• Although increasing the frequency of N applications appeared to slightly increase grain yield (machine harvested) compared to all “up front” in seedbed yield differences were not statistically significant.
• As a general comment, timing of N application did not affect the grain yield, whether it be all up front or split over 4 timings up to V6.
• The nil applied N treatment yielded 9.49t/ha.
• However N content of the grain at harvest was greater where split applications involving later timings were compared to all the nitrogen applied at sowing indicating greater N fertiliser efficiency
• However, unless there is a premium for the maize protein in the grain resulting from later N timings the difference may be of little value to the grower.
• Soil N prior to sowing and watering up was 25 kg N/ha (0-60cm). The nil treatment contained a total of 147 kg N/ha at harvest, suggesting in-crop mineralisation resulted in 122 kg N/ha released to the crop.

• The highest grain yield (machine harvested) achieved was 16.36 t/ha with the applied N rate of 240 kg N/ha in a crop producing 30.63 t/ha dry matter at 50.45% harvest index.
• N applications above 240kg N/ha were uneconomic in the trial.
• The nil control treatment yielded 10.89 t/ha in a crop producing 26t/ha dry matter at 51% harvest index.
• Available Soil N prior to sowing and watering up was 34 kg N/ha (0-60cm). The nil control N offtake at harvest was 241 kg N/ha, suggesting in-crop mineralisation resulted in 207 kg N/ha of the N taken up.
• At the highest level of N (560kg N/ha) there was no advantage to applying 80 Kg N/ha of the dose very late at tasselling.

• Header grain yields averaged 18.2t/ha with no yield benefit observed from applying pre-drill urea in the trial when N was applied post sowing as fertigation.
• In a trial with an overall dose of post sowing N of 207 kg N/ha applied via fertigation there was no significant yield increase from the earlier pre-drill N applications of between 0 – 315kg N/ha.
• The economic optimum level of nitrogen applied was 252kg N/ha (45N pre-drill + 207kg N as fertigation).
• No significant differences were recorded in total dry matter (DM) content at V6 or at harvest with an average DM content of 34.6t/ha.
• The N content at harvest revealed an average N content of 462kg N/ha with a range of approximately 415-530kg N/ha in the crop, but there were no statistical differences.
• The N offtake at harvest indicated soil mineralisation provided up to 165kg N/ha to grow the crop with lower N efficiency recorded from applied fertiliser at higher overall N rates.
• There were no significant differences in test weight (mean 81.1) or harvest index (mean 51.7%).

• Work conducted in low and medium rainfall environments indicate that N2O emissions are low from an overall national perspective. • Results showed that there was no clear response of N2O emissions to nitrogen applied at sowing and post sowing. • High pre-seeding soil mineral nitrogen raises the possibility of higher N2O losses over the fallow period following significant rainfall.

• Work conducted in low and medium rainfall environments indicate that N2O emissions are low from an overall national perspective. • Results showed that there was no clear response of N2O emissions to nitrogen applied at sowing and post sowing. • High pre-seeding soil mineral nitrogen raises the possibility of higher N2O losses over the fallow period following significant rainfall.

Preliminary results showed the level of nitrous oxide emissions did not increase over the 2013 winter as a result of near capacity soil water contents coupled with increased nitrate nitrogen levels resulting from seeding and in-crop nitrogen applications on the canola compared with a pulse crop and legume pasture.

Preliminary results showed the level of nitrous oxide emissions did not increase over the 2013 winter as a result of near capacity soil water contents coupled with increased nitrate nitrogen levels resulting from seeding and in-crop nitrogen applications on the canola compared with a pulse crop and legume pasture.

• N2O losses appear to be minimal from dryland low to medium rainfall farming systems; peak emissions of only 4.0 gN2O-N/ha/day were measured following rainfall.
• N2O emissions from legume stubble over summer and with synthetic fertiliser applied in-crop were low.
• An increase in soil water was the major driver of N2O emissions.

• N2O losses appear to be minimal from dryland low to medium rainfall farming systems; peak emissions of only 4.0 gN2O-N/ha/day were measured following rainfall.
• N2O emissions from legume stubble over summer and with synthetic fertiliser applied in-crop were low.
• An increase in soil water was the major driver of N2O emissions.

• N2O losses appear to be minimal from dryland low to medium.
• Rainfall farming systems; peak emissions of only 4.0 g N2O-N/ha/day were measured following rainfall.
• N2O emissions from legume stubble over summer and with synthetic fertiliser applied in-crop were low.
• An increase in soil water was the major driver of N2O emissions.

• Wheat established by no-till yielded at least as well as full cut sowing on stony soils in 2009.
• Seed scattered on soil surface germinated at Lock in 2009!
• Hydraulic tines, K-Hart discs and Canadian designed points are excellent options for no-till on stony soils.

• Peat and liquid formulations were the most consistent inncoulants across all pulses, having the highest nodule scores and equal or highest grain yields, compared with the remaining treatments. 
• Without inoculation, faba bean and chick pea failed to nodulate indicating host rhizobia were absent at this site. This consequently lowered the grain yields. 
• On the other hand, lupin, field pea and lentil effectively nodulated without inoculation, indicating their respective rhizobia had colonised this site. 
• Fungicide seed dressing (P-Pickel T) did not affect pulse nodulation, but did increase grain yeild in chickpea. Further investigation is needed to establish the reasons. 

• Chickpea and lupin failed to nodulate without inoculation.
• Inoculation formula had minimal effects on growth and yield of pulses at this site.
• Peat and liquid formulations were consistently reliable inoculants across all pulses based on nodulation and grain yield
• Differences measured in nodulation were not reflected in differences measured in crop growth and grain yield, suggesting soil nitrogen reserves were sufficient to make up most of the crop’s needs.
• Field pea and lentil rhizobia appear more widespread in this environment and better adapted to the acidic soils, while chickpea rhizobia appear less adapted.

