In 2007, wider row spacings (400mm vs 200mm) significantly (P<0.01) reduced yield (4.36t/ha vs 4.69t/ha) when averaged across five barley varieties and two nitrogen timings, suggesting that the benefits of wider row sowing for crop residue management practices are coming at a significant financial cost ($100/ha+, using current prices). However, the barley variety WI with nitrogen applied at
sowing (GS00) achieved the opposite result, as wider row spacings (400mm vs 200mm) significantly (P<0.05) increased yield (5.15t /ha vs 4.31t/ha).

Greater variation in dry matter production at the water ripe sampling time was observed compared to milky-soft dough. Dry matter production was highest at milky-soft dough and Moby barley consistently had the lowest. Majority of cereal forage varieties had NDF and NDFD levels to meet grade 1 and 2. Feed quality did not decline significantly with later cutting

Using the highest label rate of either Aviator Xpro or Prosaro in the first application for sclerotinia lowered the level of sclerotinia infection and recorded a higher $ROI/ha in this trial. Increasing the rate of fungicide increases early activity on active disease but will also increase the length of protection from reinfection. 

The use of higher rates under high sclerotinia disease pressure is recommended not only in a single spray application to extend the window of protection but as recorded in this trial it can provide benefits to a two spray strategy. Improvements in length and strength of sclerotinia control from the use of a higher rate in the first application have been recorded across multiple commercial trials conducted by Bayer Crop Science across Australia in the 2016 season.

Study Conclusions

Potential nitrogen contributions are assumed to be 40% of the total nitrogen contribution, assessed from the dry weight and nitrogen content (N% tissue) of the green manure crops measured at anthesis. Legume crops provided the most potential nitrogen of all treatments, due to high tissue nitrogen and moderate to high biomass production. Oats had the highest biomass but were low in tissue nitrogen and potential nitrogen benefits were therefore negligible. Any benefits from this type of crop, would be largely associated with the contribution of organic carbon to the soil. Emergence of both canola and mustard was poor, whilst the lathyrus and vetch competed poorly with weeds due to slow initial growth.

The percentage of undecomposed material remaining on the soil surface at seeding in 1999, varied from approximately 35% for oats down to 10% for lathyrus. The general pattern was that the crops with higher tissue nitrogen content broke down quicker. This indicates the microbial degradation of legume crops is likely to be faster than for brassica or cereal crops.

Differences in water infiltration observed may indicate the potential for treatments to increase the initial sorptivity of soil (ability for more rapid entry of rainfall) and decrease the flow rate through the soil (effectively increasing moisture retention). This may allow earlier sowing after summer rains, increased moisture availability during the growing season and potentially longer availability under dry finishing conditions. These results are variable and subject to trial/operator error. Further evaluation of these attributes is required prior to evaluation of renovation techniques.

The high cost of seeding and maintenance of the green manure crop, can significantly influence the gains or losses experienced over this three year period. It may be most economic, to green manure legume crops in seasons with low potential returns (poor yield potential or price).  The cost of harvesting a lupin crop for example may prove less beneficial than using it as a green manure to improve wheat yield and quality, where prices are depressed or where disease/season has reduced yield potential. Strategic use of green manure crops as a tool in integrated weed management or potential productivity gains through addressing specific problems may result in little or no short term economic gain where employed in better performing paddocks and must be viewed as a long term strategy to overcome yield constraints. However, strategic use of these techniques for poor performing paddocks, or paddock that would have otherwise been ‘rested’, are likely to result in economic responses, particularly where using low cost crops or pasture has been employed as there is no requirement to recover the cost of foregone yield – only those associated with growing a crop and the implementation of techniques.

Data supports the hypothesis that a green manuring:wheat:wheat rotation, may be as profitable as a legume:wheat:wheat rotation using either a field pea or Lathyrus crop. Given this assessment does not include any additional benefits that may be gained from green or brown manuring in terms of additional weed control and potential improvement of soil characteristics such as the addition of organic material, improved soil structure and longer term productivity gains, these techniques are likely to prove both economical and sustainable by providing additional benefits that may be observed in lower herbicide costs through better weed management, improved soil health and a more flexible farming system.

