of relative tolerance, and may complicate the interpretation of Nipper (the most sensitive variety to metribuzin) to the imposed treatments.

• Early sowing, concurrent with previous research, was significantly higher yielding in 2011.
• Varietal differences in this trial were minimal. Yield loss from disease, primarily black spot, was significant and economically viable control measures are important to develop.

• Lentils grew well on acidic red brown soils of southern NSW
• PBA Ace (CIPAL0803) and CIPAL0901 were the highest yielding varieties.
• Sowing from 10 May to 7 June had no significant affect on yield in 2011 growing season.
• These yields (> 2 t/ha) support a viable and profitable lentil industry in southern NSW
• Lentils are more sensitive to commonly used herbicides and considerable care must be taken.

• CIPAL0803 and CIPAL0901 out yielded all commercial varieties.
  The favourable 2012 growing season conditions facilitated high yields at both sowing times.
• Established human consumption markets and yields over two tonnes per hectare suggest that lentil production could be profitable in southern NSW cropping zone
• This trial should be repeated in future seasons in order to compare and validate the 2011 findings across variable growing seasons.
• Lentils are more sensitive to commonly used herbicides and considerable care must be taken.

• CIPAL0803 and CIPAL0901 were the highest yielding varieties and show great potential for
  future lentil production in this region.
• Delayed sowing reduced yields in 2011 at Yenda in most varieties with significant effects in the
  longer seasoned Boomer, and breeding lines CIPAL0803 and CIPAL0901.
• Established human consumption markets and yields over two tonnes per hectare suggest that
  lentil production could be profitable in southern NSW cropping zone
• This trial should be repeated in future seasons in order to compare and validate the 2011
  findings across variable growing seasons.

• PBA Ace and CIPAL0901 were the highest yielding varieties and show great potential for future lentil production in this region.
  Delayed sowing reduced yields in 2012 at Yenda by an average of 40%
• Established human consumption markets and yields over two tonnes per hectare suggest that lentil production could be profitable in southern NSW cropping zone
• This trial should be repeated in future seasons in order to compare and validate the 2011 and 2012 findings across variable growing seasons.

• PBA Pearl continued to show its broad adaption, producing profitable yields at both sowing dates. Earlier sowing was not beneficial for field peas at Pimpinio in 2014, with all varieties showing a yield decline.

• Genotypes compared in this trial responded differently to sowing dates.
• Early sowing was optimal for all genotypes, particularly for AF05073, which was the highest yield genotype when sown early

Soil acidity affects up to 5.5 million hectares (50%) of Victoria’s agricultural land and soil acidification looms as a major soil
degradation issue (NHT 2001). Soil acidification can be seen is a cost of productive agricultural systems - whether from
product removal, increased potential for nitrate leaching, the build-up of soil organic acids, or from the increased use of
nitrogen fertilizers.
Soil acidity and acidification are mostly ameliorated by applying agricultural lime. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2018)
survey data show the average rate of application of lime is only about 1.5 t/ha, which is considerably less than the general
minimum recommendations of 2.5-7.5 t/ha (Agriculture Victoria 2019). Moreover, few Victorian farmers, about 1,000 (5%),
use variable rate application. Variable rate application is used to apply a wide range of agricultural chemicals, lime being
only one of many, so that the application rate is adjusted to match changing local requirements within the paddock. No
statistics are available on the application of variable rate technology for managing soil acidity, however service providers
supporting variable rate liming are increasingly active.
Agriculture Victoria Research (AVR) studied 10 case-study paddocks in the HRZ of Victoria to demonstrate the net
economic benefits of using intensive point sampling of surface soil pH and the precision application of lime in cropping
systems.
The initial pHCa distribution within each paddock was obtained by sampling at the rate of 100 soil cores per paddock
followed by spatial interpolation to a resolution of 10 square metres.
Discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis was used to generate profit-maximising lime 'prescriptions’ for each homogenous pH
zone (HZ) within the 10 case-study cropping paddocks, and to quantify the net benefits of the precision liming strategy.
These benefits were compared to alternative liming strategies, including traditional approaches and uniform application.
The analysis followed the best-practice method described by Mullen (2001). It involved optimization and simulation; and it
accommodated the dynamic nature of the acidity nature of the soil, in that production in the current year is affected by
current pH and in turn has an impact on pH in the next year.
It was shown that reaping the benefits of the precision liming strategy is difficult, because benefits depend on the
decisions made by farmers and their advisors requiring a high level of data collection and management, interpretation, and
judgement.
When acid tolerant crops are grown, the net benefits of liming can generally be maximised using low-cost traditional
practices. However, if the decision-maker wants the option of planting high-value, acid-sensitive crops then it would pay to
pursue a profit-maximising strategy involving intensive point sampling, pH mapping and variable rate application.
The DCF model described in this report demonstrates the nature of the data, analysis and interpretation involved in the
decision-making process. The model has been prototyped in MS Excel® and uses Evolver, an optimization add-in that is
part of Palisade’s DecisionTools Suite. The DCF model is available from the primary author on request and can be used
with attribution.

• The results here and in Tasmania indicate that the later mauturing lines are the only suitable varieties for spring sowing.
• The early maturing lines just did not put on any height before they reached maturity and hence were impossible to harvest.
• Results to date are not positive for most varieties, although the lines that yielded over a tonne to the hectare should give fairly profitable gross margin.

