• It was difficult to see the carryover of residual P into 2003 in this trial as some plots were affected by crown rot or common root rot (still to be determined).
• The maximum wheat yield was achieved when 5 kg P/ha was applied in 2003 on top of 11 kg P/ha applied in 2002.

• Results were not conclusive, probably due to late topdressing stage and little rain
  following (5 mm).

• Variety differences were not statistically significant other than the lower yielding Sunkota which was the most severely affected by Yellow leaf spot.
• Despite the early sowing of several of these varieties, frost was of minor significance in this year.

• Canola yields in 2003 were below average, mostly less than 0.5 t/ha.
• No yield response was reported with increased rates of P and N fertiliser.

• Unfortunately in contrast to quality measurements grain yield results were not statistically significant.
• Caution should be taken when assessing the performance of faster maturing varieties like Ellison in an early sown trial situation like this.

• Seeding date had a greater influence on oat grain yield, oat grain quality and return per hectare ($/ha) than variety selection or seed rate in 2015.
• Delaying seeding from early May to early June reduced grain yield by 32% and return per hectare by 45%.
• In lower rainfall environments Bannister is a better option than Carrolup, Williams and Yallara.
• When released, WA02Q302-9 will be a useful oat variety in situations where low hectolitre weight is consistently a problem or with later seeding opportunities.
• Maximum return per hectare was achieved between a target density of 100 to 200 plants/m2, which is in line with the suggested target density for grain oats in low rainfall areas of 160 plants/m2.
• The return per hectare of Bannister oat was maximised at a higher density than for Carrolup, WA02Q302-9, Williams and Yallara, suggesting Bannister should be sown at a higher target density than those varieties. This is a preliminary observation and more research is needed to confirm the optimum target density for the new milling oat varieties.

• Time of sowing had a greater influence on oat grain and hay yield, and oat grain quality than variety selection or level of applied nitrogen in 2015.
• High screenings limited the ability of grain to meet Oat1 quality standards, this was due to the detrimental impact of delayed seeding and/or applied nitrogen in excess of that required in lower rainfall environments.
• Applying more than 20 kg N/ha did not improve the return per hectare ($/ha); rather, applying 80 kg N/ha consistently reduced return per hectare ($/ha).
• Screening of Williams and Carrolup were more sensitive to applied nitrogen than WA02Q302-9, Bannister and Yallara.
• WA02Q302-9 appears a suitable replacement for Yallara and Carrolup, and should achieve a better hectolitre weight than Bannister at similar or lower yields.

 New variety Bilby  (breeding line 06204-16) out-yielded Carrolup (by 0.3 t/ha), but did not out-yield Williams, and was between Williams and Carrolup in grain quality. 

Similar to 2017, a mild finish to the growing season meant all varieties met Oat1 quality specifications, and reduced the response of varieties to changes in plant density and applied nitrogen.

 

 New variety Bilby  (breeding line 06204-16) out-yielded Carrolup (by 0.7 t/ha), but did not out-yield Williams , and had lower grain quality than Carrolup in grain quality. 

Similar to 2017, a mild finish to the growing season meant all varieties met Oat1 quality specifications, and agronomy had a reduced impact on grain quality.

 Kowari and Williams yielded similarly, and out-yielded newly accredited variety Bilby  (breeding line 06204-16) (by 0.15 t/ha) and Carrolup (by 0.25 t/ha).

Bilby was the most sensitivity to increasing nitrogen, with N increasing from 0 to 60kg N/ha significantly reducing Bilby’s hectolitre weight.

• Bogong has been the highest yielding triticale variety over the past few years
• Mitika, Possum and Potoroo have been high yielding oat varieties, Wandering produced high yields in 2009 but has some disease issues that may affect yield in other years.

For a list of variety information and results please see the attached trial report.

Nitrogen application to optimise waterlogging recovery

Please see attached trial report for results.

Nitrogen application to optimise waterlogging recovery

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.

Please see attached trial report for results.

Nitrogen application to optimise waterlogging recovery

When making oat varietal decisions, it is important to consider various factors. These include the environmental suitability, end use (milling, feed grain, grain and graze or hay production) and likelihood that the required grade/quality will be achieved, potential disease issues (both root and foliar leaf diseases) and yield potential.

When making varietal decisions with oats, need to take into account various factors, including the environmental suitability, end use (milling, feed grain, grain and graze or hay production) and likelihood that the required grade/quality will be achieved, potential disease issues (both root disease and foliar leaf diseases) and yield potential.

In a year with an outlook of a dry finish and lack of grain fill due to limited moisture, high temperatures or frost, the ability to take advantage of early crop growth through oaten hay is a reasonable risk management tool to consider.