• Revenue produced a significantly higher grain yield than Mackellar although this was not significantly different to H150.1 and Tennant. In addition Revenue tends to have higher dry matter prodution than Mackellar. In this trial the latter may have been more susceptible to the waterlogging.
• The white grained CSIRO line H150.2 continues to produce high grain yields in Tasmania and has now also demontrated potential as a dual pupose crop. It will be suitable for an earlier dual purpose sowing as it is later flowering than both Mackellar and Revenue.
• Preston showed good early vigour but it will flower too early for more typical dual purpose sowing times in Tasmansa, e.g. March.

• There are no significant differences in yields between east-west crop orientation and north-south crop orientation.
• As the paddock has good weed control, the results were primarily influenced by water availability and evaporation within the crop.

Over all four trials both Sakura treatments maintained a positive $ROI/ha with Sakura + trifluralin ($78.50) slightly ahead on average $ROI/ha to the standalone Sakura ($73.48)

Sakura 118 g/ha recorded a $55.08 increase in $ROI/ha over Boxer Gold across the four trials. Boxer Gold $ROI was generally in line with that of the prosulfocarb treatments in three of the sites, except from Waddy Forest where prosulfocarb 2.5 L/ha recorded a higher yield. Why this occurred is not clear as results were cross checked back with the contractor to ensure there was not a transcription error.

Trifluralin, due to its poor weed control, especially at Cunderdin, returned a slight positive $ROI/ha ($7.20) across the four trials.

All four sites to some extent were affected by frost which may have affected yield outcomes.

Getting weed control right is the key to ensuring the longevity of any herbicide but it also allows the crop it’s best possible chance of achieving its yield potential. Using a program of effective knockdowns and a product with a long residual activity like Sakura can deliver higher yields and returns across a variety of soil types and locations as seen across the four trials conducted during the 2016 season.

• Treatments were a single application of 10 kg/ha of Zn as zinc sulfate monohydrate (ZSM) (35% Zn) in 1996 or 4 applications of 1.25kg/ha or 2.5 kg/ha Zn as Incitec.
• Granulock ST-Z (10 %N, 19.5 % P, 2.5% Zn) between 1996 and 1999. Soil samples were collected at the commencement of the experiment, after the first application and post-harvest from the fourth crop.
• Samples were analysed for DTPA extractable Zn.
• The percentage of soil extractable Zn available from applied Zn after 4 cereal crops was about 12 % for the single application of 10 kg/ha Zn as ZSM, 22% for multiple applications of 1.25 kg/ha Zn and 20 % for 2.5 kg/ha Zn as STZ.
• It would appear that provided there is no compromise in crop productivity, a multiple low rate strategy of Zn fertiliser addition may be more effective in building available soil Zn concentration than a single higher rate.

Overall, early growth was a function of a number of constraints. In the fully retained stubble plots plant establishment was poor due to large straw windrows creating major problems at sowing and mice damage. In surface stubble treatments lower soil temperatures and higher populations of vulpia resulted in reduced plant vigour. Where stubble was fully retained this effect was less than when most stubble was removed through cutting and baling.

The use of trifluralin as part of an integrated herbicide management program for the control of Group A resistant annual ryegrass populations has increased dramatically over the past decade. The requirement of incorporating Triflur 480 within 4 hours of application has imposed management issues during the busy sowing period, however, the advent of Crew (a slow release trifluralin formulation) offers greater management flexibility with an incorporation period of 24–48 hours.

Note: This trial was an unreplicated demonstration with observations/assesments based on one plot per treatment only, and as such results may not be definitive.

• Variety: there was no difference between the yield of Digger and Northfield (0.56 vs 0.57 t/ha respectively)
• Row spacing: there was no significant difference in the yield of lentils sown at 18 cm (7") or 36 cm (14") (0.59 vs 0.54 t/ha respectively). However, the crop sown at 18cm (7") was much easier to harvest and stood up better.
• Sowing rate: there was a significant negative effect of sowing rate on yield - the 50kg sowing rate had the higher yield compared to the 100kg/ha sowing rate (0.62 vs 0.51 t/ha respectively).

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Weeds have the biggest impact on summer water storage.
• Over the last two summers, the method of weed control had little effect on moisture storage
• Even under adequate growing season rainfall, weed control is necessary because weeds tie up and/or prevent significant amounts of nitrogen mineralizing, which cost 0.5t/ha of the canola yield.