The project on the strategic use of tillage within no-till systems continued at the 4 sites in 2015: Harden, Daysdale (near Corowa), Thuddungra (near Young) and Berthong (near Cootamundra). Soil physical and chemical properties continued to be monitored throughout 2015. Establishment counts, dry matter and grain yields were also measured. The final harvest for the sites occurred in December 2015, except at the Daysdale site where we grew a vetch brown manure crop that was cut for dry matter in October. The final soil sampling at all sites will take place in autumn 2016. 

• Think of a fallow as a risk reducing investment for your property.
• Soil testing after chemical fallow is essential to determine the starting point of available nutrients in the soil.
• Good agronomic practices that maximise plant health and growth will allow crops to use water more effectively, improving yield potential.
• Weed free fallows mean increased moisture conservation leading to potentially higher yielding crops for the following year and more profitable rotations.
• The use of a residual herbicide to help suppress weeds over summer will be beneficial.
• If this trial was to be repeated, results will vary given different seasons and different soil types

Increased rates of N resulted in increased biomass, but the relationship between stubble N content and applied N was poor.

Higher applied  N resulted in higher Harvest Index

Harvest Index ranged from 0.45 to 0.47. 

Stubble direction and height (plus or minus stubble) had no effect on crop establishment or grain yield for Blitz and Ace lentils

• Treatment 1, Nil grazed, moderate stubble yielded the highest, (2.18 t/ha).
• No significant difference in Total Plant Available Water, majority of stored water was below the 50 cm depth.
• There was a significant difference between the eight treatments when comparing available soil nitrogen.
• There was a significant difference in grain quality attributes between the eight stubble treatments.

Adding 70 kgN/ha prior to stubble incorporation addressed in crop N tie-up.

• Grazing stubbles with sheep speeds up N cycling and reduces N tie-up by the stubble.  When yield is N limited, tyhis increases grain yield and quality.
• Burning stubble decreased the amount of water stored over the summer fallow and the crops used by 8 to 21 mm, but this did not always decrease yield due to frost damage, N limitation or adequate subsequent recharge.
• Over the six year experiment grazing and then retaining (not burning) stubble has been the most profitable treatment.

• In 2017, don’t let stubble compromise the big things (weeds, disease, timeliness)
• If the intent is to retain stubble:
◊ Pro-actively manage the stubble for your seeding system
◊ Diversify (add legumes to rotation), deep band N and manage invertebrates. Mice could also be a major problem
◊ For tined seeders, reduce stubble load by mulching, incorporation + nutrients, baling, grazing and consider sowing at 15-19 degree angle to previous sown row
• If stubbles are too thick to sow through, consider strategic late burn, especially before 2nd wheat crop or if sowing canola into large stubbles
• Early monitoring is essential to see how effective actions are to allow for re-planning

• When dealing with annual ryegrass populations, it is a numbers game; the more you can control the better.
• Higher water rates in retained stubble resulted in increased efficacy of pre-emergent herbicides.
• Initial findings suggest that using speedtillers to retain stubble in the system does not result in any negative effects

• When dealing with annualryegrass populations, it is a numbers game; the more you can control the better.
• Higher water rates in retained stubble resulted in increased efficacy.
• In 2014, although canola establishment was lower in plots where stubble was retained; there was no significant yield difference at harvest.

• Reducing stubble loads can reduce the severity and duration of frost events under certain conditions. However, under the situation of multiple and severe frost events the influence of stubble is less defined and stubble reduction does not reduce risk.
• In the Mallee, most stubble management practices carried out prior to seeding to increase stubble incorporation or breakdown (cultivation, slashing) did not reduce stubble loads enough to reduce frost severity and duration.
• In the Wimmera, reducing stubble loads did not consistently reduce frost severity or duration possibly due to a combined effect of greater canopy closure with higher yield potential (2014) and higher stubble break down with low stubble levels (2015).
• Stubble management in frost prone areas is not about complete removal of stubble, but reducing it to a level that minimises your risk.

• Different methods of stubble handling had little impact on yield.
• Early soil testing allowed good decision making for crop nutrition and budgeting.
• Soil biota were more active in the in-row root zone, as opposed to the mid row zone.

• In 2017, don’t let stubble compromise the big things (weeds, disease, timeliness).
• If the intent is to retain stubble:
• Pro-actively manage the stubble for your seeding systemDiversify (add legumes to rotation), deep band N and manage invertebrates. Mice could also be a major problem.
• For tined seeders, reduce stubble load by mulching, incorporation + nutrients, baling, grazing and consider sowing at 15-19 degree angle to previous sown row.
• If stubbles are too thick to sow through, consider strategic late burn, especially before second wheat crop or if sowing canola into large stubbles.
• Early monitoring is essential to see how effective actions are to allow for re-planning.

No real conclusions can be drawn from 2005 data, although the use of scratch tillage at the Inverleigh and Mingay sites showed some promise, but did come at a financial cost if implemented on raised-beds. 