The addition of clay even at low rates of 75 and 150 t/ha have been very effective in increasing the yield from an average 2.45 t/ha of the Control to about 2.95 t/ha. It is expected that the claying will have a long lasting effect and that the yield increases compared to the control will remain.

• Noodle wheat production was not suited to this paddock due to the high soil nitrogen levels. Milling wheat production was a much better choice for this paddock as evidenced by the performance of Mitre. High soil nitrogen levels resulted in protein levels too high for the noodle varieties to achieve their ASWN potential for all plots at the site except Lorikeet with no urea at sowing.

1. Higher soil fertility was the most profitable and highest yielding system for the 2018 sorghum crop.
2. Higher legume is cumulatively the most profitable system thus far.
3. The Baseline system is falling behind four of the six systems in the trial on most comparisons.

1. Summer break crops reduced levels of cereal soil-borne disease and allowed more even and higher yielding wheat crops in 2018, however they were the least profitable.
2. Root lesion nematodes continued to decline, even under susceptible crops due to the dry growing conditions of 2017 and 2018.
3. Higher nitrogen supply did not increase plant uptake or yield due to low in-crop rainfall, but this extra nitrogen is still available in the soil profile for following crops.

Three projects are running, one in each of the western, northern and southern GRDC regions. NSW DPI and FarmLInk, together with Southern Farming Systems, the Mackillop Farm Management Group and AgGrow Agronomy, are responsible for the Southern GRDC region.

The project still underway, the analyses of samples will be completed during 2016.

• The site was very responsive to nitrogen (N) fertiliser. Increasing N inputs from 12 to 75 kg N/ha increased yields by about 0.36 t/ha
• NUlogic suggested very little response to P and K after soil testing. It is important to be soil testing at least every 3-4 years so that fertiliser rates recommended are applied for maximum economic returns to the grower.
• Tissue tests on the 3rd July indicated marginal S deficiency in the no S treatments but there was no yield response.
• Wind and rain after seeding caused furrow fill resulting in poor germination (5-15 plants m²).
• Yield potential  probably limited by low soil pH
• Decile 1 rainfall year for the area, interpret results accordingly.
• Quality analysis not yet available.

• A review of fertiliser responses on different soils in the southern Wimmera.
• Unfortunately the scanned copy I received was illegible, there is only one copy in the Victorian library system and they would not release the printed version.
• Primarily on pastures but some cropping experiments.

• Conventional tillage enhances soil organic carbon (SOC) turnover with the potential to simultaneously increase plant available nutrients [nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S)] in the soil compared with no-till and perennial pasture.
• Across farming management practices and under ideal soil moisture, soil organic matter (SOM) could have supplied up to 45 kg N, 16 kg P and 19 kg S/ha in the absence of plant carbon (C) input.
• Over a longer period (126 days), particularly if there is a lack of plant C input (e.g. a normal fallow period), any P or S released via native SOM turnover over a shorter period (e.g. over 30 days) would have been immobilised by microorganisms and/or adsorbed to soil minerals, hence decreasing P and S availability for crop uptake

Variable rate fertiliser application has a real and profitable place in the Mallee when combined with good paddock science. The precision technology gives the ability to examine the yield data for many effects including other possible influencing factors such as elevation, slope aspect or orientation to the sun, and probably many others.

• Calculate the quantity of key nutrients (N and P) that you removed from your paddocks in grain last year using simple rules of thumb – aim to at least replace this and add more if you can.
• Deep N soil test in paddocks where protein was low.
• Sow into standing stubbles if possible.
• Make more informed nutrient decisions - know your soil organic carbon & PBI.

• The omission (absence) of nitrogen and phosphorus fertiliser inputs at the Inverleigh canola trial site caused a statistically significant reduction in canola grain yield
• Visual biomass differences at the Glenthompson wheat site were noted during the season, but did not translate to yield
• Low rainfall and high temperatures in the 2015 spring reduced the response of crops to the presence or absence of nutrients

In a year with an outlook of a dry finish and lack of grain fill due to limited moisture, high temperatures or frost, the ability to take advantage of early crop growth through oaten hay is a reasonable risk management tool to consider.

• One of the greatest risks of the deep cultivation techniques is wind erosion as a result of the burial and removal of all surface cover. In 2011 strong post-seeding wind events in mid-June resulted in significant wind erosion and sand blasting of young crop seedlings. 
• The wind erosion and sand blasting of the seedlings was a significant setback for the crop and would be partly responsible for the relatively low yields at the site. 
• Grain yields at the site ranged from 1.3 to 1.8 t/ha.
• For further results please see the attached trial report.

• For the fourth year running, on-row sowing proved it has potential as a brome management tool on non-wetting sands, reducing brome grass seed set by 55%.
• The use of trifluralin with metribuzin reduced the brome density in July but did not reduce seed set.
• On-row sowing resulted in more soil water and nitrogen supply potential near the crop,  improved crop establishment and higher crop biomass.
• On-row sowing did increase root disease incidence, but there were low levels of disease for both on- and inter-row sowing in 2017.

All tillage treatments had a little effect on the management of SWR and plant establishment in the severe water repellent gravel sand at Moora. Nevertheless, yield improvements were recorded, in particular with the “Large offsets” and the “Modified one-way with standard discs” treatments.

At this stage, it is not possible to clearly state what changes drove the yield increase. Given the little effect that the cultivations had on the SWR it is possible that improved soil structure, increased nutrient availability and nitrogen mineralisation may have played a role on the increased productivity.

The yield potential of the canola crop in 2015 was low given it was sown relatively late, plant numbers were low and there was a dry finish, this may have compromised the response to the tillage treatments. Observation of the trial in the following growing seasons and the response of a cereal crop in 2016 will help us to better understand the long term effect of the treatments on crop growth.