Controlling summer weeds conserved both water and nitrogen and doubled wheat yields in 2011 on both sand and clay soil types. Retaining or removing stubble has only minor effects on wheat yield. Complete control of summer weeds pays, and there is no excuse for weedy paddocks during summer in the Wimmera and Mallee!

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Overall imposing a fallow allowed for a small amount of extra water to be stored in the soil and a small amount of extra nitrogen. As a result there was a small yield gain of 0.2 t/ha in 2012. 
• In this trial the fallow treatment was planted then sprayed out in August to replicate what is known as an ‘opportunistic’ fallow compared to a ‘strategic’ fallow where no crop is planted for 18 months. 18 month fallows would have different results to the ones reported here.
• Other benefits of fallow that were not recorded in this trial but could have contributed to the yield gain are improved weed control, disease breaks and opportunity for early sowing. 

• This is the second season in which this trial has been run and the fallow has yielded higher than continuous cropping in both 2011 (0.4 t/ha) and 2012 (0.2 t/ha). Other research indicates that fallows produce yield benefits in dry seasons which are not the case in the crop in 2011, which received 231mm for the growing season. The yield difference in 2011 was therefore more likely to have been the result of extra nitrogen in the soil, or weed or disease control rather than soil water benefits, however, these were not measured.
• Farm economics need to be carefully considered before implementing a fallow, the opportunity cost of not producing a crop needs to be weighed up, and benefits of yield, extra N, weed control and disease breaks carefully factored into the decision. 
• In 2012 the yield benefit from fallow was 0.2 t/ha and likely to be due to extra nitrogen and water being present in the soil. However, this is an unreplicated demonstration and thus it is hard to tell whether yield differences are the result of fallow or random variation in the paddock. 

• Continuous wheat can be successfully grown.
• Stubble has been burnt to reduce the incidence of yellow leaf spot in the following crop.
• In most years the crop has been direct drilled.
• Disease levels are still low and the crop is checked at flowering every year for root diseases.
• Continuous wheat has been relativley low risk - after 7 years it has not failed (except for the drought year in 2002).
• Thus far there is no problem with grass weeds or soil borne diseases.

• Sunflower grain yield averaged 1.07 t/ha at this site with the highest yields obtained from the control and the treatments where only the bottom one third (1/3) of leaves were removed.
• The total leaf removal treatments had the largest effect on yield, at worst yielding only 0.16 t/ha.
• Removing all leaves at budding or at the start of the flowering growth stages had the largest effect on plant structures.
• Total leaf removal at the end of flowering had the largest effect on 1000 grain weight and test weight.

• Sunflower yields were greatly affected by the various defoliation treatments, ranging from 0.12 t/ha to 0.97 t/ha.
• Reductions in yield, of between 55% and 82% compared with the control resulted from total leaf removal at all three of the targeted growth stages (budding, start of flowering and flowering completion) as well as removing two-thirds of the leaves at budding.
• There was no negative effect on grain yield from removing the bottom third of leaves at budding or the start of flowering. Removing the bottom third of leaves at the start of flowering actually provided a slight yield advantage over the control treatment. The largest effect on plant height, head diameter and head arc length were caused by removing all leaves at the budding stage.

• Grazing stubble with sheep speeds up N cycling and reduces N tie-up by the stubble. When yield is N limited, this can increase grain yield and quality.
• Over the seven year experiment, grazing and retaining stubble has been the most profitable treatment, with an annual Gross Income 172 higher than un-grazed, stubble retain (assuming a grazing value of the stubble) or $55 higher if no grazing value assumed.
• Over the seven years, there was on average a 0.5 t/ha reduction in wheat grain yield in the 2nd wheat crop where stubble was retained and not burnt – mostly related to N tie-up.

• All pre-emergent herbicides provided excellent early control of ryegrass (≥86%) & good crop safety under the knife-point press wheel system.
• Combination of trifluralin & Avadex Xtra followed by PSPE Boxer Gold provided greatest residual control, controlling more than 98% of ryegrass 12 weeks after sowing.
• Boxer Gold applied PSPE has been shown to provide some additional in-row controlof ryegrass.