• For different 2013 treatments, the amount of stubble ranged from 2.4 to 4.0 t DM/ha at harvest and from 1.6 to 3.0 t DM/ha at the subsequent sowing. The only statistically significant effect of 2013 treatments on 2014 pre sowing stubble was a difference between wheat and vetch stubble, 2.7 t DM/ha and 2.0 t DM/ha, respectively, reflecting faster breakdown of vetch than wheat stubble.
• Despite significant differences in the amount and types of stubble generated in 2013, and remaining at sowing in 2014, there was no statistically significant effect of 2013 treatments on 2014 soil moisture at sowing or 2014 crop yields.
• There were significant differences between crop types in 2014. Significantly more wheat plants established than canola (49 and 15 plants/m2 respectively) and wheat had a significantly higher grain yield than canola (1.2 and 0.3 t/ha respectively). Both wheat and canola were affected by the dry spring and associated frosts, plus canola had poor establishment.
• Research conducted previously at Walpeup in the 1980s found that maintaining 2 t/ha stubble increased the amount of water stored in the soil at sowing, at depth 0–140 cm, by 16 mm in 1 year of 3. This increase in soil water availability was not reflected in increased crop yield.
• The recent experiment at Ouyen, together with the previous research at Walpeup, indicate that Mallee crop yields are unlikely to be increased by retaining higher levels of stubble, although there can be benefits of reduced soil erosion.

High stubble loads appear to increase frost damage by reducing the amount of heat radiated from the soil at night, leading to lower canopy temperatures and greater frost severity, duration and damage.

Preliminary results have shown that the removal of stubble can reduce frost severity and duration. However, this does not advocate the complete removal of all stubble on farming properties. The removal of stubble may be beneficial in low lying frost prone areas of paddocks.

• Since soil moisture was not limiting, and a soft finish to the season was observed, sowing date trials at Minnipa in 2010 showed no differences in yield between stubble treatments under these conditions.
• This trial will be repeated in the same environment to validate across seasons.

• In 2007, herbicides applied to burnt stubble were more effective than those applied to slashed stubble. In 2008, there was no effect of stubble management on efficacy or crop safety.
• All herbicide treatments gave adequate control ofryegrassin both years, but TriflurX® 1.5L/ha + Avadex Xtra® 1.6L/ha gave the best control in both 2007 and 2008.
• Improved control of ryegrass did not increase yield, and the most profitable treatments were the lower rates of trifluralin.
• Standing stubble substantially increased grain yield relative to slashed stubble (0.41 and 0.47t/ha in 2007 and 2008 respectively).

• Rainfall over the summer fallow period will cause nutrient leaching from stubbles.
• Stubble crop type determines initial value of stubble and what may be leached due to rainfall.
• It is important to consider other loss pathways such as microbial breakdown and volatilisation as well as leaching when calculating stubble nutrient value following the summer fallow period.

• In wet years, barley sown into cereal stubble can suffer badly from yellow leaf spot.
• In dry years, this is not a problem.
• However, the barley still performed better where the wheat stubble has been burnt.

• Cereal stubble should be burnt when sowing wheat, barley or canola.
• The smaller the cereal and canola seedlings do not thrive when grown in stubble.
• Larger seeded crops such as chickpeas and lupins performed best in stubble retained situations.

Temperature results from both sites have demonstrated that stubble loads above 2t/ha increased the severity and duration of some frost events. Analysis of results on yield and frost damage is ongoing and will be presented.

Temperature results from both sites have demonstrated that stubble loads above 2t/ha increased the severity and duration of some frost events. Analysis of results on yield and frost damage is ongoing and will be presented.

• In 2016, a Decile 10 season, stubble load had no effect on soil mineral nitrogen or soil water.
• The presence of stubble resulted in higher soil mineral nitrogen over the summer fallow period.
• Wheat yields were higher following peas or fallow than they were after wheat or canola in 2016.

• The combination of stubble burning and post-emergent use of a Group A herbicide has effectively controlled ryegrass in plots continuously cropped for 21 years at Condobolin.
• This combination worked well in both cultivated and direct drilled systems.

• The best yield response by wheat was to zinc. 
• Zinc induced early maturity and produced better root systems than without zinc.
• The increase in yield was mainly related to superior root development which in turn had some effect on the severity of eelworm and root rot.

• PPS believes that the results in the Jallukar trial show that the technique of sub soil amelioration has potential to produce large increases in productivity in certain soils in the Upper Wimmera region.  
• The drier than average springs allowed for only one dry matter cut each year; more favourable seasons may have altered the results. 
• For further discussion please see the attached trial report.

1. Summer cover crops can be very profitable; improving ground cover and increasing fallow water storage in long fallows to improve grain yields and boost returns in northern farming systems.
2. A later spray-out produced additional levels of a cover that is more resilient and stored more water in the longer fallow. Delaying spray-out too long reduced fallow water storage considerably.
3. Using a summer cover crop saved two fallow herbicide sprays and dramatically improved establishment of the subsequent wheat crop.
4. Yields and returns were increased by the cover crops, and yields were well in excess of those expected from the increased soil water storage alone.

• Wheat yield increased from 2.6 t/ha in controls to 3.2 t/ha in plots receiving the equivalent of summer rainfall decile 5 (50mm) or decile 9 (100mm) in a single event in February.
• Stubble treatments (bare ground control, standing 2 t stubble/ha, flat 2 t stubble/ha, flat 5 t stubble/ha) did not affect the dynamics of soil water nor grain yield.

• The presence of stubble did not increase stored soil moisture, regardless of the size and number of irrigation events.
• In 2010 additional soil moisture at sowing did not generally increase final grain yield.
• Additional soil moisture can increase crop demand and response to nitrogen.

• There were responses to Super Phos but these were difficult to assess due to uneven pasture growth, the presence of blue lupins and a high stubble load from 2009.
• Pasture cuts on 17 June measured a 0.6 t/ha dry matter response to 200 kg/ha Super Phos.
• There were no responses to Muriate of Potash (MoP) or lime. Late season responses were variable.

