• A slight reduction in height can be seen throughout the trial. Samples of Corack (early-mid season), Mace (mid-season) and Justica (mid-late season) were taken from both the Moddus and untreated area.
• The Moddus did not affect the maturity of the varieties.

Slow pasture growth rates during winter limit the potential gross margins from autumn and early winter
lambing in southern New South Wales (NSW) by limiting stocking rates and/or increasing supplementary feed
requirements. Dual-purpose crops can reduce the winter feed gap in mixed-farming systems by increasing
the available feed in winter. The simulation software AusFarm was used to model a mixed-farming system
at Wagga Wagga with Merino ewes joined to terminal sires and grazing lucerne-subterranean clover pasture
over a 41-year period. A paddock of dualpurpose wheat was then added to the system, and ewes were
allowed to graze the wheat crop when feed on offer reached 850 kg DM/ha and before GS31.

• UAV imagery with skilled specialist analysis and programs has the potential to identify and map weed issues in paddocks.
• Grass weed patches are easier to identify in legume and pasture crops than cereal crops.
• Variability in germination and crop growth makes it harder to identify grass weed areas.
• Data capture and analysis for analytical purposes such as grass weed mapping in individual paddocks will be beyond the skills of most farm businesses unless farmers have a special interest in this area.
• Group A resistant barley grass has once again been detected at the Minnipa Agricultural Centre. Barley grass resistance to Group A herbicides has been detected three times in three years, so be aware it is present current farming systems.

• UAV imagery with skilled specialist analysis has the potential to identify weed issues in paddocks.
• It was easier to identify grass weed patches in legume and pasture crops than cereal crops.
• Data capture and analysis for analytical purposes such as grass weed mapping in individual paddocks will be beyond most farm enterprises unless farmers have a special interest in this area.
• Grass patches were more reliably identified using UAV data captured at higher resolutions.
• Barley grass resistance to Group A herbicides has been detected several times throughout the project, so be aware it may be present in current farming systems. 

 

• Six sites in north-east Victoria on acid duplex soils were sampled monthly to monitor manganese concentrations in soil and weed crops in relation to changing seasonal conditions.
• Cool and/or moisture conditions were associated with exchangeable manganese of less than 50 ppm.
• High concentrations of exchangeable manganese (120 – 250 ppm) were associated with waterlogging or prolonged hot dry conditions.
• The rate of increase in exchangeable manganese was greatest under waterlogged conditions in winter there was a lack of more than one month before significant increases were observed.
• Manganese concentrations in wheat tops reached 800 – 1200 ppm at the 3 sites most severely waterlogged during 1981.
• At the better drained sites the concentrations were less than 400 ppm.
• It seems that high levels of exchangeable manganese during summer have little effect on subsequent wheat crops.
• Waterlogging may result in increased concentrations of plant manganese but perhaps only in young plants or after prolonged exposure, by which time other effects of waterlogging may already have severely limited growth.

• Sclerotinia stem rot is a very sporadic disease in southern NSW. Variations in the level of disease can occur between districts, between years and between paddocks.
• The best indicators of a high Sclerotinia risk district are a high intensity of canola production, frequent development of Sclerotinia stem rot (e.g. every year) and reliable spring rainfall during flowering.
• Results indicate that prolonged (at least 48 hours) durations of relative humidity above 95% can trigger Sclerotinia stem rot development.
• A high level of petal infestation with Sclerotinia ascospores does not guarantee that stem rot will develop.

• At both Yarrawonga and Dooke, Victoria, there was no yield response to nitrogen application, with yields of 4.34 and 3.88t/ha respectively.
• Although there was no yield response, there was a significantly higher dry matter (DM) production and greater nitrogen offtake as a result of applying nitrogen at both sites.
• The maximum nitrogen offtake in the unfertilised crops at both sites equated (approximately) to the level of available nitrogen at the start of the season during April (assessed 0-60cm).
• The normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) response assessed at first node stage (GS31) and the subsequent divergence of NDVI suggested that both sites would benefit from additonal nitrogen; however, late moisture stress and high temperatures compromised any potential yield response.
• The NDVI canopy scores taken at Dookie during October 2015 from the 120kg N/ha plots clearly show are more rapid senescence than unfertilised crops (control) or those crops fertilised with 60 kg N/ha.

• At both Corowa, NSW and Dookie, Victoria, there were significant yield responses to applied nitrogen (N), with maximum yields of 6.25t/ha at Corowa and 6.21t/ha at Dookie.
• Both sites gave identical unfertilised yields, averaging 4.67t/ha.
• Yield responses were associated with significantly higher dry matter (DM) production and greater nitrogen offtake when 120kg N/ha was applied at both sites.
• The maximum nitrogen offtake in the unfertilised crops at both sites equated to about 70–80kg N/ha, which was similar to the 95kg N/ha available to the crop at the start of the season at Corowa and the 65kg N/ha available at the start of the season at Dookie.
• The normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) response index (NDVI of fertilised:NDVI of unfertilised plots equal to 1.17) was measured at third node stage (GS33) and equated to maximum measured yield responses of 1.5–1.6t/ha to applied nitrogen.
• Applying an extra 60kg N/ha on top of the initial 60kg N/ha at Corowa (total 120kg N/ha) produced an average yield increase of 0.17t/ha (maximum 0.25t/ha), which was not cost effective (data not shown).
• At Dookie in 2016 applying 120kg N/ha gave greater returns and was economically worthwhile based on an extra 0.64t/ha for the additional 60kg N/ha applied (data not shown).