High yielding export quality oaten hay crops were successfully grown in the Charlton district (Echidna yielded 6.5 t/ha dry matter) in the 2001 season.

Oaten hay production is an opportunity to intensify the cereal proportion of a cropping rotation without increasing root disease burdens provided a CCN resistant variety is grown. With current prices of $120-140/t oaten hay production is a viable option.

• Hay crops can be used for both risk management and as part of an integrated herbicide resistant grass management program.
• Paddock selection is important. It is best to select a paddock with a low weed burden; there are limits to the amount of ryegrass that is accepted for export oaten hay.
• For quality oaten hay it is important to minimize stem thickness; this can be achieved by the use of high seeding rates. Cross sowing may be necessary to ensure windrows are supported by stubble for bailing, especially if sowing using wide row spacings.

• Oats yielded an average of 3.27t/ha at Mininera and 3.16t/ha at Dunkeld. The highest yielding variety was Echidna with 3.87t/ha at Mininera. There were significant differences between varieties at both sites. 
• No oat variety at either site was able to make milling grade. Test weights were all determined to be below the 51.0kg/hl for milling classification as required by NACMA in 2008/2009.
• Triticale averaged 4.26t/ha at the Dunkeld trial site for the 2008 season. All triticale varieies were unable to make the classification as none acheived the minimum test weight of 65.0kg/hl as reqired by NACMA in 2008/2009. 

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• The variety with the highest mean yield was Targa at 3.67 t/ha.
• The site mean was 2.63 t/ha.

• There were no significant differences in yield or grain quality between oat varieties.
• Taga (a grazing quality oat) had the highest grain yield (4.3t/ha) and the lowest screenings (2.7%) whiel Echidna had the lowest grain yield (3.7t/ha) and the highest screenings (4.6%).
• Test weights of all varieties were low.

• Newer milling varieties Bannister and Williams provide a unique fit in the system, having hay yields similar to those of conventional hay varieties, while providing high yielding milling quality grain.
• Hay quality was measured at Frances, and although there was no significant difference in hay production (t/ha) between varieties, there was a significant difference in hay quality.
• NVT site mean yields were well below average, and so long-term predicted yields along with disease profiles should be utilised when making varietal decisions.

• Understand the issue - assess each paddock for prevalence of oestrogenic covers.
• Graze strategically.
• Manage pastures.

Brassica juncea, a canola quality mustard, is being developed to meet canola standards so that it can be received with canola and marketed under the same streams. To be canola quality, mustard must meet the <2% erucic acid level and the <30 micromoles/g meal level, as well as have high oleic acid levels. The three lines tested at Birchip, JN004, JO006 and JP056, have appropriate erucic acid levels, and are well adapted to the low rainfall environments.

• Latest released variety ATR Snapper recorded the greatest yield and had the highest oil content at 0.95 t/ha and 45% oil content.
• Tanami (released 2006) recorded the lowest yield and also the lowest oil content, averaging 0.57 t/ha and 41.5% oil.
• Older varieties Tanami and Cobbler yielded significantly less than Snapper, demonstrating how newer varieties with similar agronomic attributes can be more profitable.

• One of the greatest risks of the deep cultivation techniques is wind erosion as a result of the burial and removal of all surface cover. In 2011 strong post-seeding wind events in mid-June resulted in significant wind erosion and sand blasting of young crop seedlings. 
• The wind erosion and sand blasting of the seedlings was a significant setback for the crop and would be partly responsible for the relatively low yields at the site. 
• Grain yields at the site ranged from 1.3 to 1.8 t/ha.
• For further results please see the attached trial report.

• There is firm evidence that, in addition to climate variability, there are also changes (trends) in key climate indices (i.e. rainfall and temperature) resulting from human activity, which will have important consequences on agricultural production in Australia.
• Good risk managers need to consider both climate variability and change in their on-farm plans in order to ensure future sustainability.
• Under changed climate conditions (up to 1.1oC warmer and up to 6% drier) expected around 2030 simulation studies show that in the Wimmera Mallee region yield losses can be offset through improved residue management and longer fallows.

• There is now firm evidence that, in addition to climate variability, there are also changes (trends) in key climate indices (i.e. rainfall and temperature) resulting from human activity.
• This means that good risk managers need to consider both climate variability and change in their on-farm plans in order to ensure future sustainability.
• Many of the actions required for adapting to climate change are extensions of those currently used for managing climate variability.

• For the fourth year running, on-row sowing proved it has potential as a brome management tool on non-wetting sands, reducing brome grass seed set by 55%.
• The use of trifluralin with metribuzin reduced the brome density in July but did not reduce seed set.
• On-row sowing resulted in more soil water and nitrogen supply potential near the crop,  improved crop establishment and higher crop biomass.
• On-row sowing did increase root disease incidence, but there were low levels of disease for both on- and inter-row sowing in 2017.