• Boxer Gold alone or in combination with trifluralin and / or Avadex Xtra provided consistent pre-emergence control of ryegrass, as did trifluralin & Avadex Xtra.
• Although ryegrass control with new pre-emergent herbicide Sakura was lower than in previous years, its tank mixture with Avadex Xtra provided excellent control (86%).
• Boxer Gold & Dual Gold applied PSPE appeared to provide some additional in-row control of ryegrass.

The trial establishment was variable early due to some non-wetting soil and the crop was sown too deeply due to furrow fill from significant rain after sowing. Early crop vigour as a result was low with blackleg further reducing plant establishment; this coupled with high levels of Vegetable beetle damage also reduced the evenness of the plots.

According to the DAFWA sporacle model spore maturity occurred on approximately the 22nd May which meant this trial was at very high risk of significant disease risk as emergence coincided with high spore levels being released from last year’s stubble.

• Excellent annual ryegrass control (>85%) with propyzamide either as split application (IBS followed by PSPE) or as a mixture with tri-allate.
• Atrazine also gave effective control this season with rainfall assisting activity (>79%).
• Early crop vigour was suppressed with Outlook & the higher split rate (1 kg/ha IBS followed by 1 kg/ha PSPE) of propyzamide.
• UAN at 20 kg/ha caused some leaf burning, however the crop recovered.

• A Predicta B sample taken from the site indicated a medium risk of rhizoctonia although patches did not express during the season.
• Early establishment across the site was severely impacted by non-wetting affected all plots across the trial with the worst of it commencing around plot 215 and increasing in severity throughout replicate 3.  Early dry conditions further staggered the crop emergence.
• Good rains through late July and into early August ensured the crop was growing well albeit patchy across the trial with high levels of disease present at both the Z31 and Z39 applications. Only 48.9 mm of rain fell from the second Z39 application to the end of October reducing the benefits to yield of the different fungicide treatments.
•  Increasing variability in the trial due to the sub-soil issues from plot 215 into replicate 3 was a significant factor. Yield data should be treated with caution due to the variability of the site with disease control is the most accurate assessment of treatment efficacy.

• Control of net form net blotch using effective fungicides resulted in yield increases of up to 1.0 t/ha compared to nil treatments.
• Two strategic fungicide applications during early-mid growth stages (before end of August) – suppressed disease development and provided control comparable to four applications made every 2-4 weeks from early August.
• Tilt, Amistar Xtra, Opera and Prosaro were effective for control of net form of net blotch.

• Control of net form net blotch using effective fungicides resulted in yield increases of up to 1.0 t/ha compared to nil treatments.
• Two strategic fungicide applications during early-mid growth stages (before end of August) – suppressed disease development and provided control comparable to four applications made every 2-4 weeks from early August.
• Tilt, Amistar Xtra, Opera and Prosaro were effective for control of net form of net blotch.

• Boxer Gold IBS + PSPE or Trifluralin IBS + Avadex Xtra IBS + Dual Gold PSPE gave the best pre-emergent annual ryegrass control in 2009.
• Boxer Gold or Dual Gold applied PSPE significantly improved ryegrass control in the crop row.

Controlled traffic farming leaves permanent wheel tracks when growing crops. There are large savings in
costs, especially due to lower horsepower requirements, and also minimisation of compaction layer effects
on the crop. Machinery with different configurations and widths of wheel tracks presents one problem for
controlled traffic.

• Observations in N.S.W., Victoria and Western Australia clearly show that tap rooted crops have excellent straight tap roots when grown on beds when compared to flat paddocks. 
• These initial considerations suggest narrow raised beds may offer a better overall soil water exploration throughout different depths of the profile and a better depth of rooting by crops. 
   

• Vetch production in a very tough season was little affected by trafficking imposed in 2015.
• After three years of crop production, low levels of trafficking have had little impact on grain yield on a Minnipa soil, multiple trafficking on wet soil (in 2015) increased grain yields in the second and third crops.
• Ripping conducted in 2015 lifted the soil substantially but has not benefited production in any of the following three crops.

• Multiple machinery pass trafficking decreased crop yields for at least four years on a Loxton deep sand.
• Single pass machinery trafficking did not result in yield decreases at Loxton and rarely at any of the other trafficking soil types in this project.
• Most soils in the south-eastern Australian Low rainfall zone are not likely to remediate from compaction naturally.