• The high level of grain yield response to soil inversion is very exciting.  However, some sites have had little or no yield response while others have achieved an excellent yield response.  The key to the future success of this technique is to improve our ability to pick responsive soil types to maximise the return on investment in this technology.
• The very high level of weed control, which in some cases has been maintained for two to three years, is also very exciting.  There is no doubt that a mouldboard plough has enormous potential to decimate a weed seed bank.  However, it is imperative that the plough is set up correctly to achieve good weed seed burial.  The Smart CV site is a good example of how it can go wrong.  This site was ploughed in a rush during seeding in 2010 with a tractor that was not ideally suited to the plough (ie. not enough horsepower).  Consequently, full soil inversion did not occur and many wild radish weed seeds were left in the topsoil.  The grower knew this at the time but persisted with the trial to test the potential of the plough.  This soil is extremely non-wetting and a very big yield response was achieved. 
• The Brennan site was established in 2009 at West Moora by Dave Gartner (AgLime) using the DAFWA three furrow plough to assess the potential for lime burial with a mouldboard plough.  The site is deep yellow sand with moderate to high water repellence (water droplet penetration time 180 seconds).  Treatment with the mouldboard plough corrected the water repellence (water droplet penetration time 0 seconds).  The site was sown to wheat in 2009 and canola in 2010.  Large yield responses were measured in both years.  As yet there has been no response to lime.
• In summary, all of the growers that have purchased mouldboard ploughs have been very happy with the performance of ploughed paddocks in 2010.  Using a plough to invert the soil of a sandy, poor performing paddock every 10 to 15 years appears to be a fast, effective and economical way of renovating a paddock back to a point of high production.  Of course this machinery will have its limitations and is not a universal panacea.  However, our early studies are very encouraging.  Research into this area is ongoing and will eventually answer some of the long term questions that continue to arise.
•  
• Some of the practicalities
• Most of the growers so far have accessed machinery directly from Europe and then shipped it to Australia in sea containers.  Some growers have purchased second hand ploughs for $30,000 to $50,000. These machines have been completely dissembled and cleaned to meet quarantine standards so there are many hours of assembly work involved.  Some growers have accessed new machines for $90,000 to $130,000 for 9 to 14 furrow machines.  The cheaper machines have sheer bolt break out while the more expensive machines have hydraulic break out.  Sheer bolt machines have their limitations when it comes to rocks and stumps but have performed well nonetheless.  All ploughs imported so far are reversible and so are suited to up and back ploughing.
• A fourteen furrow machine can be set to cut 5.5 to 7 metres.  They work to a depth of 30 to 35 cm at 8 to 10 kph.  So the large machines can plough 4.5 to 7 hectares per hour at a cost of $70 to $100 / hectare (these are figures from growers).  The power requirement is 30 to 35 hp per furrow depending on soil conditions and working depth.  In good conditions a 450 hp 4WD wheel tractor can pull a 14 furrow plough but it will struggle in low soil moisture conditions.  4WD tractors often have the problem of the wide dual wheels running over the furrow which affects the depth and form of the first furrow.  Track tractors are preferred for pulling large ploughs.
• The large ploughs (12 to 14 furrow) have mainly been set up with a tool carrier that allows them to be connected to a large tractor without three point linkage.  This allows the tractor to run on level ground.  The smaller ploughs (8 to 11 furrow) are typically pulled by front wheel assist tractors in the 300 to 350 hp range with three point linkage.  In this situation, one wheel of the tractor runs in the furrow.
• There is clearly a large wind erosion risk immediately after ploughing.  Paddocks should be sown to wheat for cover immediately after ploughing (preferably the same day).  Wheat is more acid tolerant than barley and in many cases a profitable crop can be grown in the year of ploughing.  Cereals are more tolerant to sand blasting than broadleaf crops and so are the obvious choice as a cover crop.  Pay careful attention to seeding depth as it is easy to sow deep into soft soil.  Rolling of the paddock is essential after ploughing unless your hobby is towing tractors out of bogs.  Some growers are spreading seed / fertiliser and then rolling with coil packers to establish the wheat cover crop.  Relatively light rolling (eg. coil packers) is all that is necessary to firm the top 5 to 10cm of soil after ploughing.

The highest yield in the trial was produced by the 2012 Mouldboarding treatment (1st crop) and the yield advantage dropped off for the second crop (2011 mouldboard treatment)

• Weed sensing and selective spot spraying with machinery such as the WEEDSEEKER and WEED-IT selective spot sprayers has allowed for very cost effective broadacre spot spraying of weeds without spraying the whole paddock area.
• Selective spot spraying of hard to kill summer weeds is one application where this technology has a potential to save growers significant funds usually allocated to herbicides.
• Elevated rates of non-traditional or previously cost prohibited herbicides of a different resistance group can now be used to achieve much more reliable and faster control of herbicide resistant weeds.
• Robust rates of Glyphosate provided the most acceptable levels of control across the 3 winter weeds species tested.
• Gramoxone and Sprayseed at rates of 2L & 4L gave good control of brome grass, but both annual ryegrass and wild radish grew back and at the final ratings showed unacceptable levels of control.
• In a region where Glyphosate tolerant ryegrass populations have been identified, the lack of alternative modes of action to reliably control annual ryegrass and wild radish in fallow is of real concern.

• Weed sensing and selective spot spraying with machinery such as the WEEDSEEKER and WEED-IT selective spot sprayers has allowed for very cost effective broadacre spot spraying of weeds without spraying the whole paddock area.
• Selective spot spraying of hard to kill summer weeds is one application where this technology has a potential to save growers significant funds usually allocated to herbicides.
• Elevated rates of non-traditional or previously cost prohibited herbicides of a different resistance group can now be used to achieve much more reliable and faster control of herbicide resistant weeds.
• Robust rates of Glyphosate provided the most acceptable levels of control across the 3 winter weeds species tested.
• Gramoxone and Sprayseed at rates of 2L & 4L gave good control of brome grass, but both annual ryegrass and wild radish grew back and at the final ratings showed unacceptable levels of control.
• In a region where Glyphosate tolerant ryegrass populations have been identified, the lack of alternative modes of action to reliably control annual ryegrass and wild radish in fallow is of real concern.

• Weed sensing and selective spot spraying with machinery such as the WEEDSEEKER and WEED-IT selective spot sprayers has allowed for very cost effective broadacre spot spraying of weeds without spraying the whole paddock area.
• Selective spot spraying of hard to kill summer weeds is one application where this technology has a potential to save growers significant funds usually allocated to herbicides.
• Elevated rates of non-traditional or previously cost prohibited herbicides of a different resistance group can now be used to achieve much more reliable and faster control of herbicide resistant weeds.
• Robust rates of Glyphosate provided the most acceptable levels of control across the 3 winter weeds species tested.
• Gramoxone and Sprayseed at rates of 2L & 4L gave good control of brome grass, but both annual ryegrass and wild radish grew back and at the final ratings showed unacceptable levels of control.
• In a region where Glyphosate tolerant ryegrass populations have been identified, the lack of alternative modes of action to reliably control annual ryegrass and wild radish in fallow is of real concern.

