• No significant yield difference between treatments in WL trial in first year.
• Redox potential affects availability of nutrients and was dependent on soil moisture.
• Redox potential higher for the lime treatment which should mean better conditions for plant growth.
• Commercial varieties used showed little variation in waterlogging tolerance.

Engineering solutions:

• On flat waterlogged land, raised beds provided the best yield result but they do have some management issues.
• Gravel slots and moles also worked well but the slots are expensive for broad acre use.
• Conventional moles are prone to collapse with Kangaroo Island’s sodic clays.
• The nature of many of our clays (sodic and poor draining) results in poor water movement from the soil into a slotted agricultural pipe.

Agronomic solutions:

• The adverse effects of waterlogging are primarily due to anoxic conditions in the soil, rather than element toxicities or deficiencies, except perhaps for aluminium.
• Liming acidic soils will reduce al toxicity.
• In waterlogged soils the application of poultry manure doesn’t appear to improve yields. But the application of lime may increase yield.
• Waterlogging may cause nitrogen (N) deficiency but high rates of N will not turn a waterlogged crop into a good crop.
• There may be some potential for varietal difference to waterlogging in wheat.
• Broad beans: improve nodulation through a combination of liming and application of molybdenum. Liming will also reduce inherent nutritional problems of low soil pH. Early tissue testing and nutrient correction with foliar applications help overcome some soil ph deficiencies

• Although chickpea yields were higher than previous years, the rapid finish to the season
  favoured earlier flowering and maturing varieties such as GenesisTM079 and Sonali.
• Ryegrass competition at 31 and 86 plants/m2 reduced chickpea grain yield by 31% and 56%, respectively. Similarly, at Turretfield ryegrass at 41 plants/m2 corresponded to 33% yield loss, and 62% at 123 plants/m2.
• Similarities between moisture stresses caused by lack of finishing rainfall in 2009 and from
  competition with ryegrass meant that the same varieties yielded well with or without  ryegrass competition eg GenesisTM079.
• Breeder’s line “Chickpea 4” recorded the lowest yield loss from ryegrass competition at both
  sites (9% at the low ryegrass density at Hart), and also displayed 35% better tiller suppression than other varieties at Hart.
• Early vigour appeared an important trait in chickpea for improved competivness with ryegrass, plant height was a disadvantage, but further work is required on a larger set of
  phenotypes and in a more favourable growing season.
• Some ambiguous results in 2009 (eg PBA Slasher and Chickpea 2) may be due to the
  unfavourable seasonal conditions for chickpea production which prevailed in SA last year.
  However they do indicate the need for more work in a more favourable growing season, and
  potentially on a larger set of phenotypes.

• In the past four (dry) years on this demonstration farm the fallow/wheat/oats/lucerne (Phase farming) and wheat/fallow rotations have proved the most financially rewarding, probably due to the moisture storing benefits of fallow.
• Urea seems both less risky and more reliable than the pulse or ley in increasing wheat yield.
• The extreme dryness has caused problems with weed control (chemicals not effective) and with growth of pulse crops and subclover leys.

Sowing cereals in early April on a soil profile full of water is possible if:

• long season varieties are planted to ensure that the crop does not flower before the high-risk frost period has passed,
• the topsoil is moist at seeding to ensure that the crop germinates and allows for early root growth down into the stored water in the subsoil, and
• weeds can be controlled.

• Soil acidity cost $170/ha to $228/ha alone in yield penalties in 2015
• Keeping pH at good levels by liming prevents yield penalties
• Increasing soil aluminium levels caused by pH falling below 4.8, provides a good guide to the likely yield penalties incurred 

Of the paddocks investigated in the Southern Mallee, water was severely limiting in 1994, and the amount of water that could be supplied to crop from the soil was very small.

• Sowing date combined with appropriate variety selection and adequate nitrogen supply was key to increasing grain yields.
• Nitrogen fertiliser decision needs to consider the maximum attainable yield and be adjusted for the seasonal conditions and initial available soil nitrogen.

• The 1999 season was fairly average with a dry spring reducing potential yields.
• Nitrogen responses were marginal due to already high levels of nitrogen in the soil.
• Topdressing nitrogen on wheat increased yields at all sites to some extent.