• Trials are underway investigating the effects of rotational grazing versus set stocking of stubble residues on surface cover and soil characteristics in arable paddocks.
• Early rain in 2014 disrupted the trial’s implementation but initial results on a stubble / self-sown pasture grazed in June indicated no difference between set stocking and rotational grazing on surface cover.

During 2006 and 2007, a field trial designed to quantify the effect of two different surface drainage strategies of pasture (hump & hollow and raised beds) on farm productivity, profitability and sustainability was conducted on a commercial farm near Derrinallum. Under the rainfall conditions experienced for the two years of the trial, it is concluded that the use of raised beds for the growing of pastures for grazing has little to offer the sheep industry. On the basis of the data obtained in this trial, it is recommended that the hump & hollow system is the preferred method of surface drainage for sheep grazing systems in this environment and should be promoted in the region. Major findings included:

• In both years, total annual pasture dry matter (DM) yields from the raised bed treatment were substantially less than for the undrained and the hump & hollow treatments.
• In the drought year of 2006 the raised bed treatment grew 37% (2.8 t DM/ha) less while the hump & hollow treatment grew only 7% (0.6 t DM/ha) less than the undrained (total of 7.6 t DM/ha).
• In the higher rainfall 2007 year the raised bed treatment produced 15% (1.6 t DM/ha) less pasture than the undrained. In contrast, the hump & hollow grew 10% (1.1 t DM/ha) more than the undrained (total of 10.7 t DM/ha) in 2007.
• The reasons for the lower than expected pasture yields on the raised beds are speculated to be a combination of low yields in the furrows, poorer plant establishment and density on the beds, and a reduction in the water holding capacity of the soil relative to the other treatments.
• Soil physical health was however considerably better on the raised beds than the other treatments. Aeration porosities at field capacity in November 2007 were a very healthy 16.3% in the raised beds, a moderate 11.8% for the hump & hollow and a poor 7.0% for the undrained.
• No significant differences in ewe or lamb weights at weaning were found between treatments in either year. This was most likely due to the set stocked sheep having pasture on offer in excess of requirements for most of the spring. In 2006 however, the raised beds were stocked at around 1 ewe/ha less due to the lower pasture growth rates.
• From a catchment and general environmental health perspective, the water run‐off results raise some concerns about the environmental impact of growing and grazing pastures on raised beds.
• The raised beds proved to be very effective in removing excess water from the pasture. Over 2007, the raised bed treatment (47.1 mm) had 170% more runoff water than the undrained (17.4 mm) while the hump & hollow (26.7 mm) had 53% more runoff.
• Both drainage treatments had considerably higher concentrations of, and total loads of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) in runoff water. Of particular concern were the losses of 0.5 and 0.4 kg P/ha for the raised bed and hump & hollow treatments respectively compared to 0.1 kg P/ha for the undrained in 2007. For N, corresponding losses were 6.3, 2.1 and 0.9 kg N/ha for the raised beds, hump & hollow and undrained respectively.
• It is recommended that if raised beds are to be used for grazed pastures, then the best practice recommendations developed for raised bed cropping also be applied to pasture.

• From 2007 to 2009 field pea crops in the Hart district were sown in an even spread from early May through to June.
• The majority of crops were within 500 m of field pea stubble from the previous year.
• Blackspot was most severe in early sown crops adjacent to field pea stubble.
• There was a significant relationship between predictions of disease risk made by Blackspot Manager and the disease severity observed in these crops.

In 2001 the Rankins Springs CWFS plan to sow lupins across all treatments with the exception of organic treatment, which is considering vetch. The original plan was for barley in 2001, but at the last meeting a motion was passed for lupins to be sown this year to aid soil nitrogen levels.

The Sustainable Land Management Demonstration Sites in the Mallee have been established to demonstrate improved farming practices through a better understanding of crop management and water use to reduce groundwater recharge and soil erosion.

The results to date from the systems trial are broadly summarized in the attached tral report.

• Applying a monolayer of ethylene glycol monooctadecyl ether polymer reduced evaporation by 50%–60% under small scale, controlled environmental conditions.
• Under field situations its efficacy is significantly reduced and produces inconsistent results with evaporation savings of less than 10%.
• Windy conditions and/or a decrease in the polymer’s longevity on the water surface under field situations probably cause this reduced effectiveness.
   

In this experiment foliar application of tebuconazole at label rates to a wheat crop (cv. Yitpi) at GS38-49 resulted in a significant yield loss (0.43t/ha or a 43 percent decrease relative to the control)

• Substantially better brome control and seed set reduction is possible by using pre-emergence options other than trifluralin.
• The costly Sakura+Avadex treatment is likely to be the most effective.
• Consistency of performance of all pre-emergence herbicides for brome remains a problem
• On-row seeding on non-wetting sand showed that it can substantially improve early crop emergence.
• One reason for this is the likely wetter surface soil in rows at time of seeding.
• Seasonal conditions such as the long-wet season of 2016 will affect efficacy of both pre-emergence herbicides and the impact of additional crop competition on brome seed set suppression.
• Maintaining low seedbanks and having alternative options for weed seed control when faced with a risk of ‘blowouts’ in brome seed set is important given the chance of particularly poor control in some seasons.