On deep sandy profiles subsoil compaction and acidity are major constraints. At this site the limited cropping history resulted in an expectation that the site would not be compacted but compaction was severe, indicating how susceptible these pale sands can be to compaction. For many deep sands, liming followed by deep ripping with topsoil slotting may be one of the most economical ways of effectively overcoming subsoil compaction and acidity to depths of 40-60cm.

On severely repellent sands however, it may be that deep ripping alone is inadequate and options which overcome the repellence and assist with weed control while at the same time addressing subsoil compaction and acidity may be required to get sustained productivity benefits (Davies et. al. 2017). The impact of deep ripping on highly repellent soils is variable with anecdotal reports that ripping can sometimes worsen the expression of repellence and result in poorer crop establishment. Other reports indicate substantial productivity gains can also be achieved (Blackwell et. al. 2016). Deep ripping may help overcome soil water repellence by: 1) creating a rougher soil surface allowing water to pond and infiltrate over time; 2) loosening the dry topsoil making it a more effective mulch, reducing soil moisture loss from the subsurface soil; 3) delving some seams of subsoil to the surface which act as pathways for water entry, with some ripper tine designs and attachments facilitating this more than others. Conversely the negative effects of deep ripping can include: 1) enhanced drying of the repellent topsoil from the loosening action; 2) increased expression of the water repellence when the soil is ripped when it is quite dry. Repellence severity, or expression, is increased with these negative effects which was the case for this site. For other sites where repellence is more moderate any benefits of deep ripping may outweigh the negative impacts. The mixed effects of deep ripping on repellent soils needs further research to be better understood. It is likely that rippers with C-shaped or parabolic shaped tines with broader points and wider ‘face’ plates will achieve more subsoil delving into the topsoil. Some rippers can also be fitted with wings which can also increase the degree of soil mixing. A greater degree of subsoil delving could result in development of more effective infiltration paths and longer lasting reductions in topsoil water repellence.

In this study rotary spading and modified one-way ploughing were effective in improving water infiltration on severely repellent sand even if they did not remove the deeper compaction. Second-hand one-way disc ploughs have a relatively low capital and operating cost (Table 1) and are relatively cheap to modify into a simple but robust tool for partial soil inversion (Davies et. al. 2016), although good seed bed preparation is still essential.

• Average grain yield for the untreated control plots was 2.34 t/ha. Clay spreading and rotary spading gave the largest machine harvest grain yield responses of 400 kg/ha or more, mouldboard ploughing 270 kg/ha and one-way ploughing 180 kg/ha (Figure 1) compared to their nearest comparative control plots. Offset discs gave no yield response in 2013 but did have positive yield responses in previous seasons (Table 1).
• Grain protein levels averaged 11.4% for the untreated controls, clay spreading had 0.5% more protein and mouldboard ploughing 0.2% than their neighbouring controls (data not shown).
• Screenings for the majority of treatments averaged about 2.1%. Mouldboard ploughing was the only treatment to have significantly lower screenings of just 1.2% (data not shown).
• Total above-ground shoot biomass and head number was assessed using plant cuts (Table 1). Shoot biomass on average was increased by 95% (+4.3 t/ha) by rotary spading, 57% (+2.7 t/ha) by clay spreading and 47% (+2.3 t/ha) by mouldboard ploughing compared to the untreated controls. Head numbers on average were increased by 32% (78 heads) by spading, 22% (58 heads) by mouldboard ploughing and 17% (43 heads) by claying compared to the untreated controls.
• Observations made earlier in the season indicated that emergence of many plants in the untreated control areas was delayed and had fewer tillers than the earlier emerging plants in the many of the treated areas.
• The whole plant cut transects were taken across different soil types, rotary spading gave the best results on the poor pale deep sand at this site while mouldboard ploughing performed best on the better yellow sand (Transect 3).
• The net 3-year benefit and return on investment (ROI) has been determined for the first 3-years of the trial (Table 2). Estimated costs for the amelioration treatments are based on owner-operated and contract rates. Benefits associated with some of the treatments such as weed control for the mouldboard plough and reduced wind erosion for the claying treatment have not been included.
• The one-way ploughing treatment was the most affected by wind erosion in 2011, resulting in a loss in grain yield and income which has substantially reduced the net benefit and the return on investment for this treatment although the subsequent years have been profitable (Table 2). Of the other treatments rotary spading and mouldboard ploughing had the highest net benefit, driven largely by the large lupin yield increases measured in 2012. Claying also had impressive yield gains and substantial increases in income (Table 2) but the high cost of this treatment reduced the 3-year net benefit and return on investment relative to the deep cultivation treatments. Given that claying can show benefits for decades net benefit and ROI for this treatment should continue to improve over time and it still only took 2 years to cover the cost of the treatment. Offset discs had grain yield benefits for the first 2 years but showed no response in 2013 suggesting that the benefits of the shallow cultivation may have dissipated.

• Onion weed is a significant pest and competitor of medic pastures. In mixed farming systems, control in the pasture phase is often reliant on cultivation.
• None of the herbicides evaluated in this trial provided adequate onion weed control in the medic pasture phase without unacceptable reduction in medic biomass.
• The use of non-selective herbicides and their mixes, combined with strategic cultivation if required, is still the most effective short term strategy in reducing the impact of onion weed on crop/pasture systems on Eyre Peninsula (EP).

The response to nitrogen in these trials should encourge the application of urea for wheat crops in these regions when the deep soil N test shows that the soil is low in available N prior to sowing in relation to the target yield set for the crop.

Opportunistic summer cropping can make use of summer rainfall that may otherwise be lost to evaporation.