• Weed sensing and selective spot spraying with machinery such as the WEEDSEEKER and WEED-IT selective spot sprayers has allowed for very cost effective broadacre spot spraying of weeds without spraying the whole paddock area.
• Selective spot spraying of hard to kill summer weeds is one application where this technology has a potential to save growers significant funds usually allocated to herbicides.
• Elevated rates of non-traditional or previously cost prohibited herbicides of a different resistance group can now be used to achieve much more reliable and faster control of herbicide resistant weeds.
• Robust rates of Glyphosate provided the most acceptable levels of control across the 3 winter weeds species tested.
• Gramoxone and Sprayseed at rates of 2L & 4L gave good control of brome grass, but both annual ryegrass and wild radish grew back and at the final ratings showed unacceptable levels of control.
• In a region where Glyphosate tolerant ryegrass populations have been identified, the lack of alternative modes of action to reliably control annual ryegrass and wild radish in fallow is of real concern.

• The season was characterized by above average rainfall conditions which provided good growing conditions for crops and also ideal conditions for weed establishment, particularly medic which was difficult to control at the site and may have masked variety differences from crop topping application timings in the trial.
• Crop topping lentils 10 days prior to the recommended ARG milky dough stage led to a significant (>50 %) yield loss when compared to the respective Nil treatments across all lentil varieties. This indicates that correct timing of this practice in critical in this crop and may be difficult to achieve in long favorable growing seasons like 2016.
• Grain yield of lentil varieties was affected similarly across the crop top timings in 2016. This conflicted with previous findings, which had shown that varieties like PBA Blitz were better suited to this practice, and highlights the large effect seasonal conditions have on this agronomic practice in lentil. Further varietal development work is required in lentil before the industry has a robust variety which is well suited to effective crop topping of ARG across environments and seasons.
• All varieties of field peas showed a high level of adaption to the agronomic practice of crop topping in the long and favorable season of 2016 which is consistent with previous findings in this crop (Southern Pulse Agronomy Results Summary, 2015)
• A significant grain yield loss was observed from crop topping chickpeas 10 days earlier and at the recommended ARG milky dough stage highlighting the poor relative suitability of this crop to the agronomic practice of crop topping. PBA has developed early maturing chickpea varieties which may be better suited to crop topping in some environments and seasons. Further evaluation is required with these lines as the ability to reduce ARG seed set in this highly uncompetitive crop is essential for its continued uptake in southern farming systems.

• The 2016 season saw higher yields than the previous two seasons in field pea, lentil and faba bean. Chickpeas however performed better at Minnipa in 2014 due to adequate rainfall during the growing season and warmer temperatures during critical flower and pod fill stages. A virulence change in the ascochyta blight (AB) pathogen in southern Australia now means that all current chickpea varieties are rated as either susceptible or moderately susceptible. Although often relatively lower yielding in low rainfall regions, moderately susceptible varieties GenesisTM090 and PBA Slasher will have a reduced production risk and require fewer fungicides than the higher yielding susceptible varieties such as PBA Striker. Chickpeas are generally less suited than other pulse options in many cropping regions in SA due to their relatively late maturity and increased sensitivity to cold temperatures during the flowering and pod filling phase.

• Crop species were blocked and not randomized for ease of management and this experiment was only aimed at obtaining a general understanding of rhizoctonia susceptibility in different crop species. As such results will require careful interpretation and crops cannot statistically be compared with each other. Only comparisons between varieties and treatments within a crop species can be statistically compared.
• Results do however indicate a trend in increased susceptibility of some crops and varieties to Rhizoctonia than others with faba beans appearing to show a reduced ability to decrease rhizotonia levels when compared with the other crop species. This finding backed up field observations throughout the year for both crop growth and root health.
• Further work is required in this area to understand if pulse crops vary in their ability to offer a ‘break crop’ benefit in terms of rhizoctonia root disease levels to the following cereal crops..
• Initial results also suggest variety variability for reducing or hosting rhizoctonia in pulses may exist and also requires further understanding.
• An improved field screening methodology is required to achieve the above due to the patchy and random nature of this disease in the soils of SA. An associated project by SARDI root diagnostics group is underway to try and develop such a methodology.

1. Mungbean did not respond to nitrogen fertiliser with a 1 t/ha yield and a starting soil nitrogen of ~90 kg N/ha.

2. Mungbean has limited ability to maintain its water balance in high evaporative conditions. Timely in-crop rainfall/irrigation may still not maximize yields under very hot conditions during flowering to pod fill.

3. Irrigation decreased canopy temperatures by up to 8°C. 4. Charcoal rot levels increased, with the greatest rise occurring in the irrigated trial.

1. Mungbean responded to nitrogen fertiliser with a yield of +2 t/ha when planted on a low starting soil nitrogen profile (~ 50 kg N/ha).

2. One irrigation at pod-fill increased yields by up to 850 kg/ha.

3. Applying irrigation during high temperatures reduced canopy temperature, which is believed to also improve pod filling and reduce flower abortion. 4. Mungbean can increase levels of charcoal rot.

• There were no significant yield differences in this trial with all of the new chickpea lines producing equivalent yields to Kaniva under low disease pressure.
• Flip94-509C and Flip94-508C were very dark in colour compared to Flip94-090C and Kaniva.
• Improved ascochyta resistance will make management of these new varieties a lot easier than over the past five years, however quality and marketing will be the key to profitability with many of Australia’s markets for desi chickpeas now supplied by alternative sources.