• In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops.
• The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached.
• In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops. The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached. In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops. The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached. In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

Seed-applied fungicide had no significant effect on plant establishment, yield or grain quality (Refer Table 2). Visual differences in disease levels were not present between the fungicide treatments. Spot Form of Net Blotch was present at low levels in the trial and Leaf Scald was present at very low levels.

A small but significant decrease in black leg infection was observed from the Atrazine applications. Further work will have to be undertaken in this area to confirm these results.

There were no differences in yield between the treatments.

Medic must be controlled prior to sowing lentils because there are no in-crop herbicide options available.

The best pre-sowing options coming out of this trial were:

• cultivation prior to sowing
• SpraySeed®
• Roundup Power Max® plus Lexone®
• Roundup Power Max® plus Hammer®

Roundup Power Max® alone was not very effective, and Roundup Power Max® plus Dicamba® resulted in extensive lentil damage which resulted in low yields.

• Group D resistance will develop if trifluralin is consistently used without other control practices.
• Trifluralin used in combination with other herbicides such as Avadex Xtra (Group E) and Dual Gold (Group K), may enhance ryegrass control and could prolong the onset of Group D resistant ryegrass populations.
• BoxerGold was very effective on both sites with added crop safety. This herbicide is expected to be released in 2008 and likely to be expensive but should be included in the crop rotation to reduce the likelihood of developing resistance.

• Group D resistance will develop if trifluralin is consistently used without other control practices.
• Trifluralin used in combination with other herbicides such as Avadex Xtra (Group E) and Dual Gold (Group K), may enhance ryegrass control and could prolong the onset of Group D resistant ryegrass populations.
• BoxerGold was very effective on both sites with added crop safety. This herbicide is expected to be released in 2008 and likely to be expensive but should be included in the crop rotation to reduce the likelihood of developing resistance.

• Trifluralin was more effective at reducing ryegrass numbers in the cereal phase than in break crops.
• There are more benefits from good rotation than improved weed control alone, but benefits (in this case additional nitrogen) may not be apparent until several years after the non-cereal break crop or pasture phase.

This trial looked at protecting the crop from excessive sun and wind during the spring when crops are flowering and setting seed by covering it in shade cloth in early September. It was expected that this would improve yield and grain size but in fact it had the opposite effect with reduced yields and poor grain quality.

• Copper concentrations in tissue on sandy soils declined with the age of the plant, with indications of copper deficiency for older plants.
• Patches of crop with partially empty heads were observed while the rest of the head was still green.
• Suggested that EDTA extractable copper might give indication of likely copper deficiency in sandy soils.
• Deficiency can be overcome by applying copper fertilisers to soil (long term solution) or a foliar copper spray (short term solution).

• Trials on Yellow Duplex Soils at 3 sites in the Southern Wimmera.
• At one site commercial chelated copper was foliar applied.
• Treatments were Nil; 75 or 150 g Cu/ha at late booting; 37.5 or 75 g Cu/ha at late tillering and; split applications of 75 g Cu/ha at late tillering plus either 75 g or 150 g Cu/ha at late booting.
• At two sites formulations of copper were compared, these treatments included Nil; copper oxychloride; copper sulphate and a commercial chelated copper. All were applied at 75 g Cu/ha at late tillering plus 150 g Cu/ha at booting. All plots were sown to wheat. Dry matter cuts were used at anthesis and maturity to estimate crop growth and yield components.
• Since copper is important in wheat for production of viable pollen the late booting treatments (applied after pollen set): resulted in only an 18% increase in grains/ear and grain yield.
• Whereas copper applied at late tillering increased grain yield by 1.55 t/ha or 93% (resulting from 60% more grains/ear and 20% more ears/m2 • Split applications did not result in higher yields.
• Both copper oxychloride and the chelated product resulted in grain yield increases between 0.94 and 1.26 t/ha but the chelated product is approximately seven times as expensive.

Crop was sown as part of a rotational trial, examining the effects of Group B residues on the following maize crop.