• If you are a productive farmer, you will be acidifying your soils.
• Use the tools – they are easy to use and provide valuable information on what is driving acidity and what it is costing you and your property.
• Liming will save you money – it’s cheaper to lime than wear the cost of lost production . 
   

May 4th sown Mackellar wheat produced yields in the range of 4.74 – 5.99 t/ha following canola stubble. With high soil nitrogen reserves (176 kg/ha N, 0‐90cm) recorded 2 days pre sowing, there was a small but significant response to applied nitrogen (0.43 t/ha at 50kg/ha N & 0.58 t/ha at 100kg/ha N). There was a significant advantage to nitrogen timed during stem elongation (GS30‐39) over nitrogen applied in the seedbed. This advantage was evident in both single and split applications between which there was
no difference.

• This trial showed that under the extremely dry conditions of 2006, wheat yield at this site was largely determined by water supply because major diseases were absent and the soil had abundant nutrients in reserve for the small demands of such a low yielding crop.

Funded by DAFWA and GRDC through DAW00204 ‘Delivering agronomic strategies for water repellent soils in WA’ and DAW00218 ‘Wheat agronomy systems profitability’. Thanks to LivingFarm for management of sites at Wickepin and Cranbrook. The provision of sites and support of growers Ray Falconer, Kyle Carson, David Stacey, and Kim Oliver is greatly appreciated. Thanks to Trevor Bell, Anne Smith, Stephanie Boyce, Paul Bartlett, Virginia Smee and Greg Brown for technical support. Thanks to West Midlands Group, Northern Agri Group, Facey Group, Gillami Centre and the soil wetter product manufacturers for ongoing support.

• Seeding rate had a bigger impact on wheat establishment than soil wetting agents
• High seeding rates on soils with low yield potential were sometimes a disadvantage; optimal seeding rates would need to account for yield potential as well as the degree of soil water repellence.
• Delaying sowing providing an opportunity to get a knockdown of weeds was important on water repellent soils where staggered weed germination, and reduced herbicide activity, reduces efficacy of in-crop and pre-emergent applications.
• In these trials soil wetting agents did not consistently improve wheat establishment and despite some evidence of benefits to vegetative growth this generally did not translate into a grain yield benefit.

• Despite high levels of available soil nitrogen at the start of the season (113 kg/ha N, 0 – 100 cm), there was a significant yield response to applied nitrogen. There was no yield advantage of 100kg/ha N over 50kg/ha N.
• At 50kg/ha N, there was a significant yield advantage (0.47t/ha) from application at GS33 (third node) compared to application pre-sowing.
• At 100kg/ha N, there was a significant yield advantage (0.55t/ha) from application at GS30 above seedbed application. Differences at 50kg/ha were not significant.

• With very low levels of available soil nitrogen and rooting limitations due to salinity at 70cm, there was a significant response to applied nitrogen over the zero N control, but was statistically significant only in treatments that received nitrogen in the seedbed.
• Where nitrogen was applied in-crop at GS31 (14 August) and GS39 (14 September), there was no significant yield response above the control (a result attributed to limited uptake 3.25mm of rain in August, 8.5mm in September).
• While grain protein content increased after seedbed nitrogen applications, there was no protein response to in-crop applications, confirming a lack of nitrogen uptake as a result of limited follow up rainfall.

• In this water-limited scenario, with 70 kg/ha N available in the soil at the start of the season, in-crop nitrogen application served to significantly reduce yield relative to the zero N control.
• Yield depression was strongly significant (p=0.001) when nitrogen was applied at GS30 (start of stem elongation) but was less evident when applied at GS37 (flag leaf first visible).
• Unusually, the yield reduction from GS30 nitrogen timing was associated with higher grain protein than the later flag leaf first visible (GS37) timing. This result looks likely to have been influenced by protein concentration effect accompanying the stronger yield reduction at GS30.

• It was a relatively low yielding site, perhaps reflecting the fact that the site was in cereal in 2001 and the soil nitrogen status at planting was very low. Protein figures certainly indicate the fact that soil nitrogen was low 
• All varieties performed equally, although the winter wheat types had slightly lower grain protein than the spring wheat types. 
• The season tended to favour the earlier maturity types such as Chara, although given this, the performance of MacKellar and Brennan was quite acceptable. 