In this instance the opportunistic crop of canola in 2011 has proven the more successful rotation. At the beginning of the season, given the rainfall during harvest, the soil had comparable moisture at depth irrespective of the crop in 2011. The weed break given by the canola was significant, very few grass weeds coming through in old canola plots. The management of weeds proved telling in this trial. Much of the potential wheat yield was removed by the brome grass in the wheat on wheat plots.

Wheat on wheat this season achieved approximately 16kg/mm of rainfall. Wheat growing without the competition of weeds on the canola plots achieved in excess of 19kg/mm. Making crude assumptions that wheat on fallow grew at 19kg/mm, and the additional 400kg/ha yield was the result of additional moisture alone, then there was approximately 21mm of additional moisture in the fallow plots. Fallow had more moisture available closer to the surface than the other plots though not significantly more moisture throughout the remainder of the profile.

In 2012 wheat on fallow plots returned $100 more than wheat grown on either wheat or canola residue. This recouped the $40 loss from the 2011 fallow with additional profit. But fallow did not result in the greatest total profit over the two seasons of the trial. The extra production on the fallowed treatments was unable to make up the opportunity cost of not growing a crop in 2011. This is not unexpected given the high crop yields achieved in 2011.

In this instance the opportunistic crop of canola in 2011 has proven the more successful rotation. At the beginning of the season, given the rainfall during harvest, the soil had comparable moisture at depth irrespective of the crop in 2011. The weed break given by the canola was significant, very few grass weeds coming through in old canola plots. The management of weeds proved telling in this trial. Much of the potential wheat yield was removed by the brome grass in the wheat on wheat plots.

Wheat on wheat this season achieved approximately 16kg/mm of rainfall. Wheat growing without the competition of weeds on the canola plots achieved in excess of 19kg/mm. Making crude assumptions that wheat on fallow grew at 19kg/mm, and the additional 400kg/ha yield was the result of additional moisture alone, then there was approximately 21mm of additional moisture in the fallow plots. Fallow had more moisture available closer to the surface than the other plots though not significantly more moisture throughout the remainder of the profile.

In 2012 wheat on fallow plots returned $100 more than wheat grown on either wheat or canola residue. This recouped the $40 loss from the 2011 fallow with additional profit. But fallow did not result in the greatest total profit over the two seasons of the trial. The extra production on the fallowed treatments was unable to make up the opportunity cost of not growing a crop in 2011. This is not unexpected given the high crop yields achieved in 2011.

There was no significant difference in the grain yield from cut and uncut early sown Mackellar wheat and May sown wheat, all sown at 200 plants/m2. Early sown uncut wheat at a density of 50 plants/m2 yielded significantly lower than 125 and 200 plants/m2. With lower plant densities and cutting treatments imposed, there were less tillers and ears/m2, however this resulted in reduced soil water usage and more moisture being available for grain fill. Plant height was significantly greater with the highest plant density in early sown wheat and the incidence of lodging was significantly greater for this treatment.

• No crop type on any soil achieved optimum plant density at this site, with canola treatments having extremely poor establishment.
• Overall, wheat had a significantly higher biomass than canola, lupins or chickpeas.
• Wheat yields were average to above average for the area depending on the soil type, which is a favourable result given the average decile 4 growing season rainfall.
• Canola yielded extremely poorly and proved to be a risky crop choice for the given season and soil types

• Crop establishment, biomass, yield and harvest index of wheat was largely unaffected by break crop rotation from the previous two seasons.
• Wheat yield was above district average for both the light and heavy soil site which was not expected on the average decile 4 rainfall.
• Grain produced from wheat following a pulse-canola rotation had higher protein content compared to the canola-chickpea rotation.

• Standard inoculation practices are unlikely to deliver satisfactory nodulation where pulses are sown into dry soils.
• Pea and chickpea sown late (26 June) had the higher nodulation and crop production than those sown dry. Where the soil remained dry for 20 days after sowing nodulation was poor, regardless of the inoculation strategy used.
• Nodulation of pea was low regardless of sowing time at Minnipa in 2018. Both peat applied to seed and granule formulations resulted in similar nodule numbers per plant.
• Nodulation can be improved when dry sowing if inoculation rate of peat is increased. Doubling the rate of inoculation significantly improved pea nodulation. 
• The performance the rhizobial granules was inconsistent. A granule produced at SARDI was more effective in one experiment, but not the other. Two commercial granules provided no advantage compared to peat applied to seed.

EGA Wedgetail can successfully be grown for grain only or dual purpose use and achieve yields competitive with recently released main season cultivars sown in May.  Growers wishing to graze EGA Wedgetail should use high plant densities (at least 100 plants/m2 on 305 mm row spacing, higher on narrower spacing) and some N fertiliser at sowing (particularly if soil mineral N is low) to maximise forage yield.  Gorwers who wish to grow EGA Wedgetail for grain only should defer N fertiliser application until after Z30 to reduce early vegetative growth.  Neither of these experiments or any others during the early sowing project have found a yield benefir from reducing plant populations, and target plant density should be kept at 100-150 plans/m2 (less on wide rows, more on narrow rows) in order to better compete with weeds.

Phosphorous fertiliser is rapidly fixed into unavailable forms after sowing when the soil wets up in winter. There were no phosphorous fertiliser responses in a wide range of crops on sites with good fertiliser histories. At the Donald site, which has a poor fertiliser history, the phosphorous responses were significant, especially for the pulse crops, less for barley, and none for wheat.