• In poorer seasons there is no positive economic reward for high nitrogen fertiliser inputs.
• Oats and vetch for either grazing or hay consistently provided positive gross margins.
• Wheat crops which followed a chemical fallow provided the best gross margin in both trials.
• Aim to maximise profits, not necessarily yields.

Hundreds of crops have been domesticated and cultivated by humankind during the history of agriculture, utilised for food, forage, fibre and medicine. However, only a small number provide the bulk of the raw material necessary for human survival. The limited diversity has increased the vulnerability of crops to adverse climatic conditions and fluctuating markets.

• Grain yields were increased 20-30% by the soil or foliar application of zinc, provided that phosphorus was also supplied.
• Critical zinc concentrations determined in the glasshouse and field were the same, being 19-24 mg/kg throughout the life of the crop and 13-15 mg/kg zinc in grain.

• Initial barley growth was increased 40-50% and final yield by 10% when using seed with greater nutrients, even on soils not associated with manganese deficiency.
• Crops can drop into manganese deficiency late in the season with symptoms being pale, floppy leaves.
• Sufficient concentraiotns are Copper 2-3 ppm in grain and 5ppm in leaf, and for zinc 15ppm in grain and 23-25 ppm in leaf.
• Zinc is so cheap thatbit is worthwhile treating than taking any risk, at Wudinna this year a headland area not receiving zinc died while the remainder of the crop which received zinc survived the water stress.
• Trace element deficiencies seem to beexacerbated in dry years.

• This was a large scale demonstration using Impact applied to the sowing fertilizer at the two label rates of 400m/ha and 200mL/ha. The two other areas were sown with no Impact on the fertilizer but one was sprayed with Impact at 250mL/ha at stem elongation. 
• There were no obvious signs of leaf diseases or other symptoms in the plots but the two Impact in furrow' treatments delivered economic yield benefits. The previous two crops grown in the area were wheat, which may mean Take-all was a factor. 

• Wheat on wheat following canola is an alternative that will enable more cereal crop to be grown in a rotation.
• Raising inputs on cereals to increase yield returns well in $/ha.
• Alternative crops such as canola and lupins are not high income earners compared to cereals with optimum (higher than average) inputs.

• Wheat on wheat following canola is an alternative that will enable more cereal crop to be grown in a rotation.
• Under dry conditions there was no response to additional nitrogen or fungicide treatments.  
• Alternative crops such as canola and lupins yield very poorly in drought seasons.

• Wheat on wheat following canola is an alternative that will enable more cereal crop to be grown in a rotation.
• Barley yields best under dry conditions.
• There were responses to additional nitrogen (N) or fungicide treatments in all cereal crops.
• Alternative crops such as canola and lupins yield very poorly in drought seasons.

• Wheat on wheat following canola is an alternative that will enable moer cereal crop to be grown in a rotation.
• Wheat or cereal after wheat has given a better return than more canola for the trial period 2004 - 2008.
• Barley yields and returns better profits than wheat or triticale under dry conditions.
• There were ersponsees to fungicide treatments and added nitrogen in barley during 2008 and in all cereals during the long term.

• Decreasing row spacing and increasing plant density improved chickpea and faba bean competitive abilities.

• The improved competitive abilities improved yields and reduced sowthistle biomass and seed production, which will improve weed control in subsequent crops.
 

• Crop establishment was not improved by on-row seeding or by increasing seeding rate in 2016.
• Higher seeding rate increased early dry matter but this effect declined during the growing season.
• In 2016 row placement or seeding rate did not affect grain yield or grain quality.
• Sowing on-row may be an advantage on non-wetting soils with low moisture at seeding.

Neither crop establishment, grain yield nor quality were changed by on-row seeding or by increased seeding rate in 2017, similar to results in 2016.

Crop establishment in the non-wetting soil was poor in 2017.

In 2015, with low moisture at seeding, improved crop establishment from on-row seeding in the non-wetting soil increased crop competition and lowered brome grass weed seed set.

• Deeper sowing at 3-4 cm achieved better early dry matter and increased grain yield in a later sowing.
• Frost damage may have lowered yield with early sowing, but inter-row placement at TOS1 had the highest yield.
• TOS 3 placement in row achieved better early plant growth and higher grain yield.
• Later sowing reduced brome grass numbers, and the size of the panicles, so it substantially lowered returns to the seed bank.