• Pre-sowing: dry seeded some moisture below seeding depth.
• Early season and pre-harvest: dry and hot days caused tipping.

• Previous crop (legume, oaten hay, cereal or fallow) had no effect on wheat grain yield in 2014.
• Grain protein values were lower following a cereal where there was less available soil N at the start of the season.

• There was significatn rain in early April.
• Main weed problem was radish.

Pre sowing comment: good moisture. Small amount of capeweed and lupins.

Early season comment: dry period after emergence. Some lupins present and a small amount of radish.

Mid season comment: dry periods after frost.

Pre harvest comment: severe frosts during grain fill effected earlier maturing lines.

• Wheat responded to up to 12 kilograms per hectare of phrosphorus (P) without added nitrogen (N) and to 6kg/ha of phosphorus with added nitrogen.
• Higher fertiliser rates did not improve yield or tiller numbers.

• Both N and K have influenced wheat growth at the site, to varying degrees.
• Summit’s complex soil test interpretation model recommended 90 kg N for a 3 T/ha wheat crop based on the soil sample analyses at this site. With a growing season rainfall of 300 mm and the responses in this trial, an N recommendation of 80 kg/ha appears appropriate.
• Potassium recommendations from the Summit model were 20 kg K for a 3 T/ha wheat crop. Potassium recommendations will be much more dependent on soil characteristics and laboratory test results, but even on the duplex soil at the site, 10 to 20 kg K/ha looks to be of benefit in helping plants to maximise the potential growth benefits from top-up nitrogen applications.
• Mace wheat utilises N nutrition for yield, on the whole, but protein does increase somewhat with increasing N application and targeting higher delivery grades is possible if desired.

Despite weed competition, less-than-ideal winter weather and soil conditions, wheat responded to both P and N application at this site. Grower returns on fertilizer investment were best with P applied at 8 to 16 kg/ha and N applied at 40 kg/ha. Greater response and returns from increased fertilizer application may be expected with improved early-to-mid season moisture conditions and less weed competition.

Two years of trials at Forbes on low Zn soils show no indication of wheat response to Zn fertiliser. There is some evidence that Zn deficiency in wheat can be intensified by SU herbicides. However, the critical soil Zn levels needed to justify Zn fertiliser use in wheat grown on lower pH soils treated with SU herbicides is unknown. Fertiliser test strips over a number of years have an important role to play in determining potential Zn responsiveness.

• The harvest results show the gains to be made from the banded application of phosphorus and nitrogen to wheat crops grown in the southern Mallee.
• Carefully assess soil fertility prior to sowing of cereals and canola to ensure dollars spent on the most profitable nutrient combination for each paddock.
• Plan on balanced nutrition of crops to optimise farm profits.

• The average sowing rate in low rainfall zones is 50 kg/ha.
• Increasing seeding rates is generally not helpful for yield as moisture is limiting in this zone.
• Higher seeding rates can have other benefits such as reducing weed burdens.

• Axe, Wyalkatchem and Gladius appear to be the wheat varieties that use added P efficiently.
• Scout is able to maintain yield when no P is added.

• There was no yield response to increased P rates in any variety tested suggesting that adequate available soil P masked any purported difference in P use efficiency between varieties.
• However, there was a trend in that the grain yield of the variety Axe increased in response to higher levels of P in both the replicated and broad acre studies.

• There was little difference in the root growth of wheat and canola.
• There was evidence of restricted root development in the 20-40cm soil layer.
• Wheat yield increased with increasing nitrogen but grain size was reduced slightly.
• There was no evidence of declining yield with high nitrogen in this experiment.

• Despite the late sowing, wheat yields were reasonable. The hightest yield was for wheat after canola with ripping. With 80kg N/ha, this was 3.1t/ha.
• The benefit of ripping had decreased markedly from the previous season.
• The canola rotation increased wheat yield by about 0.5t/ha. It was greater with ripping.
• The main conclusion from this experiment is that on this soil type, potential yields can be obtained with management tools already available to growers.