Fertiliser P trials were undertaken on wheat, barley, canola, field pea, lentil and faba beans at four sites over two seasons (1999 and 2000). Fertiliser P is rapidly fixed and becomes unavailable to plants on neutral to alkaline soils. P responses over the two seasons indicate that for wheat, barley, canola and field pea the responses to P fertiliser were insignificant or if a response did occur it occurred from 0 to 6 kg P/ha. It appears that faba beans do respond to higher rates of P (up to 18 kg P/ha), which was a consistent result in both years. It is not clear how lentils respond to P fertiliser. It is recommended to base a P fertiliser application rate on:

• long-term P balance (P fertiliser applied minus the P exported in grain),
• soil test result (soil P test of above 15ppm Colwell appears to indicate adequate Phosphorus levels), and
• whole farm expenditure (not more than 10 to 12% of gross farm income expenditure on fertiliser (inclusive of N and S) - as an average of a minimum of 5 years).

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• At the Howlong site, applied nitrogen gave a yield and dry matter (DM) response, however there was no sulphur response.
• The Yarrawonga site showed a clear response to applied sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N), despite high soil sulphur levels. This suggests canola roots may not be effectively exploring the soil profile to access soil sulphur.
• The Yarrawonga site had an optimum sulphur application rate of 20kg S/ha, with yield penalties measured with sulphur rates above and below this optimal rate.
• The dry finish to the season caused significant challenges during 2017. This trial will be repeated at two sites during 2018 to understand how variable the responses to sulphur are likely to be during different seasonal conditions.

• At the Howlong site, applied nitrogen gave a yield and dry matter (DM) response, however there was no sulphur response.
• The Yarrawonga site showed a clear response to applied sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N), despite high soil sulphur levels. This suggests canola roots may not be effectively exploring the soil profile to access soil sulphur.
• The Yarrawonga site had an optimum sulphur application rate of 20kg S/ha, with yield penalties measured with sulphur rates above and below this optimal rate.
• The dry finish to the season caused significant challenges during 2017. This trial will be repeated at two sites during 2018 to understand how variable the responses to sulphur are likely to be during different seasonal conditions.

• Crop productivity on infertile sandy soils can be greatly improved by incorporating organic matter deep into the soil (>30 cm).
• In some cases, crop yields are further boosted with the incorporation of clay and/or fertiliser to depth.
• Two years of recent research show that the best soil modification treatments can increase crop yields by 70 to 200 %, even in challenging seasons.
• Treatments that address multiple constraints in these soils provide greater benefit than those addressing individual issues.
• Crop yields are reduced when clay is poorly incorporated into the soil.

5 Experiments started in 1980's.

3 sources of Cu (sulfate (25%); oxychloride (52%)  & chelate (EDTA 15% Cu) at 7 levels of Cu

Applied at 2 growth stages of wheat grown at 5 sites

1 kg Cu/ha rsuilted in maximum yield of 2.5 t/ha (summarised over 5 experiemnts in each particular year.

1-2kg of Cu sulfate required for maximum yield on severely deficient soil (.5 tha nil Cu ; 2.5 t/ha adequate Cu)

Little foliage damage if sprayed under cool, cloudy conditions. Warm sunny conditions increased leaf damage and decreased response to foliar sprays.

Chelate Cu always resukted in the highest yield per quantity of Cu while oxychloride always rsulted in the lowest grain yield per quantity of Cu .For example 100 g Cu/ha of chelate , 200 g as sulfate and 4000g oxychloride Cu for maximumgrain yield.

Sprays at 6th leaf were higher than late boot.

Cool condition for leaf absorption.

Results replicated over several season and soil types.

5 Experiments started in 1980's reported in 1985-86.

Sources of Zn (sulfate (22%);  & chelate (EDTA 15% Zn) at 5-7 levels of Zn

Applied at 2 growth stages [4th leaf; mid-tillering] of wheat grown at 5 sites.

Wheat sprayed at 4th leaf yielded higher [ about 0.5 t/ha higher) than delaying until mid-tillering under severely Zn deficient plants.

0.45 kg Zn/ha for both times of spraying resuilted in maximum yield of 1.5 -2.5 t/ha (summarised over 5 experiemnts) in each particular year. About 50 -60% grain yield increases.

Zn chelate was more effective at the  4the leaf stage. About 200 g Zn/ha for maximum grain yield for chelate while 450 for the sulfate source.

At mid-tillering about 250-300 g Zn/ha required for maximum yield for both chelate and sulfate 

 Recommendation : 1 kg of Zn sulfate required for maximum yield on severely deficient soil; spray on onset of symptoms.

Little foliage damage if sprayed under cool, cloudy conditions. Warm sunny conditions increased leaf damage and decreased response to foliar sprays.

Sprays at 4th leaf were higher yielding than the mid-tillering stage.

Cool condition for leaf absorption.

Results replicated over several season and soil types.

• Drying soil conditions at the time of sowing, caused a poor initial germination of seedlings.
• Grain yield tended to increase as the rate of phosphorus fertiliser applied increased.
• The liquid NP source performed no better or worse than the solid NP source.

• The early crop vigour results in this trial demonstrates the need to apply fresh phosphorus to crops at seeding to ensure good plant shoot and root growth during the early stages of crop growth.
• There was no difference observed between potassium drilled with the seed or topdressed immediately after sowing.  Good rainfall conditions early in the season may have rapidly moved the topdressed potassium into the root zone of the crop therefore overcoming any differences due to placement.  Subsoil testing for potassium may be important to determine the size of the soil potassium pool.

• Movement of water towards P fertiliser granules occurs and in calcareous soils this causes P to form a solid precipitate with calcium ions and prevents P moving away from where it is applied and reduces likely availability.
• Manganese from fluid fertilisers moves further away from point of application compared to a granular source of Mn and was potentially more available.
• Movement of zinc away from point of application was restricted regardless of the source and in both soils but fixation of zinc was less when the sources was fluid rather than granular.