• Substantially better brome control and seed set reduction is possible with pre-emergence options other than trifluralin.
• The costly Sakura+Avadex treatment is likely to be the most effective.
• Consistency of performance of all pre-emergence herbicides for brome remains a problem
• On-row seeding on non-wetting sand can substantially improve early crop emergence in part due to increased surface soil water accumulation in rows at time of seeding.
• Seasonal conditions such as the long wet season of 2016 will affect efficacy of both pre-emergence herbicides and the impact of additional crop competition on brome seed set suppression.
• Maintaining low seedbanks and having alternative options for weed seed control when faced with a risk of ‘blowouts’ in brome seed set is important given the chance of particularly poor control in some seasons.

(i) In many cases, retained hybrid sowing seed resulted in more blackleg and lower grain yields than when commercial hybrid sowing seed was used. (ii) Oil content was lower in crops grown from retained sowing seed. (iii) Benefits of commercial hybrid sowing seed outweighed the cost of buying that seed.

For a presentation of the story so far, please see the attached trial report.

• From the 10% challenge came a feast of ideas, usually with one or two key focus points considered valuable to the farming operation, with farmers agreeing with or discussing other ideas as they were shared within the groups.
• The information arising from these sessions has been presented at farmer meetings for local groups to discuss in relation to their own farming systems. Further development and extension of this work and ‘rules of thumb’ will be investigated with the discussion
• groups and delivered at local farmer meetings.

There are substantial benefits from GM herbicide tolerant canola when compared with alternative non-GM weed control systems. These include more effective weed control, reduced pesticide use, reducted use of cultivation, improved yields, reduced risk of herbicide resistance and a reduction in the environmental 'footprint'.

Agricultural activities such as cultivation, livestock farming, stubble burning and decomposition of crop residues cause greenhouse gases to be released into the atmosphere.

• All two year break options increased yield by 0.5–1.0 t/ha compared to continuous wheat.
• Single year breaks improved wheat yields in 2012 and also appeared to increase them slightly in 2013.
• Grassy weeds had a major impact on wheat yields.
• Only 2 year breaks reduced grassy weed seed banks substantially compared to the continuouswheat control.

There is enormous opportunity for the farming sector in general to benefit through the introduction of new crop types. Potentially crops that may have previously been bred for the food industry might now have an opportunity to be reutilised through the significant segregated storage and handling system that we see across most of the east coast of Australia. The ongoing reliance on fossil fuels is not healthy. With the world oil stocks depleting at an ever increasing rate we need to be proactively looking at all sorts of alternative renewable fuel sources.

Soil organic matter consists of a labile (non-permanent) and stable (humus) fraction. No-till increases the labile fraction of soil organic matter, but not the stable fraction. Additional nutrients will be required to ‘fix’ the labile fraction to humus.

• The disc machine had much less variation in seed placement than the tyne.
• The depth of incorporation with the single disc seeder increased slightly with speed, although speed of sowing did not significantly improve weed control.
• Crop growth was not affected by the speed of sowing with discs as hypothesized but there was a significant difference between the tyne and disc seeded treatments. The limited vigour of the wheat seedling sown by the disc seeder is probably the reason for generally lower yields than tyne sown plots. It is not clear whether reduced vigour was due to weed competition or herbicide toxicity as these factors weren’t tested separately in this trial. 
• For further detials, see attached trial report.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Cereal stubble should be thought of as a source of C for microbes, not as a source of N for crops. In the Mallee under no-till systems, only 1-2% of the N requirement of wheat crops is derived from the previous wheat stubble.
• N tie-up in cropping soils is only a temporary constraint as the immobilised N will be released through microbial turnover, generally later in the crop season in spring.
• N tie-up by cereal residue is not just a problem following incorporation – it also occurs in surface-retained and standing-stubble systems.
• Management of tie-up is reasonably straightforward – supply more N (5 kg N for each t/ha of cereal residue) and supply it early to avoid impacts of N tie-up on crop yield and protein.
• Deep-banding N can improve the N uptake, yield and protein of crops, especially in stubble-retained systems.

• Each stubble incorporation prior to sowing lead to better weed control in the crop as we were able to create an early germination of ryegrass. 
• There was considerable difference in soil moisture and its distribution through the profile at establishement.
• Straw length at harvest was the biggest drawback in incorporating and establishment.
• Previous trial cropping areas, on other parts of the padock, still showed up the biggest difference in the crop's establishment.

For results and discussion please see the attached trial report.

The practical implications of harvest weed seed control are a more resilient farming system with some insurance against further resistance evolution. The combination of effective herbicide use, plus harvest weed seed control techniques has been shown to reduce and maintain weed populations at very low densities. In cropping systems, low weed densities, regardless of their herbicide resistance status, allows flexibility in crop choice, seeding time and herbicide use. This flexibility provides growers with the capacity to readily adjust farming practices in tune with seasonal and market considerations.

• Lupin yield loss caused by delaying sowing by 3 or 4 days is similar to the yield loss caused by one radish plant per square metre growing within the crop.
• As more populations of wild radish develop resistance to common herbicides it becomes critical to obtain effective weed control before and at seeding.

1. Most farming systems extract more nutrients than are supplied by common fertilisation strategies.
2. Increasing the frequency of legumes doesn’t necessarily reduce nitrogen inputs required across the crop sequence and increases export of potassium.
3. Higher fertiliser application has maintained higher soil mineral nitrogen levels but rarely increased grain yield or total system nitrogen use.

The results suggest using nitrogen and/or increasing sowing rates will increase drymatter available for grazing at late tillering but if grazed these treatments will have a positive impact on grain yield.