• Yearly screening is required to quantify and monitor the reaction of current and new varieties to diseases of economic importance.
• Natural changes in virulence occur in pathogen populations or when exotic pathotypes are introduced to Australia. These can affect host plant (variety) resistance ratings in both cereal and broadleaf crops.
• Five wheat stripe rust pathotypes of significance were detected in the NSW cropping regions during 2020; four were present in NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) stripe rust nurseries.
• Host resistance can vary significantly depending on the stripe rust pathotypes present.
• Growers and advisers are kept up to date with latest resistance ratings each year through nationally co-ordinated National Variety Trials (NVT) pathology trials across a wide range of crops and diseases.

• Growers need to be aware that glyphosate, trifluralin and diflufenican residues, plus the glyphosate metabolite AMPA, can accumulate to agronomically significant levels in certain soils.
• These findings suggest that the current risk of damage to crops in NSW is minor compared with some sites in WA that have lower rainfall and sandy soils with low organic matter.
• The risk to soil biological processes is generally minor when herbicides are used at label rates and given sufficient time to dissipate before re-application.
• However, given the frequency of glyphosate application and the persistence of trifluralin and diflufenican, further research is needed to define site-specific critical thresholds for these chemicals to avoid potential negative effects on soil function and crop production.

• Schooner and Gairdner have been the preferred malting barley varieties in southern NSW. Schooner generally achieves better quality in the lower rainfall parts of the cropping belt.
• Gairdner has proved to be the highest yielding malting variety, but is prone to high screenings under dry conditions, late sowing and excessive nitrogen or seeding rates.

• Early disease control is important for reducing initial AB infection levels in field pea crops with a yield potential above 1.5 t/ha.
• A late fungicide spray is important to control AB in spring when rainfall is conducive to disease spread and pod and seed infection.
• Early sowing into a high disease risk window with new fungicide actives evaluated in this project, were demonstrated to have improved yield benefits over later sowing in the 2017 season.

• Early disease control is important for reducing initial AB infection levels in field pea crops with a yield potential above 1.5 t/ha.
• A late fungicide spray is important to control AB in spring when rainfall is conducive to disease spread and pod and seed infection.
• Early sowing into a high disease risk window with new fungicide actives evaluated in this project, were demonstrated to have improved yield benefits over later sowing in the 2017 season.

• Ryegrass is an increasingly significant weed in the SE of SA and Western Victoria due resistance to major knockdown, pre emergent and post emergent herbicide chemistries.
• As resistance develops to post emergent chemistry, pre emergent chemistry becomes increasingly important in managing resistant ryegrass.
• Knowing the resistance status of weeds within a paddock allows for the most cost effective herbicide to be applied....the most expensive herbicide is the one that doesn’t work.
• Incorporating alternative herbicide modes of action can improve ryegrass control especially where the presence of Group D resistant ryegrass is suspected or known.

• For all treatments grain yield or quality was not increased compared to conventional fertiliser applications of 80 kg/ha urea alone or 60 kg/ha urea plus 50 kg/ha DAP.
• Treatments selected for nitrogen and phosphorus tissue tests showed no difference in nutrient concentrations.

• At Cummins, an increase of up to 100% grain yield in wheat to 5 t/ha over the control was reached by applying 120 kg N/ha (two split applications of 60 kg/ha each at emergence and before GS31) and extra irrigation (50 mm) at GS31.
• At Lock, up to a 19% higher grain yield to 5 t/ha was achieved compared to control by adding extra irrigation (50 mm) at GS31.
• At Minnipa, an increase of up to 31% grain yield to 3 t/ha over the control was achieved by adding extra irrigation (50 mm) at GS31 and applying 120 kg N/ha in two split applications of 60 kg/ha at emergence and by GS31.
• Water use efficiency (WUE) improved with N fertilisation by GS31 at Minnipa and Cummins.
• The split application of 120 kg N by GS31 may only be a good investment in paddocks where crops with N requirements (e.g. canola) were grown in the previous season or soil N at sowing was low (less than 44 kg/ha) and with average or above average seasonal soil moisture at GS31.

• Data support a negative relationship between yield and protein.
• Season will always play a major role in determining protein content of grain in low rainfall areas.
• Producers should aim to maximise the opportunities to increased grain protein.

• The 2014 wheat crop at Karoonda had a harvest index of 0.4 and fertilizer N recovery was 35%.
• Wheat stubble from the 2014 crop contained 16 kg N/ha and had a C:N ratio of 95 which is common for cereal crop residues in these environments .
• Mineralization during summer resulted in the accumulation of 18-33 kg/ha of mineral N to 50cm depth across all the treatments at sowing in 2015.
• Incorporation of 2014 cereal stubble increased microbial biomass and N supply potential at sowing in the surface soil when compared with standing stubble.
• The management of cereal stubble affects the microbial activity that influences the cycling and supply of nutrients (nitrogen (N) and phosphorus) to growing crops.
• There was no significant effect of management of 2014 stubble on subsequent wheat grain yield in 2015.

• Nitrogen contributions by pastures in Ley Farming Systems are a renewable resource for Central West farmers.

• Volatilisation losses were small on Mallee sandy loam at Walpeup where 4mm of rain fell two days after fertiliser application.
• Volatilisation losses from the application of urea to Wimmera clay was as high as 26 percent with small rainfall events (< 4mm) in the 20 days after application.
• Significant nitrogen losses were experienced when ammonium sulphate and liquid UAN were applied to Wimmera clay. Both products lost 12 percent of applied.

For further information see Payne, RA and Ladd, JN (1993) Soil organic matter and nitrogen management in dryland cropping systems, Part II: Nitrogen requirements for dryland cereal crops. Dept Primary Industries of SA. Technical Report No. 212 (Agdex 536).

• Work conducted in low and medium rainfall environments indicate that N2O emissions are low from an overall national perspective. • Results showed that there was no clear response of N2O emissions to nitrogen applied at sowing and post sowing. • High pre-seeding soil mineral nitrogen raises the possibility of higher N2O losses over the fallow period following significant rainfall.

• Work conducted in low and medium rainfall environments indicate that N2O emissions are low from an overall national perspective. • Results showed that there was no clear response of N2O emissions to nitrogen applied at sowing and post sowing. • High pre-seeding soil mineral nitrogen raises the possibility of higher N2O losses over the fallow period following significant rainfall.