All tillage treatments had a little effect on the management of SWR and plant establishment in the severe water repellent gravel sand at Moora. Nevertheless, yield improvements were recorded, in particular with the “Large offsets” and the “Modified one-way with standard discs” treatments.

At this stage, it is not possible to clearly state what changes drove the yield increase. Given the little effect that the cultivations had on the SWR it is possible that improved soil structure, increased nutrient availability and nitrogen mineralisation may have played a role on the increased productivity.

The yield potential of the canola crop in 2015 was low given it was sown relatively late, plant numbers were low and there was a dry finish, this may have compromised the response to the tillage treatments. Observation of the trial in the following growing seasons and the response of a cereal crop in 2016 will help us to better understand the long term effect of the treatments on crop growth.

On deep sandy profiles subsoil compaction and acidity are major constraints. At this site the limited cropping history resulted in an expectation that the site would not be compacted but compaction was severe, indicating how susceptible these pale sands can be to compaction. For many deep sands, liming followed by deep ripping with topsoil slotting may be one of the most economical ways of effectively overcoming subsoil compaction and acidity to depths of 40-60cm.

On severely repellent sands however, it may be that deep ripping alone is inadequate and options which overcome the repellence and assist with weed control while at the same time addressing subsoil compaction and acidity may be required to get sustained productivity benefits (Davies et. al. 2017). The impact of deep ripping on highly repellent soils is variable with anecdotal reports that ripping can sometimes worsen the expression of repellence and result in poorer crop establishment. Other reports indicate substantial productivity gains can also be achieved (Blackwell et. al. 2016). Deep ripping may help overcome soil water repellence by: 1) creating a rougher soil surface allowing water to pond and infiltrate over time; 2) loosening the dry topsoil making it a more effective mulch, reducing soil moisture loss from the subsurface soil; 3) delving some seams of subsoil to the surface which act as pathways for water entry, with some ripper tine designs and attachments facilitating this more than others. Conversely the negative effects of deep ripping can include: 1) enhanced drying of the repellent topsoil from the loosening action; 2) increased expression of the water repellence when the soil is ripped when it is quite dry. Repellence severity, or expression, is increased with these negative effects which was the case for this site. For other sites where repellence is more moderate any benefits of deep ripping may outweigh the negative impacts. The mixed effects of deep ripping on repellent soils needs further research to be better understood. It is likely that rippers with C-shaped or parabolic shaped tines with broader points and wider ‘face’ plates will achieve more subsoil delving into the topsoil. Some rippers can also be fitted with wings which can also increase the degree of soil mixing. A greater degree of subsoil delving could result in development of more effective infiltration paths and longer lasting reductions in topsoil water repellence.

In this study rotary spading and modified one-way ploughing were effective in improving water infiltration on severely repellent sand even if they did not remove the deeper compaction. Second-hand one-way disc ploughs have a relatively low capital and operating cost (Table 1) and are relatively cheap to modify into a simple but robust tool for partial soil inversion (Davies et. al. 2016), although good seed bed preparation is still essential.

• Average grain yield for the untreated control plots was 2.34 t/ha. Clay spreading and rotary spading gave the largest machine harvest grain yield responses of 400 kg/ha or more, mouldboard ploughing 270 kg/ha and one-way ploughing 180 kg/ha (Figure 1) compared to their nearest comparative control plots. Offset discs gave no yield response in 2013 but did have positive yield responses in previous seasons (Table 1).
• Grain protein levels averaged 11.4% for the untreated controls, clay spreading had 0.5% more protein and mouldboard ploughing 0.2% than their neighbouring controls (data not shown).
• Screenings for the majority of treatments averaged about 2.1%. Mouldboard ploughing was the only treatment to have significantly lower screenings of just 1.2% (data not shown).
• Total above-ground shoot biomass and head number was assessed using plant cuts (Table 1). Shoot biomass on average was increased by 95% (+4.3 t/ha) by rotary spading, 57% (+2.7 t/ha) by clay spreading and 47% (+2.3 t/ha) by mouldboard ploughing compared to the untreated controls. Head numbers on average were increased by 32% (78 heads) by spading, 22% (58 heads) by mouldboard ploughing and 17% (43 heads) by claying compared to the untreated controls.
• Observations made earlier in the season indicated that emergence of many plants in the untreated control areas was delayed and had fewer tillers than the earlier emerging plants in the many of the treated areas.
• The whole plant cut transects were taken across different soil types, rotary spading gave the best results on the poor pale deep sand at this site while mouldboard ploughing performed best on the better yellow sand (Transect 3).
• The net 3-year benefit and return on investment (ROI) has been determined for the first 3-years of the trial (Table 2). Estimated costs for the amelioration treatments are based on owner-operated and contract rates. Benefits associated with some of the treatments such as weed control for the mouldboard plough and reduced wind erosion for the claying treatment have not been included.
• The one-way ploughing treatment was the most affected by wind erosion in 2011, resulting in a loss in grain yield and income which has substantially reduced the net benefit and the return on investment for this treatment although the subsequent years have been profitable (Table 2). Of the other treatments rotary spading and mouldboard ploughing had the highest net benefit, driven largely by the large lupin yield increases measured in 2012. Claying also had impressive yield gains and substantial increases in income (Table 2) but the high cost of this treatment reduced the 3-year net benefit and return on investment relative to the deep cultivation treatments. Given that claying can show benefits for decades net benefit and ROI for this treatment should continue to improve over time and it still only took 2 years to cover the cost of the treatment. Offset discs had grain yield benefits for the first 2 years but showed no response in 2013 suggesting that the benefits of the shallow cultivation may have dissipated.