• The 2009 production has provided the opportunity for grazing over the 2009/10 summer to commence comparative grazing treatments.
• Over the next few seasons appropriate analysis will be carried out to measure any changes to soil or crop performance in the farming systems, followed by financial assessment to evaluate the merits of each system.

• It appears that once disease suppression is achieved in low rainfall farming systems of upper EP and inoculum levels are low, it is quite robust and will be maintained despite systems with substantially different amounts of mineral N.
• Fallow, Medic/Fallow and Peas all lowered rhizoctonia inoculum levels in 2010, and Fallow and Peas lowered levels in 2009.
• Continuous cereals produced the highest inoculum levels but all levels were low at this site.
• Even high mineral N (118 kg N/ha) in the top 60 cm (measured in April after spraytopped medic) did not increase Rhizoctonia patches in 2010.
• Trichoderma fungus and the beneficial PEM microbes are present in the MAC N12 system.

• Soil mineral nitrogen (N) values were low across all sites, which was indicative of the wet seasonal conditions and high nitrogen losses.
• There were no significant differences in mineral nitrogen values between the stubble treatments due to high variability (likely due to transient waterlogging across the sites).
• The project has been extended to enable the research to be repeated during 2017.

• While significant differences in mineral nitrogen (N) values were measured between stubble treatments, these differences were small and unlikely to elicit a plant growth response.
• No consistent trends were observed between trial sites.
• Delayed plant growth and development under no-till stubble retained (NTSR) systems in the Riverine Plains region is unlikely to be due to decreased mineral nitrogen availability as a result of immobilisation.

Grazing of the cereals up to growth stage 31 had no significant impact on grain yield but it did reduce the amount of stubble remaining post harvest.

When canola was sown into wheat stubble in an east-west direction, long stubble (42cm) significantly reduced photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and reduced true leaf number up to mid-winter.

Although there were trends suggesting a reduction in dry matter (DM) production at the yellow bud stage (GS3.7) as a result of increasing stubble height, the differences were not statistically significant.

The average canola yield of the trial was 1.58t/ha with no significant differences in either yield or oil content due to stubble height of the previous wheat crop.

The results mirror a trial conducted at Dookie, where yields in long stubble were 3.70t/ha and 3.75t/ha in short stubble. At this site there were significant reductions in DM production early in the season in the long stubble treatment.

Variable results were achieved in 2006 when matching fertiliser inputs to productivity zones. Results ranged from an increase in paddock returns of $2700 to a loss of $4500 compared to a blanket application of fertiliser.

After 8 trials over 4 years it remains unclear if the adoption VRT and applying fertiliser according to the performance of each productivity zone is likely to generate significant profits when compared to blanket applications of fertiliser in the Corrigin district. The information gathered in the process does however allow farmers to better understand their paddocks and their crops fertiliser requirements to assist in making profitable fertiliser decisions.

Where soils have a high nutrition status (N, P, K, S) and low reactive iron there is scope for farmers to significantly reduce fertiliser inputs in the short term and still achieve profitable grain yields.

• While machinery ownership and management has its complexities, being aware of some of the aspects that directly impact upon its economic efficiency is a step in the right direction. Consideration of work rate efficiency and timeliness versus over-capitalisation and ultimate returns achieved by the system is very important.
• The Farming Systems Project has identified that the cost profile of the different farming systems from most to least costly is, Fuel Burner, Hungry Sheep, Reduced Till and Zero Till.

Executive summary

Recently interest in the role of renovation cropping in the farming systems of the Western Australian wheatbelt has increased.  It has been proposed as a means of addressing the apparent decline in soil quality in some intensively cropped areas and the increased incidence of herbicide resistance. 

Renovation cropping involves either turning a crop into the soil at flowering or cutting the crop and leaving it on the soil surface.   This is done to maximise the amount of organic matter added to the soil and to control weeds most effectively.  In the Western Australian wheatbelt the focus has been on using pulses, although a range of crops can be used.  The pulse phase of a rotation is favoured as pulses improve the nitrogen status of the soil. In addition the returns to pulses are lower relative to cereals and canola, so the forgone profit in the year of renovation cropping is lowest.

Renovation cropping leads to changes in soil conditions that persist for at least the following season.  It reduces weed numbers in the following crop by reducing seed set, increases the availability of nutrients and may improve soil structure.  Lower weed numbers reduce the carry-over of root diseases thus providing a disease break for the following cereal crop.  Recent trials have shown likely yield increases of 20-30% above those after a pulse crop and increased grain protein levels in the following cereal.

The main cost of green manuring is the income lost by sacrificing grain production.  The loss in income plus any additional costs associated with soil renovation need to be recouped in the following season(s).  Therefore the income from the yield increase(s) in the subsequent year(s) needs to be equal to or greater than the total costs of renovation, including the income forgone.

Despite the increase in interest in renovation cropping, no comprehensive economic analysis has been undertaken to determine its role in Western Australian farming systems.  This study investigates circumstances under which renovation cropping is likely to be profitable and estimates the needed increase in farm profit, given the variability of yields that result from seasonal influences.

To investigate the consequence of risky yields historical rainfall data was used to generate yield distributions for different rainfall zones, soil types and crops.  The yield distributions were used as input to a simulation model to determine the distribution of income, resulting from renovation cropping, in a lupin:wheat:wheat rotation.  The mean yield boost resulting from renovation cropping was estimated to be 3% based on trial results (F. Hoyle, pers. comm.). 