Nitrogen use has resulted in great improvements in crop yield in favourable seasons.
In dry seasons too much applied nitrogen can result in haying-off and lower yields.
Good guidelines are now available for nitrogen use to reduce the risk of crop failure resulting from applying too much fertiliser nitrogen.
The critical factors are:
• Stored soil water (control summer weeds)
• Measure how much nitrogen is in the soil prior to sowing
• Calculate nitrogen requirement from the target yield
• Do not pre-drill more than 60 kg/ha of urea in the 350mm rainfall zone (100kg/ha in the 450mm zone)
• Split applications are safer
• Topdress with urea if the soil test indicates a need, the crop is healthy, and the outlook is for an average to wet season

30 years after application, water soluble P leaches to depth on grey sands but is still effective for the growth of deep rooted blue lupins.  On the one-hand, the citrate-soluble P in C-500 releases more slowly through time and so has a longer term residual effect than water soluble P. On the other hand, higher rates of C-500 are required than superphosphate to reach maximum yield when soil P levels are low.  It is less likely to leach and so pollute ground waters. If cheap enough, C-500 could be used as a maintenance P fertiliser.  Much work is still to be done on this trial site.

Vetch is a multi-purpose crop; its versatility allows decisions about its end-use to be made during the year (grain, hay/silage or green manure/grazing) and also can be used as a management tool against resistant weed development. Vetch can improve soil fertility by returning organic matter to the soil, increase yield in the following crop by means of nitrogen fixation and reduce disease and insect risk for the following crop. Two new varieties; SA-34823 and SA-35103 are set for release in spring 2013.

Andrew’s management of water repellence demonstrates that a strategy of affordable progressive amelioration and better sowing methods for the rest of the crop can be a successful and profitable approach for managing soil water repellence. On-farm testing of water repellence management options can help confirm which strategies are likely to be successful and profitable on particular soils and landscapes. The use of winged paired-row systems, winged points, banded-wetting agents, on-row seeding or broadcast spreading a proportion of the seed ahead of the bar can all potentially improve the effectiveness of sowing on water repellent soils and this is the subject of ongoing research.

• The Whole Farm Soil Mapping Project addresses the Caring for our Country and the South West Regional Natural Resource Management Strategy (2012 - 2020) targets to reduce the fertilizer and nutrient run off in to water ways through implementation of best practice fertilizer management on farms, as recommended in the Peel - Harvey Water Quality Improvement Plans (WQIP).

• In the dry season of 2001, lentils, field peas and canola yielded poorly whereas whet and barley yielded well.
• Hostile subsoil conditions limited the rooting depth of pulses and canola, while wheat and barley were more tolerant and able to extract moisture down to a dep of 1m.
• Pulses and canola will always struggle to perform in dry springs unless they are grown on soils where their roots can extrac soil water deeper than 50cm.

• The only way to accurately know your soil pH is to send a sample for a laboratory test (soil testing kits are available from the PIRSA Office in Kingscote).
• Have a look at the on-line acidity tools . They are easy to use and extremely helpful in guiding liming decisions.
• Liming will pay for itself, often in the first year. 
   

• The main difference in yield may have been due to poor tillage in the 500mm spaced crop.
• The entire crop was reliant on the soil nutrition from the pasutre as no fertiliser was applied to the paddock prior to and following seeding.
• Later sowing of the trial may have jeopardised the wide row's yield capacity therefore it would be encouraged that when considering sowing in wide rows early seeding is preferable.
• It may be noted that if nutrition was not a limiting factor for the 500mm crop, the water supply from the wide row may have increased yield to similar or better than that of the 250mm crop.

The results, even after relatively good spring rains, support the idea of conserving soil moisture between wide rows and reducing drought effects.

Stubble height can have a significant impact on wind speed close to the soil surface. This can increase soil erosion in vunerable environments (sand hills).

1. Winter cover crops can improve ground cover, increase plant available water and improve subsequent cotton yields in pivot-irrigated systems.
2. The early spray-out treatment was the best cover crop for storing water over the short fallow in this study where cover did not have to last very long. However, the extra cover in the mid-terminated cover treatment continued to boost infiltration in the cotton’s
early growth stages.
3. All cover crop treatments improved the yields of cotton by approximately 3 bales/ha; well in excess of any gains expected from the increased fallow soil water storage.

• Scout and Mace continue to out-yield the rest of the pack at Witera.
• Oxford and Fathom (WI4483) break 3 t/ha under severe leaf rust pressure at Witera.
• Espada and Scout top Elliston yields in 2011.