• Crop establishment increased with on row sowing. Stubble from the previous season helps soil moisture infiltrate into non-wetting sands and into a position closer to the seed.
• Initial germination of brome grass weeds was higher with inter row sowing.
• Late brome grass weed numbers was also greatest with inter row sowing. Sowing on row may also increase crop and weed competition as will a higher seeding rate.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• High rates of applied N increased plant height and leaf area. Multispectral imaging using an unmanned aerial vehicle clearly showed thermal, infrared and NVDI differences between N treatments.
• Grain yield of barley following perennial ryegrass increased with applied N, most likely as N was tied up in stubbles at the start of the season and unavailable for plant growth.
• WUE estimated by computer modelling was high (approx. 20 kg/ha.mm) and similar to the potential for wheat grown in Tasmania. However, grain yield and WUE of barley following forage rape was unresponsive to applied N.

• The Tottenham area seemed to have the best season in the central west.
• The huge seasonal variation across the central west in 2003 overshadowed any other effects in the data.

Overall, the information shown in this report is only a very small portion of what is available from the crop monitoring program. 

Harvest results for this trial show a yield and quality improvement for areas where the TM21 was applied. One of the replications was adversely impacted by mechanical damage incurred during either spraying or fertilizer application in the later stages of crop development.

Paying close attention to this year's program will save on inputs, whilst maintaining the best chances for a good return.

2005 was not an easy year – it started off brilliantly with very good summer rains (1 in 30 year event) in the southern and central Mallee. The Wimmera did get some rain but nothing like the Mallee. Then it stopped raining until the second week in June - there were dire predictions in the media about the season, some learned scientists were even arguing that cropping in our area was not sustainable! Many people took heed from the negative predictions regarding the season and did not sow much crop dry. Sowing started in earnest in the middle of June and by mid July most of the planned cropping area was sown.

Over 3 years of crop production (2009-2011) applying replacement phosphorus (P) rates have been the most economic.

• A replacement P strategy produced similar yields to 10 and 20 kg/ha P rates in 2010.
• The trial indicated an economic benefit in increasing P rates up to 20 kg/ha on a deep sandy loam in 2010.

• The rotation involving peas out-yielded all other rotations.  The continuous barley was not surprisingly the lowest yielding plot. In replicated small plot trials at Riccarton yields from continuous barley have only been 50% of annual clover/barley plots. 
• For further conclusions please see the attached trial report.

• All 4 rotations produced good gross margins for 2014.
• KI rotation plus broad beans’ best gross margin based on 2 year average.
• Need to compare data over 3 years of crop rotation.

• Trifluralin use resulted in significant crop damage at this site.
• Crusader can cause early crop damage, and the label does warn about crop yellowing, but in general the crop with 'grow out' of this damage in a matter of weeks.

Crop selection in 2003 is complicated by the conditions in 2002. The main issues that can affect your crops this year are:

Cereal Root Disease levels in 2002 were very low and disease levels from 2001 will be carried over - 2002 was NOT a disease break year. The last time we saw CCN in the southern Mallee was after the 1994 dry year when eelworm did not hatch but was carried over from 1993 and affected wheat crops in 1995.

Foliar Disease levels were low in 2002 and stubbles from 2001 will be the main source of inoculum outbreak for diseases in 2003.

Residual Herbicides used in 2001 and 2002 can have a large impact on susceptible crops in 2003.

• Legume crops consistently increased pre-sowing soil nitrogen in the year following the break.
• Two-year break phases that included a brown manure vetch phase have generally resulted in the highest pre sowing soil nitrogen levels in the subsequent wheat crops.
• One and two-year break phases reduce Rhizoctonia soil inoculum, however levels increase significantly following the first cereal crop.
• Two-year break treatments generally reduced brome grass populations in the cereal phase, however all rotations relied on Clearfield herbicides for brome grass control by the second wheat crop following the break.
• The benefits from extra soil water following some break phases in this trial have been variable and small.

When sub-soil water is present, growing high value canola and legume break crops can be profitable in the Mallee.

Where brome grass seed bank populations are high, break crop sequences of longer than two years are necessary to decrease numbers, and keep them down.