The results of the analysis showed that there is a 30-40% chance of increasing profit if yield is increased by 30% on average.  However, the results were very sensitive to the average increase in yield.  The probability that profit will be increased was halved when yield boost was reduced to 20%. 

The yield increase required to make renovation cropping profitable can vary between 100% under the worst case and below 10% under the best case.  The variability depends on grain prices, grain yield in the renovation phase (if a commercial crop had been was harvested), and the cost of renovation and grain yields in the following crop phase.

The likelihood that profit will be increased depends largely on minimising income forgone relative to the increase in income in the following years.  Therefore green manuring will be most profitable when done in years when the grain yield of the pulse crop is low, and/or when the following cereal yield is very high. 

Weather forecasts are not yet sufficiently developed to predict potentially good years over 12 months ahead, so renovation needs to be undertaken in poor years to maximise the chances of increasing profit.

Identifying poor yielding years prior to renovation does present some difficulty although weather forecasts may improve the chances of undertaking renovation in the 'right' year.  .  Also yield potential is determined directly by biomass of the crop, so this may be used as an early indicator of yield.  Where waterlogging or disease has caused low vegetative growth, resistant weeds are widespread in a paddock, or where frost has damaged the crop green manuring is more likely to be a profitable option. 

This suggests a role for tactical use of renovation cropping so that it is undertaken in years where the forgone income is minimised (i.e. it is done in poor yielding years).  The results of the analysis show that only small yield increases in the following cereal crop are necessary to break even in these circumstances. 

The analysis highlighted gaps in the knowledge of the impact of renovation cropping that may be important for more comprehensive economic analysis, or information that may improve the grower’s ability to undertake the practice profitably.  Further research into green manuring could include:

• Determining whether the profitability of green manuring can be increased using long term weather forecasts.  Improving the estimates of the probability of achieving different yields may allow farmers to renovate soils in years that have lower risk.
• More information on the effects of green manuring on yield and protein for different crops under different conditions is required to better assess the economic advantages of green manuring
• The profitability of green manuring relative to other methods of improving sustainability of cropping also needs to be addressed.

 

Executive summary

Recently interest in the role of renovation cropping in the farming systems of the Western Australian wheatbelt has increased.  It has been proposed as a means of addressing the apparent decline in soil quality in some intensively cropped areas and the increased incidence of herbicide resistance. 

Renovation cropping involves either turning a crop into the soil at flowering or cutting the crop and leaving it on the soil surface.   This is done to maximise the amount of organic matter added to the soil and to control weeds most effectively.  In the Western Australian wheatbelt the focus has been on using pulses, although a range of crops can be used.  The pulse phase of a rotation is favoured as pulses improve the nitrogen status of the soil. In addition the returns to pulses are lower relative to cereals and canola, so the forgone profit in the year of renovation cropping is lowest.

Renovation cropping leads to changes in soil conditions that persist for at least the following season.  It reduces weed numbers in the following crop by reducing seed set, increases the availability of nutrients and may improve soil structure.  Lower weed numbers reduce the carry-over of root diseases thus providing a disease break for the following cereal crop.  Recent trials have shown likely yield increases of 20-30% above those after a pulse crop and increased grain protein levels in the following cereal.

The main cost of green manuring is the income lost by sacrificing grain production.  The loss in income plus any additional costs associated with soil renovation need to be recouped in the following season(s).  Therefore the income from the yield increase(s) in the subsequent year(s) needs to be equal to or greater than the total costs of renovation, including the income forgone.

Despite the increase in interest in renovation cropping, no comprehensive economic analysis has been undertaken to determine its role in Western Australian farming systems.  This study investigates circumstances under which renovation cropping is likely to be profitable and estimates the needed increase in farm profit, given the variability of yields that result from seasonal influences.

To investigate the consequence of risky yields historical rainfall data was used to generate yield distributions for different rainfall zones, soil types and crops.  The yield distributions were used as input to a simulation model to determine the distribution of income, resulting from renovation cropping, in a lupin:wheat:wheat rotation.  The mean yield boost resulting from renovation cropping was estimated to be 3% based on trial results (F. Hoyle, pers. comm.). 

The results of the analysis showed that there is a 30-40% chance of increasing profit if yield is increased by 30% on average.  However, the results were very sensitive to the average increase in yield.  The probability that profit will be increased was halved when yield boost was reduced to 20%. 

The yield increase required to make renovation cropping profitable can vary between 100% under the worst case and below 10% under the best case.  The variability depends on grain prices, grain yield in the renovation phase (if a commercial crop had been was harvested), and the cost of renovation and grain yields in the following crop phase.

The likelihood that profit will be increased depends largely on minimising income forgone relative to the increase in income in the following years.  Therefore green manuring will be most profitable when done in years when the grain yield of the pulse crop is low, and/or when the following cereal yield is very high. 

Weather forecasts are not yet sufficiently developed to predict potentially good years over 12 months ahead, so renovation needs to be undertaken in poor years to maximise the chances of increasing profit.

Identifying poor yielding years prior to renovation does present some difficulty although weather forecasts may improve the chances of undertaking renovation in the 'right' year.  .  Also yield potential is determined directly by biomass of the crop, so this may be used as an early indicator of yield.  Where waterlogging or disease has caused low vegetative growth, resistant weeds are widespread in a paddock, or where frost has damaged the crop green manuring is more likely to be a profitable option. 