Take Home Messages

• Near perfect growing season for canola, provided ideal opportunity to assess the residual N feeding effect of the legumes.

• All legumes sown in 2016 – peas, lupins, sub clover and faba beans had similar starting soil N levels and soil water nitrate readings throughout the year which was reflected in similar grain yields inferring that all legume species were equal in terms of their N fixing capabilities.

• The average amount of N fixed by the legumes was calculated as ~86kg/ha.

• Growing adequately nodulated legumes can give rise to a ~1t/ha canola yield advantage compared with a non-legume.

• Linseed used more moisture, from a greater depth, than the faba beans in 2016. Resultantly more moisture was extracted by the canola crop sown on the faba bean stubble in 2017, and yet there is still more  residual moisture left.

• Pasture cropping systems can provide grain (and out of season fodder) on deep sandy soils and reduce the likelihood of groundwater recharge.
• Potential yield penalties associated with pasture cropping across perennials on deep sandy soils in the west midlands appear to be less than 20%.
• Pastures started competing with the crop for soil water during grain filling, but impacts on soil water and grain yield were generally small given average rainfall in spring.
• During the crop growing season, there was little difference in soil water under annual crop, perennial pasture, and pasture-cropped plots.
• Soil water contents were much lower under pasture and pasture-cropped plots during summer and autumn.

• Yield Prophet® in 2005 had many new features and capabilities and was delivered to 338 paddocks that were subscribed Australia-wide. From 5 April to 1 December, 6813 reports of various types were generated by subscribers, with most around time of top-dressing.
• Final simulated yields for wheat crops, using appropriately measured soil characterisation and initial soil data, fitted observed yields comparable to previous seasons (R2=0.74, 67% of simulated yields within 0.5 t/ha of observed, 98 % within 1.0 t/ha).
• Yield Prophet simulates yield more accurately than it does grain protein content.
• However, overall accuracy for all subscribed crops was lower due to expansion into new regions with less soil characterisation data available.

• APSIM simulations, accessed through the Yield Prophet web interface, were evaluated for their ability to forecast nitrogen fertiliser responses at the canopy management trial in the Wimmera.
• Yield Prophet accurately simulated crop yield and protein for a range of nitrogen fertiliser application rates and timings.
• Yield Prophet was able to estimate likely nitrogen fertiliser responses and dollar returns during the season.
• For accurate simulations Yield Prophet requires good soil characterisation data (crop lower limit, drained upper limit and bulk density) and pre-sowing measurements of soil water and available nitrogen.

The model was very accurate at the actual soil site location. Inaccuracies can be due to a number of reasons - namely weed burden at the site, frost, variations of soil type across the paddock and variations of rainfall received in the paddock versus the recording location. Furthermore, if the soil classification is slightly different in the model than is actually the soil physical properties, this could cause deviation as well. Lastly, as crop phenology can vary from cultivar to cultivar, this can cause discrepancy too.

Subsurface soil compaction has been shown to be a major constraint to crop production and the removal of
this compaction via deep ripping can lead to large yield increases.

Subsurface soil compaction has been shown to be a major constraint to crop production and the removal of
this compaction via deep ripping can lead to large yield increases.

• Removing soil compaction increased barley yield by between 710kg/ha and 1,130kg/ha in 2016.
• Very deep ripping (1200mm) gave the greatest yield increases at this site though there are factors that may inhibit the ability to rip this deep on a large scale.

• Statistical analysis was not possible on the trial, but the wheat following spray fallow treatment was by far the most profitable over the two years as well as the least risky.
• If this trial were to be repeated results will vary given different seasons and different soil types.

• Repellence can be worse below 5cm (5-10cm samples collected but not tested yet).
• If repellence is worse at 5-10cm this may explain why deep ripping has increased repellence as ripping could bring some of this more water repellent soil to the surface.

The Carlshausen’s had previously grown Calingiri noodle wheat but abandoned the variety in 2015 due to bad lodging in the 2014 season and consistent 0.1 t/ha lower yields than Mace. In 2015 they wanted to see if the new noodle variety Zen was able to match Mace (the only wheat currently grown on their property) in terms of yield and quality. Mace is a short to mid maturity Australian hard wheat with Wyalkatchem major parent and Stylet minor parent. Zen is a mid to long maturity Australian noodle wheat bred from Calingiri and Wyalkatchem.