Preliminary results showed the level of nitrous oxide emissions did not increase over the 2013 winter as a result of near capacity soil water contents coupled with increased nitrate nitrogen levels resulting from seeding and in-crop nitrogen applications on the canola compared with a pulse crop and legume pasture.

Preliminary results showed the level of nitrous oxide emissions did not increase over the 2013 winter as a result of near capacity soil water contents coupled with increased nitrate nitrogen levels resulting from seeding and in-crop nitrogen applications on the canola compared with a pulse crop and legume pasture.

• Growing Noodle wheat has been perceived as high risk by growers in the High Rainfall Zone (HRZ) due to the risk of not making ANW1 grade. There are, however, some specialist noodle wheat growers in the HRZ who consistently make better than Mace yields and achieve ANW1 for almost all grain produced. The reasons for this are guiding the HRZ Noodle wheat production package.
• A 30km distance from the south coast within the HRZ, proposed as the ‘Chillinup Line,’ appears to be a critical agronomic cut off point for where the risk of downgrade (or failure to meet specification) is more manageable.
• The 2017 prototype HRZ Noodle Wheat production package is an upgrade on the 2016 version using the project’s trial results and other research and experience by the SCF R&D team in consultation with key stakeholders.
• Intergrain and AEGIC are helping refine the HRZ Noodle Wheat production package to meet market specifications for Noodles and the other alternative products being tested by AEGIC.
• Grower groups recognise that differentiated products aid price stability in times of relative grain oversupply and higher competition. For example, grain for Udon Noodle wheat markets and other specialist new markets are less to be affected by downward price pressures than undifferentiated grade wheat prices.

1. The district practice Baseline system is the most profitable to date. However apart from the 2016 winter crop there is very little difference between the seven grain systems.
2. Water use efficiency is higher for cereals than pulses and is highest in high-yielding crops.
3. Subsoil constraints are limiting PAW extraction by pulse crops.

1. Summer break crops reduced levels of cereal soil-borne disease and allowed more even and higher yielding wheat crops in 2018, however they were the least profitable.
2. Root lesion nematodes continued to decline, even under susceptible crops due to the dry growing conditions of 2017 and 2018.
3. Higher nitrogen supply did not increase plant uptake or yield due to low in-crop rainfall, but this extra nitrogen is still available in the soil profile for following crops.

• Severe drought conditions affected the results of this trial (grain yields 0.60 to 1.02t/ha), with only 130 mm for April – October and 171mm for the calendar year recorded at the trial site.
• The wheat variety Ventura, showed the benefits of quicker maturity over Sunstate in such extreme seasonal conditions. 􀂃 Plant density was not found affect grain yield or quality in a very tough year.
• Precision agriculture can be used for on-farm trials to produce statistically valid results, thereby offering an alternative to small plot trials.
• The broadacre trial will be repeated in 2007 at Northparkes Mine.

• Sowing date, uniform sowing depth and weed control are just as important to maintain yields in a wide row system as in conventional systems.
• The results in 2001 indicate that the wide-row system has potential at the yield levles typically achieved in the central-northern Mallee.

• Jumpstart seed inoculant did not increase the yield of treated crops in 2009.
• Jumpstart seed inoculant increased the early vigour of the crop.

• Calculate the quantity of key nutrients (N and P) that you removed from your paddocks in grain last year using simple rules of thumb – aim to at least replace this and add more if you can.
• Deep N soil test in paddocks where protein was low.
• Sow into standing stubbles if possible.
• Make more informed nutrient decisions - know your soil organic carbon & PBI.

Peak yields of 10.98t/ha were achieved at 90kg N/ha, whereas 10kg of applied N yielded 9.98t/ha (1 t less), and at 290kg N/ha yields achieved were 10.2t/ha (table 1).
Yield responses match NDVI responses during the critical period reaffirming growth and crops intercepting light during this period is the key to higher yields (figure 1).
Crop biomass increased with Nitrogen rate from 16.1–20.5t/ha, however harvest index declined due to increased lodging and brackling (figure 2).
These results are consistent with other HYC sites in that once crop biomass at maturity in barley exceeds 16t/ha it is difficult to achieve a harvest index above 50%.
Screenings increased and test weight declined at the highest N rates, likely due to lodging and or brackling.

- A mean yield of 8.8t/ha was achieved across the experiment and proteins were greater than 10.5% and within malt barley specification.
- There wasn’t any additional yield benefit from an extra 25% and 50% N combined when applied either with or without the additional P and S fertilizer compared to the farmer applied nutrition which totaled 130 Nkg.ha
- The aspirational N treatment of an additional 60 units of N increased grain protein by ~0.4% compared to the current practice.
- All other yield components and lodging were not influenced by N nutrition in this experiment

- Means yields of 8.99t/ha were achieved and despite grain protein levels below 10% there wasn’t any additional yield benefit from and extra 25% and 50% N combined when applied either with or without the additional P and S fertilizer compared to the farmer applied nutrition which totaled 130 Nkg.ha
- The aspirational N treatment of an additional 60 units of N increased grain protein by ~0.3% compared to the current practice.
- Other components such as lodging were not influenced by N nutrition in this experiment
- These findings are consistent with the first sowing date and suggests more N from applied fertilizer is unlikely to significant increase grain yields.

- A mean yield of 7.25 t/ha was achieved across the experiment and proteins were greater than 10.5% and within malt barley specification.
- There wasn’t any additional yield benefit from and extra 25% and 50% N combined when applied either with or without the additional P and S fertilizer compared to the farmer applied nutrition which totaled 148kg N/ha
- The aspirational N treatment of an additional 35 units of N increased grain protein by ~1.7 % compared to the current practice.
- These results are consistent with other experiments across the high rainfall zones, were limited responses to applied N fertilization are measurable when application rates exceed 150 units of N.

- A mean yield of 4.24t/ha was achieved across the experiment and proteins were greater than 11.4% and outside of malt specifications suggesting N was not limiting in this experiment.
- There wasn’t any additional yield benefit from an extra 25% and 50% N combined when applied either with or without the additional P and S fertilizer compared to the farmer applied nutrition which totaled 86kg N/ha
- The aspirational 25% and 50% more N treatments both increased grain protein by 1.1% and 1.9% which indicates the N was taken up but not contributing to yield
- These results are consistent with other experiments across the high rainfall zones, were limited responses to applied N fertilization are measurable when application rates exceed 150 units of N.