• Onion weed is a significant pest and competitor of medic pastures. In mixed farming systems, control in the pasture phase is often reliant on cultivation.
• None of the herbicides evaluated in this trial provided adequate onion weed control in the medic pasture phase without unacceptable reduction in medic biomass.
• The use of non-selective herbicides and their mixes, combined with strategic cultivation if required, is still the most effective short term strategy in reducing the impact of onion weed on crop/pasture systems on Eyre Peninsula (EP).

The response to nitrogen in these trials should encourge the application of urea for wheat crops in these regions when the deep soil N test shows that the soil is low in available N prior to sowing in relation to the target yield set for the crop.

Opportunistic summer cropping can make use of summer rainfall that may otherwise be lost to evaporation.

In this instance the opportunistic crop of canola in 2011 has proven the more successful rotation. At the beginning of the season, given the rainfall during harvest, the soil had comparable moisture at depth irrespective of the crop in 2011. The weed break given by the canola was significant, very few grass weeds coming through in old canola plots. The management of weeds proved telling in this trial. Much of the potential wheat yield was removed by the brome grass in the wheat on wheat plots.

Wheat on wheat this season achieved approximately 16kg/mm of rainfall. Wheat growing without the competition of weeds on the canola plots achieved in excess of 19kg/mm. Making crude assumptions that wheat on fallow grew at 19kg/mm, and the additional 400kg/ha yield was the result of additional moisture alone, then there was approximately 21mm of additional moisture in the fallow plots. Fallow had more moisture available closer to the surface than the other plots though not significantly more moisture throughout the remainder of the profile.

In 2012 wheat on fallow plots returned $100 more than wheat grown on either wheat or canola residue. This recouped the $40 loss from the 2011 fallow with additional profit. But fallow did not result in the greatest total profit over the two seasons of the trial. The extra production on the fallowed treatments was unable to make up the opportunity cost of not growing a crop in 2011. This is not unexpected given the high crop yields achieved in 2011.

In this instance the opportunistic crop of canola in 2011 has proven the more successful rotation. At the beginning of the season, given the rainfall during harvest, the soil had comparable moisture at depth irrespective of the crop in 2011. The weed break given by the canola was significant, very few grass weeds coming through in old canola plots. The management of weeds proved telling in this trial. Much of the potential wheat yield was removed by the brome grass in the wheat on wheat plots.

Wheat on wheat this season achieved approximately 16kg/mm of rainfall. Wheat growing without the competition of weeds on the canola plots achieved in excess of 19kg/mm. Making crude assumptions that wheat on fallow grew at 19kg/mm, and the additional 400kg/ha yield was the result of additional moisture alone, then there was approximately 21mm of additional moisture in the fallow plots. Fallow had more moisture available closer to the surface than the other plots though not significantly more moisture throughout the remainder of the profile.

In 2012 wheat on fallow plots returned $100 more than wheat grown on either wheat or canola residue. This recouped the $40 loss from the 2011 fallow with additional profit. But fallow did not result in the greatest total profit over the two seasons of the trial. The extra production on the fallowed treatments was unable to make up the opportunity cost of not growing a crop in 2011. This is not unexpected given the high crop yields achieved in 2011.

• Continuous cropping can be sustained for decades, but requires careful management.
• A larger proportion of N supply as fertiliser will be required over time even when grain legumes are included in crop sequences.
• Herbicide resistance develops faster under continuous cropping. Integrated management to keep key weed populations at very low levels is essential for long-term viability.
• Suitably diverse crop and end-use portfolios and flexible management help build resilience to climate and crop price shocks.