• Seeding depth uniformity is influenced by both seed placement quality within the furrow and the consistency of added soil cover
• Many machinery design and operating parameters affect the uniformity of seeding depth across a paddock
• Deep sowing (eg. beyond 50-6omm) can significantly affect crop emergence and final grain yield
• Many paddock situations can soon suffer a 5-10% yield loss as a result of inadequate seeding depth, with more extreme situations suggesting possible yield penalties of 15-20% or more.

• Trace element investigations have revealed that pastures previously unresponsive to improvement can now be expected to respond after the application of molybdenum.
• Molybdenum should not be applied in excess.
• On coastal soils of southern Victoria and the far west copper is the most important trace element deficiency.
• In east Gippsland both copper and molybdenum deficiency occur together.
• In poorer dairying districts there is no response to molybdenum until potash is applied.

Pasture cropping is an option for KI producers wishing to maximise grazing/cropping options.
The key principles are:

• Graze the paddocks down to 75-100 mm with livestock, or apply herbicides. Aim to suppress (but not kill) the pastures either with the judicious use of herbicides to burn the perennials or through appropriate grazing to take out the annual weeds.
• Zero till with a tyne or disc. Minimise soil disturbance as it kills pastures and encourages weeds. The aim is to open a slot and loosen the soil to create sufficient tilth for germination of the seed crop.

• The MLA trials demonstrated that early summer seeding (January) of Serradella pod was a viable option. The summer sowing of Serradella pod has outperformed the twin sowing methods in the two trials conducted by SCF growers
• The current district practice of dry seeding pasture seed in Autumn on sandplain soils has severe limitations compared to summer pod sowing or seeding when soil is moist after full seasonal break. This was confirmed in the 2014 season in the MLA trial where the second time of sowing (into moist soil) outperformed the first time of sowing in total legume biomass production and this advantage has carried right through to seed set in Year 3 (in M1 trial Santorini and Margurita plots).
• The performance of a precision seeder for sowing Serradella in a 2015 trial demonstrated that modifications of conventional seeding systems could improve plant establishment efficiency by more that 35%.
• The hard seeded Serradellas are performing well in specific treatments in the MLA trials even on the lower fertility, acidic and non-wetting sandplain soils. Mixed maturity Serradellas like cv Margurita lose significant pod set with spraytopping ryegrass compared to Cadiz or Santorini.

• Further examination is necessary to determine to what degree winter cleaning in the final pasture year will improve the nitrogen status of the soil.
• These conclusions will need to be verified over several more seasons before reliable relationships can be confirmed.

• There was good correlation between the visual cuts and satellite data early in the season, but during the spring results diverged.
• Further work is required to fine-tune the satellite data for KI, including soil characteristics and more accurate rainfall data.
• Pastures from Space is a useful tool for landholders to further fine-tune their grazing operations.

• All plants performed poorly on the shallow gravel with moisture stress becoming evident.
• Weed control was poor with wild radish competing strongly with the perennials for moisture.
• The trial will continue for the next 2 years with more results becoming available during this time, including palability, feed value and persistence.

• Atriplex nummularia (Old man saltbush, 79.2% survival), Atriplex rhagodioides (Silver saltbush, 77.1% survival), and Rhagodia parabolica (Mealy saltbush, 76% survival) are the species with the highest survival rates.
• Weed control was poor with wild radish competing strongly with the perennials for moisture.
• The trial will continue next year with more results becoming available during this time, including palability, feed value and persistence.

• Demonstration sites are monitored annually for pasture and surface cover, biomass production and frequency of perennials.
• Soil sampling will occur again in late 2014/15 to determine any change in soil organic stocks as a result of the implementation of a change in management practice.

• Establishment of perennial pastures is relatively expensive and represents a high risk activity during years with very low spring rainfall. • Ideally Lucerne and pasture grasses should be established by sowing early in paddocks with low weed populations, such as may occur after several years of a well managed cropping program.
• Press wheels will improve establishment in some soil types.Establishment of perennial pastures is relatively expensive and represents a high risk activity during years with very low spring rainfall.
• Ideally Lucerne and pasture grasses should be established by sowing early in paddocks with low weed populations, such as may occur after several years of a well managed cropping program.
• Press wheels will improve establishment in some soil types.

• Crusher TT canola yielded between 2.24–2.79 t/ha with 232mm of growing season rainfall (Apr–Oct) and an estimated 118mm of stored available soil moisture (total 350mm).
• All plant populations were high (150–200 plants/m2) due to an error in calibration, however results produced were similar to previous years, with no significant difference in yield between the narrowest (22.5cm — 2.67t/ha) and widest (37.5cm — 2.75t/ha) row spacings.
• The 30cm spacing yielded significantly lower than both the 22.5cm and the 37.5cm spacings in this trial. 

• Canola following two years of wheat yielded 2.08t/ha despite establishing 50% fewer plants than canola grown during 2009, which yielded 1.59t/ha. The higher yield achieved during 2011 was attributed to more stored soil moisture at sowing. 
• The higher biomass produced with the narrower row spacing (22.5cm) did not translate into higher grain yield with the same yield achieved across the narrowest (22.5cm) and widest (37.5cm) row spacings.
• About 102-122kg nitrogen/ha was removed in aboveground biomass (straw and grain). There was no statistical difference in nitrogen off-take between the 22.5cm and 37.5cm row spacings.  

• Starter application of P was important in maximising yields at GS30.
• Grain yield responses (< 90 percent relative yield) to P were obtained for 35 percent of the paddocks surveyed.
• DGT accurately predicted wheat responses to P accounting for 64 percent and 79 percent of the variation in early dry matter and grain respectively.
• Colwell P could only explain 36 percent of the variation in early dry matter and no significant relationship could be obtained with grain.
• Colwell P plus the Phosphorus Buffering Index (PBI) correctly predicted wheat response in 60 percent of the sites.