- A mean yield of 10.21 t/ha was achieved across the experiment and proteins were greater than 10.5% and within malt barley specification.
- There wasn’t any additional yield benefit from 60 kg N/ha (extra 25%) and 120 kg N/ha (50% extra N) combined when applied either with or without the additional P and S fertilizer compared to untreated control
- The aspirational N treatment of an additional 60 units of N increased grain protein by ~1 % compared to the untreated but did not increase yield.
- These results are consistent with other experiments across the high rainfall zones, were limited responses to applied N fertilization are measurable on fertile soils.

• The omission (absence) of nitrogen and phosphorus fertiliser inputs at the Inverleigh canola trial site caused a statistically significant reduction in canola grain yield
• Visual biomass differences at the Glenthompson wheat site were noted during the season, but did not translate to yield
• Low rainfall and high temperatures in the 2015 spring reduced the response of crops to the presence or absence of nutrients

• Seasonal conditions of 2003 limited the yield of pulse crops, with the average yield below 0.5 t/ha.
• The highest yielding pulse crop was Field Peas. Vetch was the lowest yielding crop.
• The highest yielding variety was Dundale field peas, whilst Excel field peas were the lowest yielding variety.

High yielding export quality oaten hay crops were successfully grown in the Charlton district (Echidna yielded 6.5 t/ha dry matter) in the 2001 season.

• Hay crops can be used for both risk management and as part of an integrated herbicide resistant grass management program.
• Paddock selection is important. It is best to select a paddock with a low weed burden; there are limits to the amount of ryegrass that is accepted for export oaten hay.
• For quality oaten hay it is important to minimize stem thickness; this can be achieved by the use of high seeding rates. Cross sowing may be necessary to ensure windrows are supported by stubble for bailing, especially if sowing using wide row spacings.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Onion weed is a significant pest and competitor of medic pastures. In mixed farming systems, control in the pasture phase is often reliant on cultivation.
• None of the herbicides evaluated in this trial provided adequate onion weed control in the medic pasture phase without unacceptable reduction in medic biomass.
• The use of non-selective herbicides and their mixes, combined with strategic cultivation if required, is still the most effective short term strategy in reducing the impact of onion weed on crop/pasture systems on Eyre Peninsula (EP).

The response to nitrogen in these trials should encourge the application of urea for wheat crops in these regions when the deep soil N test shows that the soil is low in available N prior to sowing in relation to the target yield set for the crop.

Opportunistic summer cropping can make use of summer rainfall that may otherwise be lost to evaporation.

Again the majority of individual treatment responses to fungicide are positive but not statistically significant, indicating that there is a
trend but it is small. Barley however, poses a dilemma in that the single spray options early and late do not optimise performance against early Scald and late leaf rust infection, as such it is difficult to avoid spraying twice if both diseases pose a threat. In addition, if the rate of both sprays are cut to a bare minimum the results are inferior in terms of disease control. Triazoles are generally not as effective against Scald and diseases such net blotch, by comparison to the rusts.

• Standard inoculation practices are unlikely to deliver satisfactory nodulation where pulses are sown into dry soils.
• Pea and chickpea sown late (26 June) had the higher nodulation and crop production than those sown dry. Where the soil remained dry for 20 days after sowing nodulation was poor, regardless of the inoculation strategy used.
• Nodulation of pea was low regardless of sowing time at Minnipa in 2018. Both peat applied to seed and granule formulations resulted in similar nodule numbers per plant.
• Nodulation can be improved when dry sowing if inoculation rate of peat is increased. Doubling the rate of inoculation significantly improved pea nodulation. 
• The performance the rhizobial granules was inconsistent. A granule produced at SARDI was more effective in one experiment, but not the other. Two commercial granules provided no advantage compared to peat applied to seed.

Canola yield increased significantly up to, but not above, 200 kg N/ha.

There was little benefit to applying above 15P or any K, S or trace elements.

Fertilisers (both banded and top-dressed) significantly decreased plant establishment and early growth.

Phosphorous fertiliser is rapidly fixed into unavailable forms after sowing when the soil wets up in winter. There were no phosphorous fertiliser responses in a wide range of crops on sites with good fertiliser histories. At the Donald site, which has a poor fertiliser history, the phosphorous responses were significant, especially for the pulse crops, less for barley, and none for wheat.

Fertiliser P trials were undertaken on wheat, barley, canola, field pea, lentil and faba beans at four sites over two seasons (1999 and 2000). Fertiliser P is rapidly fixed and becomes unavailable to plants on neutral to alkaline soils. P responses over the two seasons indicate that for wheat, barley, canola and field pea the responses to P fertiliser were insignificant or if a response did occur it occurred from 0 to 6 kg P/ha. It appears that faba beans do respond to higher rates of P (up to 18 kg P/ha), which was a consistent result in both years. It is not clear how lentils respond to P fertiliser. It is recommended to base a P fertiliser application rate on:

• long-term P balance (P fertiliser applied minus the P exported in grain),
• soil test result (soil P test of above 15ppm Colwell appears to indicate adequate Phosphorus levels), and
• whole farm expenditure (not more than 10 to 12% of gross farm income expenditure on fertiliser (inclusive of N and S) - as an average of a minimum of 5 years).

• At the Howlong site, applied nitrogen gave a yield and dry matter (DM) response, however there was no sulphur response.
• The Yarrawonga site showed a clear response to applied sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N), despite high soil sulphur levels. This suggests canola roots may not be effectively exploring the soil profile to access soil sulphur.
• The Yarrawonga site had an optimum sulphur application rate of 20kg S/ha, with yield penalties measured with sulphur rates above and below this optimal rate.
• The dry finish to the season caused significant challenges during 2017. This trial will be repeated at two sites during 2018 to understand how variable the responses to sulphur are likely to be during different seasonal conditions.