There was no significant difference in the grain yield from cut and uncut early sown Mackellar wheat and May sown wheat, all sown at 200 plants/m2. Early sown uncut wheat at a density of 50 plants/m2 yielded significantly lower than 125 and 200 plants/m2. With lower plant densities and cutting treatments imposed, there were less tillers and ears/m2, however this resulted in reduced soil water usage and more moisture being available for grain fill. Plant height was significantly greater with the highest plant density in early sown wheat and the incidence of lodging was significantly greater for this treatment.

• Flowering time is determined by plant genetics and interacts with time of sowing and the environment.
• Matching variety and time of sowing to ensure flowering occurs at an optimal time in spring is critical to maximising yield.
• Sow longer season varieties mid-April to May and shorter season varieties May to June.

• No crop type on any soil achieved optimum plant density at this site, with canola treatments having extremely poor establishment.
• Overall, wheat had a significantly higher biomass than canola, lupins or chickpeas.
• Wheat yields were average to above average for the area depending on the soil type, which is a favourable result given the average decile 4 growing season rainfall.
• Canola yielded extremely poorly and proved to be a risky crop choice for the given season and soil types

• Crop establishment, biomass, yield and harvest index of wheat was largely unaffected by break crop rotation from the previous two seasons.
• Wheat yield was above district average for both the light and heavy soil site which was not expected on the average decile 4 rainfall.
• Grain produced from wheat following a pulse-canola rotation had higher protein content compared to the canola-chickpea rotation.

• The highest yielding treatment was Trojan sown on the 26th May at 5.96 t/ha.
• RAC2341 has shown good adaption to SA conditions as a Winter variety and its potential release could provide growers with an earlier sowing option.

• Despite damage from frosts, the highest wheat yield in this trial came from Trojan sown in late April at Hart.
• Based on two years of trial data across SA, Trojan complements Mace in a cropping program and allows growers to sow earlier and achieve higher yields (0.7 t/ha) than could be achieved with Mace alone.
• Across nine trials in SA (2014 and 2015) there was an average yield penalty of 28 kg/ha per day for every day sowing is delayed past the end of the first week of May.

Barley yield is less sensitive to time of sowing than wheat and in this trial highest yields came from faster maturing cultivars sown in early-mid May

There was no response to fungicide in this trial and few significant effects on grain quality. Disease levels were extremely low and a stem green area score at senescence revealed no consistent preservation of green tissue with the use of fungicides.

Again the majority of individual treatment responses to fungicide are positive but not statistically significant, indicating that there is a
trend but it is small. Barley however, poses a dilemma in that the single spray options early and late do not optimise performance against early Scald and late leaf rust infection, as such it is difficult to avoid spraying twice if both diseases pose a threat. In addition, if the rate of both sprays are cut to a bare minimum the results are inferior in terms of disease control. Triazoles are generally not as effective against Scald and diseases such net blotch, by comparison to the rusts.

Last season there were small yield increases of 6% to the Folicur treatment at GS39, with no benefit of the split application over the single dose. However though positive, these yield effects were not significantly different to the untreated. Strobilurins created no positive effects other than at the very highest rate and again these were not significant.Other than keeping a watching brief for the further spread of stripe and leaf rust strains affecting Mackellar, it does not appear to be a candidate for fungicide input.

Fungicides were cost effective provided the cost of the products were kept to a minimum. 

• Scepter (6.17t/ha) yielded the highest from the 20 April sowing date; Cutlass (4.38t/ha) yielded the highest from the 19 May sowing date; and Viking (3.22t/ha) yielded the highest from 1 June sowing date. 
• The 20 April sowing date germinated and established well before the waterlogged conditions occurred during late May and early June causing reduced germination and poorer establishment for the 19 may and 1 June sowing dates (SD).  This low establishment resulted in reduced yields between sowing dates of 0.78t/ha from SD1 and SD2 and 1.01t/ha from SD2 and SD3.
• Grain yields of varieties were highest when they were sown in their recommended sowing window. 

• Highest yields were obtained when flowering started in early to mid-August. Treatments that flowered in July were affected by frost and treatments that flowered in September were affected by heat and drought.

• The strongest yield response to nitrogen was on treatments that flowered in early to mid-August.

• Hybrids tended to recover better from frost damage than open-pollinated (OP) triazine tolerant (TT) varieties, but flowering date and nitrogen management were more important to maximise yield potential than variety type.

• The highest oil concentration was obtained from varieties that flowered in early to mid-August.
 

• Standard inoculation practices are unlikely to deliver satisfactory nodulation where pulses are sown into dry soils.
• Pea and chickpea sown late (26 June) had the higher nodulation and crop production than those sown dry. Where the soil remained dry for 20 days after sowing nodulation was poor, regardless of the inoculation strategy used.
• Nodulation of pea was low regardless of sowing time at Minnipa in 2018. Both peat applied to seed and granule formulations resulted in similar nodule numbers per plant.
• Nodulation can be improved when dry sowing if inoculation rate of peat is increased. Doubling the rate of inoculation significantly improved pea nodulation. 
• The performance the rhizobial granules was inconsistent. A granule produced at SARDI was more effective in one experiment, but not the other. Two commercial granules provided no advantage compared to peat applied to seed.