• In the 2012 wheat after canola trial, moving from a narrow row spacing (22.5cm) to a 30cm spacing reduced yield by 9%.  Moving from 22.5cm to the widest (37.5cm) row spacing reduced yield by 11%.
• In a season where yields averaged about 3t/ ha overall (based on a GSR of 196mm plus 85mm stored soil moisture), increasing row spacing beyond 22.5cm significantly reduced yield.
• During 2009, in the same rotation position on the same trial site, there was no difference in yield between the 22.5cm and 30cm row spacings (based on 2.5t/ha average yields), although the 37.5cm row spacing still yielded significantly less. 

• Trial sown at Lameroo on a zinc deficient soil, very dry season.
• Untreated crop was severely zinc deficient.
• Zinc seed dressings (Teprosyn and Broadacre products) were effective at alleviating zinc deficiency but not as effective as the dressings plus mid season foliar spray.
• The soil sprays were not very effective, even at double the recommended rate, perhaps because the soil was so dry.
• Although laboratory experiments had shown that MAP was more effective than DAP fertiliser in terms of zinc availability, no differences were observed in the field experiment.

Agronomists and farmers throughout the Glenthompson region appreciate the presence of potassium deficinancy, however little has been done to understand the spatial distribution across the landscape. This demonstration trial has utilised a range of spatial technologies, strategic soil sampling and local knowledge to determine opportunites for variable rate potash.

• Canola varieties differ in their flowering times depending on when they are sown. Sowing a variety too early can lead to flowering when the risks of frost and disease are high; sowing a variety too late can lead to heat or moisture stress.
• Matching a variety’s phenology to its sowing time is critical for flowering to start during the optimum flowering period for that region, which is when environmental and disease risks are balanced for the highest yield potential. More information on sowing windows to suit variety phenology can be found in the DPI’s Winter crop variety sowing guide 2020.
• Previous research has shown that the time from sowing to the start of flowering could be different in any one year in response to temperature and solar radiation.
• This phenology experiment will be repeated in 2020 with a slightly different variety set, including a number of unreleased lines that are also in the National Variety Trials (NVT).

SANTFA’s 2010 field trial in calcareous cropping country near Streaky Bay demonstrated the strongest evidence  yet for biochar’s capacity to influence fertiliser efficacy and crop yield in SA’s cropping system.

The biochar data collected from the 2010 trials is analogous in many ways to what we would expect from spreading clay on non-wetting sands: little response at very low rates, an excellent response at the appropriate rate and a potential problem if the soil is over-clayed or the wrong clay (such as a limey clay) is applied. 

A significatn yield increase was observed on the Barber site from the application of 10kg P/ha compared with the zero and 5kg P/ha treatments.

• Different crop types displayed varying phosphorus (P) use efficiencies (soil and fertiliser demand) under P deficient conditions.
• Crop types that have previously shown to be P efficient did not display the same traits in neutral to slightly alkaline soils.
• Soil testing can have significant economic benefits if the right test is used.

• Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plant development which cannot be effectively applied post sowing. Because of this it is imperative that decisions on its application are made now.
• P should be applied at rates necessary achieve the yields being targeted in a given paddock for a given year.
• Information to assist you in determining how much P is in your soil includes fertiliser history, removal through production previous yields, soil tests and paddock history.

• In this district and in reference to the soils that are low in exchangeable aluminium – that is to say the soils where barley, canola and lucerne can realise their water limited yield potentials without the need for the application of lime, that negligible quantities of phosphorus are lost to the soil pool. The
• It is stressed that after 2007 you should apply at least the usual recommended phosphate rate to your 2008 wheat crops to achieve their water-limited yield potential

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits. The grower mentioned the importance of correctly identifying the GPS coordinate locations to get reliable soil type information. Yield maps provided showing areas of the paddock with high and low potential assisted this process. Soil analysis verified the trends produced by the yield map.

• Soil test results indicated that the P levels on the trial site were not particularly low.
• Despite the dry conditions in September, grain yields ranged from 1.59 to 2.16 t/ha.
• Results demonstrate that application of P up to 40 kg P/ha can increase field pea yields. To maximise grain yield, P rates above 40 kg/ha may be needed.

• A pot study using 32 virgin soils from south-eastern Australia (Vic - Qld).
• Subclover grown in pots in the glasshouse and nutrient relations examined.
• Sulphur deficiency occurred almost as frequently as phosphorus deficiency.
• 75% of the soils were deficient in both phosphorus and sulphur, 31% were deficient in all three elements.
• Molybdenum responses were obtained only after the other deficiencies had been corrected.
• A deficiency in one of the elements is no indication of deficiency or sufficiency of either of the other two.
• Responses to phosphorus were less on the black earths than on the red or yellow podzolic soils; those on the red earths were intermediate.
• The intensity of sulphur deficiency increased, and the intensity of molybdenum deficiency decreased, with increasing soil pH.

• The production and farm management lessons learned during the project will be made available to the KI farming community and wider South Australia through a range of information events, including field days, offered during the project and at the conclusion of the programme.

• During 1997 make the most of the technology and services available.
• Soil testing prior to sowing.
• Monitoring your crops with sap nitrate testing, NIR analysis, plant tissue and grain tissue testing during the season will enable you to make informed decisions and to capitalise on the opportunities presented.

Previous trials and demonstrations have highlighted zinc deficiencies in both cereals and pulses, which could provide farmers substantial profits over the cost of zinc. A trial conducted on wheat at Sea Lake in 2000, on a highly responsive soil type with a poor zinc history clearly defined responses to zinc and demonstrated that responses to phosphorus or nitrogen cannot be achieved if zinc is deficient. This trial also endorsed the conclusions of trials conducted in 1999 that adequate zinc enriched granular fertiliser should be regularly applied

• This project has had a large impact on Albany and Esperance growers.
• The underrepresented soil types are now predominantly covered making the Yield Prophet project more relevant to the area.
• Growers can access the information in the paddock on smart phones and tablets.
• This enables them to make better informed decisions when it comes to soil inputs and management.