• At the Howlong site, applied nitrogen gave a yield and dry matter (DM) response, however there was no sulphur response.
• The Yarrawonga site showed a clear response to applied sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N), despite high soil sulphur levels. This suggests canola roots may not be effectively exploring the soil profile to access soil sulphur.
• The Yarrawonga site had an optimum sulphur application rate of 20kg S/ha, with yield penalties measured with sulphur rates above and below this optimal rate.
• The dry finish to the season caused significant challenges during 2017. This trial will be repeated at two sites during 2018 to understand how variable the responses to sulphur are likely to be during different seasonal conditions.

2018 Season

• At Speddingup, yield of late sown Scepter wheat was highest (3.6 tonnes/ha) in treatment strips that received a 100L top-up of Flexi-N at early stem elongation in early September following a period of waterlogging in August. Yield was lowest (3.4 tonnes/ha) in the treatment to which all nitrogen was applied up front at seeding.
• At Condingup, mid-May sown Scepter wheat yield and grain protein increased as nitrogen application increased, with the Playing the Season treatment seeing the highest (8.4 tonnes/ha) and the Farmer Practice treatment seeing the lowest (6.9 tonnes/ha).
• Moderation of nitrogen applied up front provided the host grower at the Speddingup demonstration site with an opportunity to tailor nitrogen applications to the potential of the season and to address waterlogging issues faced during the season.
• The addition of extra nitrogen following waterlogging at the Condingup demonstration site resulted in improved yield and financial return (after nitrogen input costs had been deducted).
• Applications at stem elongation at Speddingup and as late as full flag leaf to head emergence at Condingup were able to provide yield with an associated positive effect on grain protein.

2019 Season

• There was no statistically significant difference in Scepter wheat grain yield or protein between the nitrogen application regimes applied at the Jerdacuttup, Speddingup and Condingup demonstration sites, despite there being a difference in the rate of nitrogen and timing of application. Each of these sites experienced below average rainfall in 2019 and no waterlogging occurred. Crops at Jerdacuttup and Speddingup were also affected by frost.
• Despite dry growing conditions and exposure to a significant frost in September, Scepter wheat replicates that received the highest rate of nitrogen were the most profitable at the Jerdacuttup demonstration site. The margin between the most profitable and the least profitable treatment was $79/ha while the difference in nitrogen rate applied between these was 54.9kg/ha.
• The difference between gross income achieved from each of the 4 treatments applied at the Speddingup demonstration site was very small but the variation in input costs did affect profitability. The most profitable treatment was the ‘Farmer Practice’ treatment as it had the lowest fertiliser input cost with little yield or grain quality penalty. The ‘Regular Intervals’ treatment was the least profitable of the nitrogen treatments as the input and application costs were highest. Conditions were too dry for the crop to utilize the additional applied nitrogen in this treatment. The difference between these 2 treatments was $72/ha.
• Grain price varied by only $0 to $10/t between nitrogen treatments at the Condingup demonstration site. The most profitable treatment was the ‘Playing the Season’ treatment, with the highest rate of nitrogen applied and the latest application date when the crop was at growth stage Z24/32-33; just prior to flag leaf emergence. The ‘Farmer Practice’ treatment was the next most profitable of those applied, the difference being $29/ha, followed by the ‘All Up Front’ treatment with a margin of $31/ha. The difference between the most profitable and least profitable treatment was $60/ha.

With the varying results from this project, it is evident that response to N is both site and situation dependant. Further work needs to be undertaken to be able to create a broad rule of thumb around the cost/benefit of feeding N to crops on waterlogging soils

• The ‘farmer practice’ strategy ultimately ended up being the best nitrogen strategy for the 2019 season. The crop responded to the applied n up front after good rainfall and resulted in a 5.43 tonne yield and achieved a good return on investment.
• It is likely the crops in 2019 achieved its water limiting yield potential due to the dry finish; therefore, more nitrogen did not improve yield.
• Despite the treatments that received additional N achieving a higher wheat grade, the cost of applying the N in a season with decile 8 pricing, actually reduced profits.
• Growers remain interested in this research and would like to see further results from tactical N applications, especially in wet years and more waterlogged conditions.

• The early crop vigour results in this trial demonstrates the need to apply fresh phosphorus to crops at seeding to ensure good plant shoot and root growth during the early stages of crop growth.
• There was no difference observed between potassium drilled with the seed or topdressed immediately after sowing.  Good rainfall conditions early in the season may have rapidly moved the topdressed potassium into the root zone of the crop therefore overcoming any differences due to placement.  Subsoil testing for potassium may be important to determine the size of the soil potassium pool.

• Commercially acceptable grain yields can be achieved from pasture cropping systems in Southern Victoria.
• At this stage, traditional winter crops sown into a lucerne stand has the best fit for our environment..
• Lontrel can be successfully used to inhibit lucerne growth during the crop phase.
• Barley returned the best grain yield averaging 5.5 t/ha and topping at 6.3 t/ha.
• Wheat averaged 4.3 t/ha and canola averaged 1.7 t/ha.
• Lucerne on wide row spacings (30 cm) can help to improve yield and grain quality.
   

• Crop seeding rate and perennial row spacing both influence grain yield of pasture crops.
• Lifting seeding rate of pasture crops might compensate for poorer establishment and, in turn, help to reduce any grain yield penalty.  For this experiment and assuming lupin seed is $300/t, lifting seeding rate by 50 kg/ha ($15) helped to avert a 26% yield penalty and proved to be $165/ha more profitable overall.
• Where growers do not own a disc machine but have invested in precision guidance technology, with forward planning, it is feasible to use a tined machine to sow crops into perennial pastures without damaging the perennial base.

The selection of a herbicide in newly sown pasture is a metter of required weed control, level of acceptable damage to the pasture and cost.

• Juncea canola (Brassica juncea) shows potential as an alternative to canola in the low rainfall zone.
• 2008 was another very tough year for both canola and juncea canola. Only one out of six trials were harvested but the results were too variable to be meaningful.