EGA Wedgetail can successfully be grown for grain only or dual purpose use and achieve yields competitive with recently released main season cultivars sown in May.  Growers wishing to graze EGA Wedgetail should use high plant densities (at least 100 plants/m2 on 305 mm row spacing, higher on narrower spacing) and some N fertiliser at sowing (particularly if soil mineral N is low) to maximise forage yield.  Gorwers who wish to grow EGA Wedgetail for grain only should defer N fertiliser application until after Z30 to reduce early vegetative growth.  Neither of these experiments or any others during the early sowing project have found a yield benefir from reducing plant populations, and target plant density should be kept at 100-150 plans/m2 (less on wide rows, more on narrow rows) in order to better compete with weeds.

Phosphorous fertiliser is rapidly fixed into unavailable forms after sowing when the soil wets up in winter. There were no phosphorous fertiliser responses in a wide range of crops on sites with good fertiliser histories. At the Donald site, which has a poor fertiliser history, the phosphorous responses were significant, especially for the pulse crops, less for barley, and none for wheat.

Fertiliser P trials were undertaken on wheat, barley, canola, field pea, lentil and faba beans at four sites over two seasons (1999 and 2000). Fertiliser P is rapidly fixed and becomes unavailable to plants on neutral to alkaline soils. P responses over the two seasons indicate that for wheat, barley, canola and field pea the responses to P fertiliser were insignificant or if a response did occur it occurred from 0 to 6 kg P/ha. It appears that faba beans do respond to higher rates of P (up to 18 kg P/ha), which was a consistent result in both years. It is not clear how lentils respond to P fertiliser. It is recommended to base a P fertiliser application rate on:

• long-term P balance (P fertiliser applied minus the P exported in grain),
• soil test result (soil P test of above 15ppm Colwell appears to indicate adequate Phosphorus levels), and
• whole farm expenditure (not more than 10 to 12% of gross farm income expenditure on fertiliser (inclusive of N and S) - as an average of a minimum of 5 years).

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• Lentils were better at establishing and reaching target plant densities than canola.
• Canola was considerably more responsive to converting increasing sowing densities into yield than lentils.
• Seeder type had no consistent effect on establishment and yield.
• The differences in yield response to plant numbers suggests that it is more critical to get it right in canola than lentils.

• Once you have decided on how much crop to put in, the greatest impacts on your bottom line will come from how you managed the crop and what it cost you.
• Making in-crop decisions on inputs has to be done in context of the likley yield.
• Yield Prophet will help you make better decisions.

• At the Howlong site, applied nitrogen gave a yield and dry matter (DM) response, however there was no sulphur response.
• The Yarrawonga site showed a clear response to applied sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N), despite high soil sulphur levels. This suggests canola roots may not be effectively exploring the soil profile to access soil sulphur.
• The Yarrawonga site had an optimum sulphur application rate of 20kg S/ha, with yield penalties measured with sulphur rates above and below this optimal rate.
• The dry finish to the season caused significant challenges during 2017. This trial will be repeated at two sites during 2018 to understand how variable the responses to sulphur are likely to be during different seasonal conditions.

• At the Howlong site, applied nitrogen gave a yield and dry matter (DM) response, however there was no sulphur response.
• The Yarrawonga site showed a clear response to applied sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N), despite high soil sulphur levels. This suggests canola roots may not be effectively exploring the soil profile to access soil sulphur.
• The Yarrawonga site had an optimum sulphur application rate of 20kg S/ha, with yield penalties measured with sulphur rates above and below this optimal rate.
• The dry finish to the season caused significant challenges during 2017. This trial will be repeated at two sites during 2018 to understand how variable the responses to sulphur are likely to be during different seasonal conditions.

1. Heat and drought significantly influenced phenology and grain yield responses in 2018.
2. Higher grain yields were achieved by faster developing genotypes, with significant reductions in grain yield with delayed sowing (associated with later flowering dates).
3. Whilst 2018 conditions favoured faster-developing genotypes, some newer genotypes such as LongReach MustangP and SunprimeP showed flexibility with stable grain yields across a wide range of sowing dates.
4. It is important to consider long-term data to determine suitability of varieties based on matching phenology and sowing time for your growing environment.

• Significatn variation was observed with tiller counts from one time of sowing to another.
• Early sowing provided a clear yield advantage over the later sowing dates.
• Revenue wheat was the highest yielding variety in the trial and adaptable to sowing time variation.