This suggests a role for tactical use of renovation cropping so that it is undertaken in years where the forgone income is minimised (i.e. it is done in poor yielding years).  The results of the analysis show that only small yield increases in the following cereal crop are necessary to break even in these circumstances. 

The analysis highlighted gaps in the knowledge of the impact of renovation cropping that may be important for more comprehensive economic analysis, or information that may improve the grower’s ability to undertake the practice profitably.  Further research into green manuring could include:

• Determining whether the profitability of green manuring can be increased using long term weather forecasts.  Improving the estimates of the probability of achieving different yields may allow farmers to renovate soils in years that have lower risk.
• More information on the effects of green manuring on yield and protein for different crops under different conditions is required to better assess the economic advantages of green manuring
• The profitability of green manuring relative to other methods of improving sustainability of cropping also needs to be addressed.

 

Six varieties of canola were tested to compare their responsiveness to urea. The varieties selected had different growth patterns, and the slow growing varieties such as the TT types showed a similar response in growth to the other more vigorous types. In this experiment, urea did not increase yield of any of the varieties tested, but oil contents fell for five of the six varieties with added urea, with ATR Hyden the exception. Given the poor yield response, little can be directly interpreted from these results, although it is reasonable to conclude that higher urea rates are less profitable with lower yielding types or on sites with low yield potential.

• Stubble rentention increased the severity of frost events in experiments over two years
• There was no difference in floret sterility due to stubble treatment, but grain yield was highest where stubble was removed by burning. 
• Stubble rentention reduced the amount of heat stored in the soil during spring. With less heat stored there is less capacity for energy release at night to buffer against frost damage.
• Consider management strategies that avoid frost (e.g. crop choice, sowing date, variety choice) where high stubble loads are retained at sowing. 

• There is little to be concerned about from implementing a strategic tillage provided:
  • That it is not frequent, say less frequent than once every five years based on the above.
  • That we consider the well-known risks for erosion such as slope, groundcover, and current weather, and the soil moisture at the time of the proposed tillage. Hence, we suggest leaving the tillage as late as possible so as to avoid the chance of erosive rainfall between tillage and crop establishment.

• New fodder shrub species have been successfully trialed in the UN.
• Perennials, including fodder shrubs will increase pasture production on poor, degraded soils.
• Grazing animals require a balanced diet with a variety of pasture species to ensure the correct balance of energy, protein and minerals.
• High stocking pressure for short periods is necessary to maximize pasture production of both the fodder shrubs and inter-row pasture.

The good news is that we are all likely to experience on average 3 to 4 of these types of years in our farming careers, we now have one less to worry about.

• The application of N increased yields of all cereals grown on a wheat stubble.
• The application of fungicides controlled leaf diseases in wheat and barley, and increased the grain yield of wheat.

• Across three years addition of trace elements and fluid fungicide in-furrow did not provide increases in emergence, tillering or final yield - although this contradicts what other farmers have reported.
• Liquid N at sowing can improve crop emergence and early vigour, especially under dry conditions .
• Full liquid systems did not provide a profit benefit (due to higher input costs) even where they did provide increased yield which was not in all years.
• Recommendation most likely to provide higher returns for this area will be an in-furrow fertiliser system that incorporates some elements of liquid nitrogen and phosphorus fertiliser ,trace elements, fungicides and granular phosphorus and nitrogen fertiliser.

There are no significant differences in yields between the control and the TM21 plots in either trial.

 

The 2007 growing season was extremely dry and proved extremely difficult for trials. BEST looks forward to seeing the trial evolve over the next few years.

• Soil applied fertiliser was and better than liquid urea or UAN applied with standard spray nozzles to the crops leaves.
• Both urea and UAN are equally as effective when applied to the soil.
• Growers should select the nitrogen product that most suits their farming system in terms of logistics and cost.

• This trial showed that timing of N application is critical to yield potential, this showed that early foliar N had greater significance than application of other nutrients like potassium and trace elements.
• The trial also showed that seed treatments can develop significantly greater root biomass than unapplied seed.

Large plot sites run by TOPCROP groups across the state generated many opportunities for discussing and fine tuning nitrogen management in canola. The season was the main factor influencing yields and gross margins. Nitrogen application of about 10-20 kg/ha for the Mallee and 10-50 kg/ha for the Wimmera gave best yields and gross margins at most sites in a difficult season.

• Only 31 per cent of the applied urea nitrogen (N) was taken up by the wheat crop in 2014. This low fertiliser use efficiency may be partly related to the season; unused N in the soil can benefit the following crop.
• In a decile 1 season, different stubble retention practices had no effect on microbial biomass and N supply potential (avg. 58kg N/ha).
• Labelling a wheat crop with 15N allows researchers to quantify the fertiliser use efficiency and trace the N from stubble to the subsequent crop.

• Normal traffic can easily reduce grain yield on this clay soil.
• This trial design is not very hard to use to quantify tramline farming systems.

There were no significant differences in grain yield or screenings due to the traffic treatments.

• The industry should begin to work with specialist organisations such as the Australian Institute of Company Directors (AICD) and Family Business Australia to provide regionally available training.
• • Continue to develop information sheets and meeting templates that provide support to farm businesses establishing an advisory board.

Over the 1990’s the most profitable farming system for each region was determined by losses in poor years rather than the profits in good years. Businesses with high costs associated with intensive cropping and high inputs, were impacted more by losses than businesses with moderate adoption of new crop types and moderate inputs.