• Wheat on wheat sown 15 May 2013 yielded between 3.35 and 4.70t/ha depending on row spacing, plant population and nitrogen application.
• The narrow row spacing (22.5cm) produced the same yield and water use efficiency (WUE) as the wider row spacing (37.5cm).
• There was no difference in dry matter (DM) at harvest and grain yield due to plant population, though the lower plant population produced grain with significantly higher protein levels.
• Wider-row-spaced crops produced significantly higher protein than narrow-row crops, though there was no difference in yield.
• Wide row spacing significantly reduced DM compared with narrow row spacing at all assessments from tillering onwards until harvest when the difference was not statistically significant.
• This result is in contrast to the first wheat after canola, where the wider row spacing (37.5cm) yielded less and had lower WUE compared with the narrower rows.

• Different crop types displayed varying phosphorus (P) use efficiencies (soil and fertiliser demand) under P deficient conditions.
• Crop types that have previously shown to be P efficient did not display the same traits in neutral to slightly alkaline soils.
• Soil testing can have significant economic benefits if the right test is used.

• Early observations of crop vigour (11th July) found that the 0P plots at all rates of nitrogen were significantly less vigorous than the plots that had phosphorus applied, with the plants in the highest rates of P applied showing the highest vigour.
• This response to applied P was still evident at the later observations of crop vigour on 8th August. This demonstrates the need to apply fresh phosphorus to crops at seeding to ensure good plant shoot and root growth during the early stages of crop growth.
• For further results please see the attaached trial report.

• Hi-analysis granular fertiliser required the smallest yield to breakeven in 2009 .
• Hi-analysis granular P and liquid P had a similar response curve and both types of products performed well.
• Rock Phosphate product had a very flat response which slightly improved when 30% DAP was added.

• In this district and in reference to the soils that are low in exchangeable aluminium – that is to say the soils where barley, canola and lucerne can realise their water limited yield potentials without the need for the application of lime, that negligible quantities of phosphorus are lost to the soil pool. The
• It is stressed that after 2007 you should apply at least the usual recommended phosphate rate to your 2008 wheat crops to achieve their water-limited yield potential

• A response to fertiliser after 5 years of no phosphorus applications.
• Alternative phosphorus sources such as biosolids, chicken litter or biochar, produced significantly lower yields compared to phosphorus fertiliser.
• Biosolids and chicken litter significantly increased leaf and grain zinc concentrations.

• A response to fertiliser after 5 years of no phosphorus applications.
• Alternative phosphorus sources such as biosolids, chicken litter or biochar, produced significantly lower yields compared to phosphorus fertiliser.
• Biosolids and chicken litter significantly increased leaf and grain zinc concentrations.

• After 4 years of no applied phosphorus fertiliser grain yield of barley was significantly lower than where phosphorus had been applied.
• Alternative phosphorus sources such as biosolids, chicken litter or biochar, produced significantly lower yields compared to phosphorus fertiliser.

The apparent better performance of MAP T3 is noted but when looking at the other MAP based products they don't follow the same trend. There was no significant response to applied phosphorus, sulphur or zinc. The CV of the trial is quite high, meaning that a 0.48 Tonnes/ha yield response was needed for anything to be significant. There was no negative effect of applying starter nitrogen in this trial, however there was no positive effect. At current pricing the MAP based products are a very cost effective source of phosphorus and sulphur regardless of the starter nitrogen. Tissue tests indicated all nutrients were adequate see Table 99.
 

• On light soils, nitrogen is generally the most important nutrient in achieveing optimum cereal yields and maximising return.
• It is important to maintain a balanced approach to crop nutrition.
• In deficient sandy soils, nitrogen can be confidently applied to malting barley, particularly if applied early and to crops free of disease and weed competition.

• During 1997 make the most of the technology and services available.
• Soil testing prior to sowing.
• Monitoring your crops with sap nitrate testing, NIR analysis, plant tissue and grain tissue testing during the season will enable you to make informed decisions and to capitalise on the opportunities presented.

The 2002 season has failed for many cropping farmers in the north-west of the State. Some will harvest seed, but in many areas even that will not be possible. It is now time to start planning for 2003 to minimise the risks of failed crops in the coming season. Assuming that it will rain next year, we must ensure that we have the right cropping mix, that there is no legacy of residual herbicides and no cost blow outs.

In 2014 – a dry season with limited growth and yield at the trial site – Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) were not economically viable or worthwhile.

PGR use in a tough season may pose more risk than benefit to cereal crops; their use should be gauged on seasonal outlooks.

In 2014, reduction in plant height was greatest with a PGR applied either as a single late, or a split application, not an early application.

The combination of a fungicide such as Amistar Xtra with a PGR such as Moddus Evo, appears to increase the effect of the PGR on plant growth.

• Plant growth regulators had no significant impact on wheat grain yield in 2012, at four different sites.
• Plant growth regulators can reduce grain yield and quality with incorrect application timing, especially to crops under stress i.e dry, nutrient deficient, frost, waterlogging.

• Biodegradable polymer films retain soil moisture and increase soil temperature.
• Polymers allow crops to be grown out of season and expand the planting window.
• Sorghum and millet successfully germinated under the film failed to germinate in the absence of the film.

• Field data from 2007, as well as modelling data, has shown that there is an optimum time to remove the polymer film before it gets too hot under the film resulting in a reduction in yield.
• A low cost structure is required to make polymer film economically viable, however there seems to be good initial results when using polymers to establish native tree species. There is potential that polymer film may have a future with perennial species (salt bush establishment etc) more so than with annual species due to the high cost of laying the film each year with annual crops.

Barley yields exceeded 5 t/ha with strong responses to lime and potassium fertiliser.

The 1.0 t/ha response to potassium (K) was not as strong as in the previous two wheat crops (1.4 t/ha in 2013 and 2.4 t/ha in 2014). This was probably partly due to better control of ryegrass in plots without K fertiliser compared to previous years.

The response to lime applied in 2011 and 2014 was also 1.0 t/ha. This followed a 0.35 t/ha response in 2014 wheat. Like 2014, lime did not affect response to K.

Compared to topdressing potash, banding K increased early crop vigour, but 140 kg/ha K-Till Extra (15K) did not supply enough K to satisfy demand of the high yield potential.

This trial has highlighted the importance of maintaining K inputs (if required) when undertaking liming programs.

Ongoing responses to lime are likely to increase future demand for K because soil reserves will be depleted at an increasing rate.

For discussion please see the attached trial report.