2018 Season

• At Speddingup, yield of late sown Scepter wheat was highest (3.6 tonnes/ha) in treatment strips that received a 100L top-up of Flexi-N at early stem elongation in early September following a period of waterlogging in August. Yield was lowest (3.4 tonnes/ha) in the treatment to which all nitrogen was applied up front at seeding.
• At Condingup, mid-May sown Scepter wheat yield and grain protein increased as nitrogen application increased, with the Playing the Season treatment seeing the highest (8.4 tonnes/ha) and the Farmer Practice treatment seeing the lowest (6.9 tonnes/ha).
• Moderation of nitrogen applied up front provided the host grower at the Speddingup demonstration site with an opportunity to tailor nitrogen applications to the potential of the season and to address waterlogging issues faced during the season.
• The addition of extra nitrogen following waterlogging at the Condingup demonstration site resulted in improved yield and financial return (after nitrogen input costs had been deducted).
• Applications at stem elongation at Speddingup and as late as full flag leaf to head emergence at Condingup were able to provide yield with an associated positive effect on grain protein.

2019 Season

• There was no statistically significant difference in Scepter wheat grain yield or protein between the nitrogen application regimes applied at the Jerdacuttup, Speddingup and Condingup demonstration sites, despite there being a difference in the rate of nitrogen and timing of application. Each of these sites experienced below average rainfall in 2019 and no waterlogging occurred. Crops at Jerdacuttup and Speddingup were also affected by frost.
• Despite dry growing conditions and exposure to a significant frost in September, Scepter wheat replicates that received the highest rate of nitrogen were the most profitable at the Jerdacuttup demonstration site. The margin between the most profitable and the least profitable treatment was $79/ha while the difference in nitrogen rate applied between these was 54.9kg/ha.
• The difference between gross income achieved from each of the 4 treatments applied at the Speddingup demonstration site was very small but the variation in input costs did affect profitability. The most profitable treatment was the ‘Farmer Practice’ treatment as it had the lowest fertiliser input cost with little yield or grain quality penalty. The ‘Regular Intervals’ treatment was the least profitable of the nitrogen treatments as the input and application costs were highest. Conditions were too dry for the crop to utilize the additional applied nitrogen in this treatment. The difference between these 2 treatments was $72/ha.
• Grain price varied by only $0 to $10/t between nitrogen treatments at the Condingup demonstration site. The most profitable treatment was the ‘Playing the Season’ treatment, with the highest rate of nitrogen applied and the latest application date when the crop was at growth stage Z24/32-33; just prior to flag leaf emergence. The ‘Farmer Practice’ treatment was the next most profitable of those applied, the difference being $29/ha, followed by the ‘All Up Front’ treatment with a margin of $31/ha. The difference between the most profitable and least profitable treatment was $60/ha.

With the varying results from this project, it is evident that response to N is both site and situation dependant. Further work needs to be undertaken to be able to create a broad rule of thumb around the cost/benefit of feeding N to crops on waterlogging soils

• The ‘farmer practice’ strategy ultimately ended up being the best nitrogen strategy for the 2019 season. The crop responded to the applied n up front after good rainfall and resulted in a 5.43 tonne yield and achieved a good return on investment.
• It is likely the crops in 2019 achieved its water limiting yield potential due to the dry finish; therefore, more nitrogen did not improve yield.
• Despite the treatments that received additional N achieving a higher wheat grade, the cost of applying the N in a season with decile 8 pricing, actually reduced profits.
• Growers remain interested in this research and would like to see further results from tactical N applications, especially in wet years and more waterlogged conditions.

• Fertilising above the optimum plant nitrogen (N) demand level reduced N-use efficiency and increased environmental impact.
• Despite receiving 8–9 irrigations as well as several intense rainfall events in a season, there were typically only 3–4 significant nitrous oxide (N2O) flux periods during the season, with most occurring early in the season, i.e. irrigations 1 and 2.
• Other significant N2O emissions events occurred mostly in response to adding in-crop N fertiliser followed by irrigation and/or intense rainfall.
• Initially, higher N2O emissions came from the beds where N fertiliser had been applied pre-sowing. Later in the season, emissions often peaked in the non-irrigated furrows after rainfall and irrigation events, particularly after additional N was added in the irrigation water.
• Farmers’ N rates were at least 25% higher than necessary to achieve the same lint yield in 2014–15, i.e. 50–100 kg N/ha. Less N fertiliser could have produced the same amount of cotton.
• Increasing N rates increased total N2O emissions, especially in prolonged wet conditions.
   

• Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions respond to large rainfall events.
• Most N2O emissions were generated after the crop was harvested.
• Tillage did not increase N2O emissions significantly in the first two years under wheat and canola.
• Including perennial grass into legume-based pastures would reduce N2O emissions.