• This demonstration suggests that there is a trend towards higher yields as a result of ploughing stubbles.
• The cost of ploughing stubbles is relatively low and it may be an effective way to increase soil organic matter.

• Plant numbers were variable and it is difficult to draw any conclusion from the final grain yields.
• The untreated strip yielded 1.8t/Ha. Both the PAM treatments were assessed as 1.9t/Ha, and the Irrigator soil wetter yield was 2.0t/Ha.
• This was what the remainder of the paddock yielded, and it was treated with Irrigator.

• Biodegradable polymer films retain soil moisture and increase soil temperature.
• Polymers allow crops to be grown out of season and expand the planting window.
• Sorghum and millet successfully germinated under the film failed to germinate in the absence of the film.

• Preliminary results have shown that post sowing use of some pre-emergence herbicides can improve control of late emerging ryegrass and could be beneficial as a late salvage exercise where ryegrass has escaped earlier control.
• Although no damage to the wheat crop was observed, these treatments present a higher risk to crop safety, depending on soil type and rainfall after application.
• Post sowing use of these herbicides is currently off label & requires further investigation before registration can be granted.

Barley yields exceeded 5 t/ha with strong responses to lime and potassium fertiliser.

The 1.0 t/ha response to potassium (K) was not as strong as in the previous two wheat crops (1.4 t/ha in 2013 and 2.4 t/ha in 2014). This was probably partly due to better control of ryegrass in plots without K fertiliser compared to previous years.

The response to lime applied in 2011 and 2014 was also 1.0 t/ha. This followed a 0.35 t/ha response in 2014 wheat. Like 2014, lime did not affect response to K.

Compared to topdressing potash, banding K increased early crop vigour, but 140 kg/ha K-Till Extra (15K) did not supply enough K to satisfy demand of the high yield potential.

This trial has highlighted the importance of maintaining K inputs (if required) when undertaking liming programs.

Ongoing responses to lime are likely to increase future demand for K because soil reserves will be depleted at an increasing rate.

Significant yield responses were observed indicating that lentisl can respond to K & S application during the growing season where soil nureition levels are depleted

Significant yield responses were observed indicating that lentisl can respond to K & S application during the growing season where soil nureition levels are depleted

• Mace wheat responded positively to K.
• Source of K (SOP or MOP product) and timing had minimal impact on growth or yield response.
• Drilled MOP at 100 kg/ha produced the greatest yield and returns but evidence that drilled K is better overall than topdressed applications was not conclusive.
• SummitQ soil test modelling gave an accurate prediction of optimal K fertilizer rate.
• Grain quality was characterized by low hectolitre weights, but increasing K application improved both hectolitre and screenings quality aspects.

• Sandplain soil with Colwell K analysis lower than 30 mg/kg is highly likely to be responsive to K.
• Potassium applied at 13-17 kg/ha in the compound NPK+traces fertiliser, Vigour, banded below the seed improved yields compared to NP+traces compound alone, and yields were further enhanced by applying additional 12.5 kg/ha K as MOP.
• Optimised returns will depend fertiliser and grain prices at the time. In the present trial, the greatest increase in returns were seen with Vigour 140 kg/ha at seeding plus 25 kg/ha MOP applied PSPE.

• Growth of lupins receiving chelated iron was greater than those receiving iron sulphate when grown on an alkaline soil (pH 8.7 H2O).

In our demonstration the higher fertiliser (DAP) rates produced higher yields, slightly higher protein and also slightly higher screenings when compared to the lower rate of DAP, as you would expect. The PR70 did not have any influence on yield at the lower rate of DAP, however at the higher rate of DAP the PR70 treated plot yielded 400 kg/ha less than the untreated plot. Therefore our trial demonstrates that PR70 did not produce significantly beneficial results in our area this year. More extensive replicated trial work is now
needed in our soil type to confirm the potential benefits of PR70.

Low input of continuous wheat is returning the highest gross margin in this scenario.

• Higher rainfall in 2015 allowed the crop to capitalise on extra nutrient availability with the top three treatments (canola, wheat and field pea) under a high input rotation.
• Low input on continuous wheat rotation is returning the highest gross margin in this scenario.

• Seasonal conditions reduced the potential impacts of the pre-emergent herbicides evaluated in this trial with sowing taking place under dry conditions. The top 5 cm was dry with little follow up moisture although there was enough to get the crop out of the ground. The effects of pre-emergent herbicides are generally more pronounced under very moist conditions particularly under intense heavy rain events at seeding or when the top soil is saturated for an extended period at plant establishment.
• In this trial neither yield or weed density were significantly different between the herbicide treatments.
• Weed plant densities were extremely variable within each treatment so caution should be taken when comparing grass weed efficacy in this trial.

• Continuous cropping is not an effective way to manage herbicide resistant annual ryegrass over the long term in the high rainfall zone.
• The increase in weed numbers over time can be slowed by adopting an intensive and high cost herbicide strategy, but not enough to reduce soil weed seed bank.
• Increasing annual ryegrass density by 100 seed heads per square meter was associated with a 150 kg/ha decrease in grain yield. 

• Dry pre-furrowing of sandy loam pasture at Pindar in 2003 resulted in a yield benefit estimated at $26.5/ha.
• Grain quality was not changed by pre-furrowing in this trial.

• Variable rate nitrogen management has great potential; particularly in the higher rainfall areas of the region with good responses being received in years where rainfall hasn’t been limiting.
• EM38 technology is useful in detecting depth to limestone; the benefits of this however will depend on if the yield is being constrained by rock or not (and in a lot of cases this isn’t occurring)
• In most cases, NDVI biomass readings have been highly correlated with yield.