Mace and Zen were compared in two locations of the same paddock. The soil type was similar at the two locations, but varied in their elevation.

This demonstration was conducted using farmer equipment. Farm scale demonstrations are a valuable way to explore new varieties, products, or practices, complimenting results which are produced through more scientifically rigorous, small plot trials. Please refer to NVT for a replicated view of the varieties in your area.

• Zinc deficiency was confirmed on the soils of the region.
• Navy beans are demonstrated to be a good indicator species for zinc deficiency.
• Interactions between phosphorus availability and zinc may confound critical soil values.

• Glasshouse experiments examine the residual effects of zinc applied in field trials.
• Growth response to zinc was detected on only one soil even under well watered glasshouse conditions.
• Plant zinc showed no decline in availability of applied zinc 4 years after its application.
• Availability of zinc appeared to be improved by incorporation in the topsoil.
• In other glasshouse studies on economically high applications of phosphorus and zinc were needed to offset the impact of low VAM infection for maize and linseed.
• Extractable zinc in Queensland inverter solves appears to be related to organic carbon percent.

• Twenty five genotypes of oilseed rape (canola and mustard) were tested under varied supply of zinc in pot experiments in soil culture to determine the genotypic variation in tolerance to the zinc-deficient condition.
• On the basis of the pot experiments, ten genotypes were tested in 1995 under varied supply of zinc on a zinc-deficient field in South Australia.
• Zinc efficiency in pot Experiment 1 varied from 35% for 92-13 to 74% for Siren. Narendra, Dunkeld, Barossa, Oscar and Xinza 2 performed well under low zinc conditions zinc efficiency in Experiment 2 varied from 32% for Wuyou 1 to 62% for Pusa Bold.
• Root dry matter accumulation was significantly higher in zinc-efficient genotypes.
• With few exceptions, the ranking of genotypes in pot and field experiments indicates similarity in their response to zinc deficiency.
• Zinc-efficient genotypes had lower zinc concentration in roots and higher zinc concentration in youngest fully opened leaf blades, indicating a better transport of zinc.
• This, together with a higher zinc uptake, appears to be the basis of expression of zinc efficiency.

• The application of zinc had no effect on yield or grain protein.
• Zinc coated products are effective in supplying zinc.

• Five year trial examining strategies for application of zinc to field pea.
• Zinc applied to soil, to seed or as foliar spray.
• Zinc application did not increase grain yield of field pea.
• Seed zinc concentration was 20% higher when foliar zinc applied to field pea.

• Spectacular increases in yield in response to early application of foliar zinc in navy bean.
•  Zinc sulphate heptahydrate application during early crop growth should be standard practise until better varieties become available.
• Soil applied zinc has given inconsistent results.

• Yields may be limited by zinc even where deficiency symptoms are not apparent.
• Responses to zinc are common on clays in the Wimmera and sands in the Mallee.
• Phosphorus is required to make zinc fertiliser effective.
• Grain protein is not increased by zinc application.
• Applications of zinc are recommended every second or third crop as zinc has some residual value in the soil.
• Zinc is typically applied in a mixture with phosphorus fertiliser.
• 2 - 2.5 kg /ha zinc should be sufficient for 4-6 years.

• Soil solutions were obtained by a centrifugation method from 14 unfertilised and fertilised Vertisols.
• The soil solutions were analysed for all major cations and anions and organic carbon zinc in the soil solution exists mainly as free zinc2+ ions in these soils.
• Complexation of total soluble zinc by organic and inorganic ligands constituted 40% and 5096, respectively, of total soluble zinc in fertilised and unfertilised soil solutions.
• The organo-zinc complexes constituted.

• Zinc treatments (1-5 kg/ha) did not increase grain yield or protein .
• Neither timing nor application type (on seed, in soil or foliar) nor rate had any effect on grain yield or protein at this site.

• Over a five year period incorporating either foliar or seed coated zinc increased wheat grain zinc concentration above soil applied zinc fertiliser.
• Neither timing or application type (on seed, in soil or foliar) or rate had any effect on grain yield, protein or screenings at this site.
• Copper was applied every two years in some treatments but it had no apparent effect on grain yields or grain or tissue copper concentrations.