The application of CLF herbicide chemistry is effective in reducing brome grass populations, but herbicide resistance will develop quickly if they are used repeatedly in the same paddock.

• The choice of legume species and management were found to influence the amount of nitrogen fixed by both crop and pasture legumes byaffecting either legume reliance upon N2 fixation for growth or changes in dry matter accumulation.
• Medium to high soil mineral N concentrations at sowing appeared to suppress N2 fixation by field pea more than lupins or faba beans.
• Pulse legumes grown for grain generally result in lower net inputs of fixed N.
• Available soil N following either legume crops or pastures can represent an additional 40 to 90kg N/ha in the 1st year.
• The increased N uptake by the 1st wheat crop grown after legumes was equivalent to 27-40% of N in the previous year's legum residues.

• Wheat sown after break crops produced up to 1 t/ha more than wheat after wheat
• The greatest benefit of the break crop was produced at the earliest sowing
• Safflower produced the break crop effect but produced low wheat yields, small grain but high protein due to drying out the soil profile.

• The single cropping phase of cotton achieved the highest returns for both $/ha and $/ML.
• The double cropping treatment of canola and maize achieved the highest returns for $/ha.
• All double cropping treatments achieved similar returns for $/ML.

More reliable management strategies for the production of broad leaved phases.

Identification of more reliable break phase options.

Guidelines to identify trigger points for when, for how long and which break phases to use for improved farming systems outcomes.

Reliable estimation of risks with break phases as well as their total impacts on following cereal crops.

• Break crops can be just as profitable as wheat crops.
• Antas sub-clover (for hay production) as the break crop was the most profitable option.
• Beans were the most effective at fixing nitrogen, averaging 13 kgN/tDM produced.

• Break crops can be just as profitable as wheat crops
• Antas sub-clover (for hay production) as the break crop was the most profitable option
• Beans were the most effective at fixing nitrogen, averaging 13 kgN/tDM produced

• Time of Sowing; get it right after the break crop.
• Effects of the break crops are often realised for at least 2 seasons after being planted.
• Beans consistently fixed the most nitrogen over the 3 year period; averaging 15Kg N/ha per tonne of dry matter produced (above the ground).
• Financial benefit of a break crop needs to be worked out over life of rotation.

There were no clear significant detrimental effects found of the herbicides on any of the wheat varieties tested. However, Barunga and Beulah yielded significantly better than Meering and Ouyen.

• Glyphosate at either 1.0 or 1.5L/ha applied at the flowering stage of ryegrass was very effective in reducing the viability of seed set.
• Herbicides applied to barley at the soft or firm dough stage of grain fill did not reduce individual grain weight, grain viability or early plant vigour.

• Glyphosate and glufosinate applied to flowering annual ryegrass give better control compared to later applications. While paraquat and diquat can be applied later.
• Paraquat 0.8L/ha or glyphosate 2.0L/ha applied to flowering ryegrass gave over 90% control of viable seed set per head.
• Glyphosate at 1.0L/ha or glufosinate above 2.0L/ha gave more than 65% control of ryegrass seed heads.
• Herbicides applied to barley at the soft or firm dough stage of grain fill did not reduce grain number, weight or viability.

• All herbicide treatments reduced grain yield by 13% in TOS 1 and at least 8% in TOS 2.
• Glyphosate (540 g/L) at 3.0L/ha was the only treatment to significantly reduce germination, down to 7% at TOS 1 and 88% at TOS 2.
• For each application timing glyphosate (540 g/L), glufosinate (200g/L) and paraquat (250g/L) significantly reduced the germination percentage of ryegrass.

• Crop topping provides an excellent strategy to control escapee or resistant weeds in field pea
  crops.
• Yield can be severely penalised if crop topping occurs too early.
• Correct variety choice and careful timing of crop topping is essential
• Varieties should be selected to achieve maximum yield simultaneously with maximum weed
  control.
• Ontime spraying achieved excellent weed control as annual ryegrass and wild oats were at
  the flowering stage.

• Crop topping at the recommended time of application (ryegrass milky dough) resulted in no yield loss for any genotype.

• Results generally showed that earlier maturing lines displayed less yield loss in
  crop-topping treatments than later maturing types.

• No significant response to crop topping treatments was observed.

• No significant response to crop topping treatments was observed.