• Early observations during the 2011 growing indicated the plots treated with chicken manure were severely impacted (negatively) by the burning associated with the high ammonia content.
• There was some indication of a small increase in crop biomass on Picken  treated plots.
• The high volumes of product applied do not flow through the banding unit and further work would need to be undertaken with the engineering design.
• Visual observations on this demonstration are to continue in 2012.  At this stage pastures is likely to be established on the site in 2012
• We expect further breakdown of the banded products, especially the treatments using highly volatile chicken manure
• If there are visual indications of biomass differences appearing, appropriate measurements will be made during the 2012 growing season.

The INSPIRE Summit was an overwhelming success. Registrations quickly sold out and were then extended. The atmosphere at the 2-day event was inspiring in itself. Growers were enthusiastic, ready to learn and relished the opportunity to network with like-minded women and industry representatives. Feedback from participants, speakers and sponsors was all extremely positive. The event received good publicity locally, state-wide and nationally. Participants left the event feeling confident and ready to implement changes in their businesses.

• Crop productivity on infertile sandy soils can be greatly improved by incorporating organic matter deep into the soil (>30 cm).
• In some cases, crop yields are further boosted with the incorporation of clay and/or fertiliser to depth.
• Two years of recent research show that the best soil modification treatments can increase crop yields by 70 to 200 %, even in challenging seasons.
• Treatments that address multiple constraints in these soils provide greater benefit than those addressing individual issues.
• Crop yields are reduced when clay is poorly incorporated into the soil.

5 Experiments started in 1980's.

3 sources of Cu (sulfate (25%); oxychloride (52%)  & chelate (EDTA 15% Cu) at 7 levels of Cu

Applied at 2 growth stages of wheat grown at 5 sites

1 kg Cu/ha rsuilted in maximum yield of 2.5 t/ha (summarised over 5 experiemnts in each particular year.

1-2kg of Cu sulfate required for maximum yield on severely deficient soil (.5 tha nil Cu ; 2.5 t/ha adequate Cu)

Little foliage damage if sprayed under cool, cloudy conditions. Warm sunny conditions increased leaf damage and decreased response to foliar sprays.

Chelate Cu always resukted in the highest yield per quantity of Cu while oxychloride always rsulted in the lowest grain yield per quantity of Cu .For example 100 g Cu/ha of chelate , 200 g as sulfate and 4000g oxychloride Cu for maximumgrain yield.

Sprays at 6th leaf were higher than late boot.

Cool condition for leaf absorption.

Results replicated over several season and soil types.

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits.

Nufarm are currently developing a new controlled release formulation of Triflualin.

5 Experiments started in 1980's reported in 1985-86.

Sources of Zn (sulfate (22%);  & chelate (EDTA 15% Zn) at 5-7 levels of Zn

Applied at 2 growth stages [4th leaf; mid-tillering] of wheat grown at 5 sites.

Wheat sprayed at 4th leaf yielded higher [ about 0.5 t/ha higher) than delaying until mid-tillering under severely Zn deficient plants.

0.45 kg Zn/ha for both times of spraying resuilted in maximum yield of 1.5 -2.5 t/ha (summarised over 5 experiemnts) in each particular year. About 50 -60% grain yield increases.

Zn chelate was more effective at the  4the leaf stage. About 200 g Zn/ha for maximum grain yield for chelate while 450 for the sulfate source.

At mid-tillering about 250-300 g Zn/ha required for maximum yield for both chelate and sulfate 

 Recommendation : 1 kg of Zn sulfate required for maximum yield on severely deficient soil; spray on onset of symptoms.

Little foliage damage if sprayed under cool, cloudy conditions. Warm sunny conditions increased leaf damage and decreased response to foliar sprays.

Sprays at 4th leaf were higher yielding than the mid-tillering stage.

Cool condition for leaf absorption.

Results replicated over several season and soil types.

• The 2016 trial results looking at cultural control techniques for barley grass largely confirmed the 2015 findings.
• Increasing barley seeding rate in the presence of barley grass can provide substantial benefits to both yield and reduced weed seed carry-over. This applies particularly to competitive varieties such as Fathom, but also to less competitive varieties such as Hindmarsh.
• In contrast, doubling the seeding rate of wheat had no beneficial effect on yield or weed carry-over.
• Doubling the district practice seeding rate in barley substantially reduced the competitive effect of barley grass to the stage where crop yields were similar to those plots where herbicide was applied.

• High soybean grain yields can be achieved on a flat layout under overhead irrigation.
• Djakal and N005A-80 varieties yielded the highest across all densities and row spacings.
• The 40 plants/m2 targeted plant density yielded the highest across all varieties and row spacings.
• At targeted plant densities of 40 plants/m2, the highest yields were achieved with 30 cm row spacing.

 

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits.