• Annual medic had lower levels of soil N (kg/ha) remaining in the soil post-harvest compared to balansa clover and subterranean clover at Sherwood.
• Annual ryegrass establishment was greater in crops following wheat, compared to crops following a pasture break crop.
• Overall pasture biomass production was greater at Bordertown compared to Sherwood.
• Wheat yields at Sherwood were greater following balansa clover and subterranean clover, compared to following canola and cereals options, wheat, barley and oats.
• Grain barleys Compass and Rosalind have demonstrated a capacity to produce biomass as a forage or hay option; feed tests need to be considered to ensure they are as favourable as forage options for livestock production. 

• Sow chickpea crops between standing wheat rows.
• Sow the following wheat crop directly over the row of the chickpea crop from the previous year.
• Keep wheat stubble intact and do not spread it across the soil surface.
• This will maximise yield of both chickpea and wheat crops and reduce the incidence of crown rot in the wheat phase of the rotation sequence.
   

• Insect prest pressure was generally low in Victoria and Southern NSW for 2001.
• There was no significant yield differences between the different pest control treatments, with the site mean being 4.92t/ha.
• Selective insecticides promote and encourage beneficial species which can be useful in combating harmful pest species attacking crops.

These trials demonstrate that certain crop species and cultivars such as barley, oats and grazing wheat, can
suppress weeds effectively at standard establishment rates. This may be due to their ability to compete
effectively with weeds for valuable resources, or their potential to exhibit allelopathic effects associated either
with the crop or remaining residues following harvest.

The success of break crops to increase wheat production in the Eastern Wheatbelt is dependent on firstly addressing any physical and chemical soil constraints to crop production and where the previous land use is a chemical fallow. In this situation, the grain yield of lupin, chickpea, lentil and field pea was 0.97-1.42 t/ha 0.67-1.1 t/ha, 0.3-0.97 t/ha, and 1.2 t/ha respectively in a below average season. The yield of wheat following legume break crops tended to be higher than either canola or wheat planted in the remaining paddock area. The profitability of double break-crop sequences was negative in many of the sequences evaluated in this study compared to a positive profit for continuous wheat. The profitability of double break-crop sequences can be improved by the inclusion of high value legumes as the second break-crop, but further work is required to lower the risk of growing these species of crops.The yield of wheat following legume break crops tended to be higher than either canola or wheat planted in the remaining paddock area. The profitability of double break-crop sequences was negative in many of the sequences evaluated in this study compared to a positive profit for continuous wheat. The profitability of double break-crop sequences can be improved by the inclusion of high value legumes as the second break-crop, but further work is required to lower the risk of growing these species of crops.

• The results presented in this report are from the first year of a three-year study that investigates the effect of break-crop sequences on wheat grain yield. The site was selected due to its high background levels of ryegrass control, and crop rotation treatments have been designed around weed control as the main rotational factor.
• Grain yield was relatively low compared to the growing season rainfall of 253 mm. Grain yield was affected by severe frost that occurred during grain fill.
• This project will continue with the second crop in rotation for the 2017 season, followed by wheat across all plots in 2018 to assess the benefit of a stacked rotation for subsequent wheat grain yield.

The trial will be going into its 3rd year in 2018 and all trial plots will be sown into wheat. The aim is to determine the difference in grain yield for wheat following a range of single or double break crop rotations, compared to continuous wheat. The site was established in 2016 on a paddock that had very high level of ryegrass that was affecting crop production. This area around this trial has been in pasture for 2017 as the comparison farmer solution for the issue.

Combined yields of companion crops were equivalent to those of monoculture crops.

Companion cropping Wheat with Chickpea has provided more stubble cover.

Linseed is not new to Western Australia or the Great Southern region as it was grown in the Boyup Brook region from the 1940’s to the 1960’s. It was grown for fibre and milled at the Boyup Brook Flax Mill. Linseed (flax) Linum usitatissimum is a niche product and has the potential to offer an alternative revenue steam for producers outside of the traditional crop. Demand for Linseed has recently shifted to a health food. Linseed has several uses, it can be crushed for Linseed oil which is a rich source of linolic acid and Omega 3 fatty acid and the remaining linseed meal can then be used as livestock feed or it can also be eaten as a whole seed or ground.

Linseed also has agronomic benefits as a potential break crop that provides a disease break, the opportunity for alternative weed management strategies, provides an insect pest break and can be effective in reducing some soil borne root diseases and soil borne pathogens namely root lesion nematodes. Canadian research has demonstrated that cereal yields were higher when planted on linseed stubble compared to wheat stubble.

The aim of the project is to investigate agronomic packages which support the introduction and scale up of commercial cultivation of Linseed in the Great Southern region of Western Australia.

Consistent supply with volume is imperative to develop a market that has the ability to realise the full value of Linseed produced. Also, in order for growers to take up production it is important they have a full agronomic package available to grow the crop successfully. Finally, Linseed needs to generate an equivalent return per hectare of alternative rotational crops such as canola in order to expand into the rotation.

The key objectives of this project are:  

A: To determine if Linseed can be successfully grown under dryland farming conditions in the Great Southern region of Western Australia with the potential to scale up to commercial cultivation.

B: To determine if any investment is required into machinery and infrastructure by growers to grow linseed.

C: To develop basic agronomic guidelines to grow linseed in WA.

D: To assess the yield potential of two commercially available linseed varieties grown under dryland conditions in WA, Croxton and Bilton.

The project was conducted over two years in 2019 and 2020. In 2019 the trials were conducted in small plots across three sites. In 2020 the trials were conducted as producer demonstration sites utilising grower machinery and large-scale plots.

In 2019 three sites were located across the Great Southern Region of Western Australia covering a variety of soil types, climates, paddock histories and growing conditions. The trials sites were in the shires of Darkan, Wagin and Kojonup. The trials involved growing two commercially available varieties Croxton and Glenelg over three times of sowing (TOS) 10 to 14 days apart at three seeding rates (SR): 35, 40 and 45 kg/ha and applying three top dressed nitrogen application rates (low, optimal and high) 40, 80 and 120 units N/ha.

Over the three trial sites, the seeding rates and nitrogen application rates trialed did not consistently result in significant differences in grain yield or oil quantity and quality. Time of sowing had the greatest impact, with the earliest time of sowing generally resulting in higher grain yields. Glenelg on average had a higher grain yield and oil quantity, with Croxton having the highest oil quality.

Trial Site

Average Site Yield

t/ha

Darkan

0.562

Wagin

0.914

Kojonup

0.998

Table 1: Average Site Yields in 2019 (Below average rainfall)

The Darkan site plant counts were the highest, however this was not reflected in the yield. Darkan was the lowest yielding of the three sites. This may be due to the below average rainfall and lack of finishing rains experienced on the non-wetting forest gravel soils at this trial site. Kojonup and Wagin on average achieved nearly double the yield of the Darkan site despite lower plant counts and early plant disease.

In 2020 four demonstration/bulk up sites were established across the Great Southern Region covering a range of soil types, rainfall, rotations and growing conditions. The four sites were located in Katanning, Wagin, Darkan and Kojonup.

The methodology in the second year of the project was to bulk up the Linseed seed for future commercial production and to also integrate high level variety comparisons between the two varieties being utilized in the project Bilton and Croxton. Two sites, Wagin and Darkan, incorporated replicated plot treatments as a variety trial with the other 2 sites being predominantly bulk up sites.

The key outcome of any variety demonstration is the final yield result. Due to operational difficulties within the demonstration some yield data is not available however the key findings from the data available was:

• Bilton yielded on average 0.95 MT/Ha and 85% of Canola
• Croxton yielded on average 0.86 MT/Ha and 72% of Canola.
• Bilton out yielded Croxton on both sites.

The seasonal conditions may have contributed to Bilton out yielding Croxton. Bilton is a slightly shorter maturing variety and the below average rainfall received in 2020 is expected to have favoured shorter season varieties.

The project has successfully set in the place the ability for growers in the Great Southern region to scale up production of Linseed and demonstrated its ability to fit within the current rotations with the additional benefit of assisting in the long-term management of soil borne root pathogens.

However, for the scale up of the commercial cultivation of Linseed there is the requirement for beyond farm gate systems to be in place before producers will scale up production. An active market to determine a fair price, storage and handling facilities off farm to enable harvested grain to be stored before delivery to consumers, supply chains in place which enable efficient delivery of the grain anywhere around the world and long-term buyers/processors who will receive the grain year in year out. There is still a lot of process to be put in place before Linseed production will scale up to a considerable level.          

Grower adoption beyond the project has continued with over 60 Ha planted in southern WA in 2021 across 4 growers. Confidence in the supply chain beyond the farm gate remains as the major obstacle stopping increased uptake and requires addressing before increased production can be expected.

• Third and final year of trials for the GRDC funded project ‘Southern Irrigated Cereal and Canola Achieving Target yields’ (DAN00198).
• Wheat and canola dual purpose trials were established at Bool Lagoon under irrigation.
• Seasonal conditions dictated the use of the dual purpose crops.
• Due to inundation trial results must be interpreted with caution.
• Variety specific agronomy packages will be developed from data collected over the duration of this project.

• Winter canola had greater DM production compared to spring canola.
• Time of sowing significantly influenced canola grain yields.
• Grazing Manning did not result in a yield penalty, but grazing Trojan wheat did; need to be careful not to graze outside of the “safe” grazing window.

The growers were very impressed with the 30% increase in yield over the traditional winter variety.

Additional resources captured for this growers - https://grdc.com.au/news-and-media/audio/podcast/grower-insights-on-grazing-crops-under-irrigation

• In wet and cold conditions, grazing irrigated wheat and canola will require more intensive management, and a stock containment area would be helpful remove stock from paddock if water logging conditions are predicted. Monitor livestock growth rates and feed test grazing crops
• A more even grazing was obtained by crash grazing a large mob of sheep on a small area compared to a small mob of sheep on a large area.
• Sow the crop early with sufficient seeding rates to establish desired plant density in the vicinity of 150plants/m2 wheat and 30 plants/m2 canola and sow a variety suited to your environment.
• Remove stock prior to wheat growth stage 31 and canola two weeks prior to stem elongation.
• Feed test grazing crops to identify any deficiencies or toxicities and provide additional roughage to compliment the grazing crop.

- Although this trial wasn’t executed exactly as planned due to weather there were still some good to be drawn out of it.
- Soil testing is critical prior to planting a durum crop to avoid under or over application of fertilisers.
- When applying fertiliser to target 7+ tonne crop, it is important you have the water required to meet this yield commitment. As seen in this project, when top dressing with these larger amounts of nitrogen, the water use of these crops increases dramatically with the crop drawing from deeper and harder over the same period of time as crop with less N applied. 

Additional N was applied to the entire area during the season, until the 3rd week of January.  The nitrogen level still continued to fall below the desirable range from Reuter & Robinson (1997) even with these applications, with a further decrease observed past the end of January.  This indicates that additional applications of late season N may have been required.

Additional P and Zn was applied to the unlimited strip in both late November and December.  Given this the P level still continued to appear marginal into January.

As the K levels in the plant appeared to be dropping in mid January additional K was applied to the crop.  Following this application the drop in K continued in the plant tissue, although it could be assumed that without this late K application the drop in K may have been to a greater extent.

Despite the tissue tests indicating nutrient requirements, no increase in yield was obtained bny applying additional applied nutrients

• Short season crops like mungbeans (90days) cannot suffer any setbacks, such as poor drainage.
• One metre spacing was too wide formungbeans. The plant population was too low for a plant with poor stem strength. The crop fell into the furrows and late summer rains reduced grain quality.
• Strong, standing stubble is essential for mungbeans. The volume of lodged barley stubble in furrows restricted drainage to the detriment of mungbean crop, and barley grain on the ground contaminated the mungbean sample.
• Drainage is king. Clean paddocks and furrows are critical in surface irrigated systems.
• Maintaining winter crop stubble provided a good mouse breeding environment.
• Yields of 3 t/ha are possible for mungbeans in a favourable year and 2 t/ha crops were achieved in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation district.

The 2019/20 season was regarded as one of only moderate mite pressure, Two Spotted Mite control of some form was required at Byrneside in Northern Victoria. 

The commercial release of Persimilis could be considered as a viable alternative to the application of a foliar miticide, although timing, and crop monitoring is essential. The effectiveness of Califonicus needs further investigation. It is typically released earlier in the season, almost as a prophylactic treatment in that it can survive on pollen & stops mite numbers from building up.

Economics: 

Cost of one application of Zeal® (product and application/ha) = applied 350 ml/ha via helicopter = $56.61+$42= $98.61 (plus GST)

Cost of Persimilis (insects and drone application/ha) = $210 (plus GST)

Cost of Califonicus (insects and drone application/ha) = $150 (plus GST)

In a typical pest pressure year more than one application of Zeal® would be expected, whereas only one application of Persimilis may be required as once established they would keep building up within the field over the season.  This would need to be evaluated in a high pest pressure year though prior to growers considering commercial adoption.

• Minnipa Agriculture Centre results showed significant yield advantage with earlier sowing in trial data even in a great season.
• Weeds can have a large effect on early sown crops, but most farmers try to have some paddocks set up to sow early.
• If early sowing is an option take advantage of it.

Zinc needs to be applied as part of the fertiliser program every three to four years in the Wimmera and Mallee. The use of zinc as a seed dressing or foliar application will only be beneficial when the paddock has had a poor zinc history. In trials at the Rupanyup site where zinc had been applied 2 out of the last 5 years there were no yield benefits of adding more zinc even to responsive crops such as faba beans and lentils.

• Monitor canola crops at windrowing for the presence of Blackleg disease.
• Know the Resistance group your canola variety and be prepared to change both variety and resistance group if required.

• It is no longer a question of whether ryegrass will become resistant; it is when! 
• Double knock was the most effective treatment for managing this ryegrass population  (98% control).
• Alternative crop options should be integrated into the rotation to manage weeds and reduce the reliance of glyphosate. 
• High water rates, spraying closer to evening and no later than 7-10 days after the initial knockdown are essential when using Paraquat.

• Following drought affected cereals, labile P concentration was greater in the crop row than in the inter row.
• There is potential to exploit carry over P following 2006.
• In addition this may also have implications for those with auto steer systems with 2cm accuracy to seed into higher concentration of P in last years failed or low yielding crops.

Crop yields were dissapointing due to the frost in late October.

In the post emergent treatments a range of herbicides produced very good control of all oilseed and legume crops included.

• In the post-emergent treatments a range of herbicides produced very good control of all oilseed and legume crops included.

• In the post emergent treatments, a range of herbicides produced very good control of all oilseed and legume crops included.

• In the post emergent treatments a range of herbicides produced very good control of all oilseed and legume crops included.
• Lucerne was significantly damaged by almost all herbicides applied.

• Good soil moisture conditions allowed clear separation of relatively safe and more damaging treatments.
• Wilpena sulla showed improved tolerance to Simazine and Broadstrike at the 5 node stage.
• At the 6 node stage Hussar and Crusader did a good job of controlling all crops.

good nodulation in the uninoculated treatments, and the absence of growth or yield responses to inoculation in this trial, indicated that pulses have been grown sufficiently often in this particular paddock (lentil in 2007 and pulses every two/three years previously) to maintain appropriately high rhizobial populations in the soil. as the numbers of rhizobia decline in the soil over time, consider inoculation based on, paddock history and length of time since growing the last legume crops. Pulses often benefit from inoculation if there has not been a legume grown in the paddock for six years. where rhizobial populations are low in the soil, inoculation of legumes at sowing is extremely important to ensure adequate nitrogen fixation

• In all but Paravic and Ascot, the innoculated crop yielded better than the uninnoculated crop. In fact, the average gross return for the innoculated crops was $346 per hectare, versus $247 per hectare for the uninnoculated crops. This represents an extra return of $99 per hectare. 
• It is therefore recommended that in all cases, legume crops should be innoculated with the correct strain of rhizobia prior to sowing. It is very cheap insurance against the bacteria not being present in the soil. 

• These results showed that field pea was much better suited to the deep sand than lentil, albus lupin and chickpea.
• This is consistent with results of the previous study undertaken in 2005. 

2018 Season 

• While growing season conditions were dry and grain yields were low and therefore not profitable, both Bolt lentils and Gunyah field peas yielded highest of the 5 break crop species grown at the Salmon Gums demonstration site. Soil boron levels were relatively high at this site.
• Following waterlogged conditions in August, Bonito canola out yielded the 4 four legume break crop species grown at the Gibson demonstration site, with Samira faba beans a close second.
• The addition of an extra 72 Units of nitrogen (171L Flexi-N delivered in 3 incremental applications) to the 5 break crops at the Gibson demonstration site resulted in significant increases in yield and earnings before tax profit in both Bonito canola and Samira faba beans but made little difference to the performance of PBA Strikers chickpeas, Morava vetch and Jurien lupins. The addition of extra nitrogen to Faba beans lifted yield by an average of 0.763t/ha taking it to 2.473t/ha which was close to the average yield of un-topped-up canola (2.169t/ha).
• In terms of earnings before tax, the faba bean crop was the most profitable of the 5 break crops grown at Gibson. It is important to note though that the $800/tonne price seen for faba beans in February 2018 was well above both the five and ten year average for this crop.

2019 Season 

• Annual rainfall was well below average in 2019 at all 5 demonstration sites in the Esperance Port Zone and an unprecedented frost event in September affected crop flowering at the Ravensthorpe, Salmon Gums and Beaumont sites. It’s important these seasonal conditions are factored to in to interpretation of legume crop performance at these sites.
• Poor growing conditions at the Ravensthorpe demonstration site resulted in very low yields and none of the break crops grown were profitable. The State Government declared part of the Ravensthorpe Shire as water deficient on 7th May 2019 and further parts of the Shire on 13th February 2020.
• Reasonable rainfall in August stimulated germination of broadleaf weeds resulting in a higher than ideal weed burden in all break crop species strips at the Ravensthorpe site. This highlights the limited control options available for late weed germination in legumes.
• At the Coomalbidgup demonstration site while lupins yielded highest of the break crop species grown, they were not profitable, making an EBT tax loss. Chickpeas were the only profitable break crop species grown at this site; lower seasonal rainfall meant the waterlogging conditions that commonly prevail at this location were not a constraint on chickpea yield. An average rainfall year would likely result in chickpea yield losses due to their susceptibility waterlogging.
• Dry conditions at the start of the season at Coomalbidgup reduced herbicide efficacy but the site did not have a high background broadleaf weed pressure so competition was unlikely to have greatly reduced crop yield.
• Poor growing conditions at the Beaumont demonstration site, which entailed a dry start, a severe frost at flowering and a very dry finish resulted in none of the 5 break crops grown performing profitably. The dry start at this site affected plant establishment of the chickpeas and faba beans in particular. Seeding equipment issues handling the large seed size of the faba beans also reduced establishment of the beans.
• Poor growing conditions, which entailed 2 dry preceding years resulting in very low subsoil moisture at the start of the season, a dry start, a dry growing season, a severe frost at flowering and a dry finish meant that Scepter wheat yields were below average at the Salmon Gums demonstration site. There was no significant difference in wheat yields achieved between the 2018 break crop species treatments. Scepter was profitable after each of the 2018 break crop species except in those replicates following vetch. Wheat after lentils were most profitable with an EBT return of $50/ha, followed by wheat after field peas at $34/ha.
• At the Gibson Demonstration Site wheat following vetch grown in 2018 yielded highest and was therefore the most profitable. Wheat following faba beans and lupins grown in 2018 yielded next highest; their yields being statistically similar. Wheat in replicates following 2018 canola and chickpeas were similar and yielded lowest of the 2018 break crop species treatments.
• Wheat yield in replicates that received an additional 171L/ha of Flexi N in 2018 yielded higher than those that did not and as such were more profitable.
• Tissue test data and wheat yields achieved at the Gibson site suggested nitrogen carryover from 2018 to the 2019 cropping season had occurred. This was not reflected in the pre-seeding soil test data demonstrating the significance of low soil moisture in impeding soil nitrogen mineralization. These results emphasise the importance of understanding mineralization when interpreting soil test results in dry conditions and the merits of coupling autumn soil testing with in-crop tissue or soil testing to support in-crop nutrition decisions.

• Growers and advisers should be vigilant in applying protective fungicide sprays in chickpea and lentil crops for ascochyta blight.
• Many current and minor use permit fungicides trialed at Hart in 2017 provided good preventative control (less than 10% of plants infected) for ascochyta blight including; chlorothalonil, Aviator Xpro, Cabrio and Captan.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Early sown lentils consistently out-yielding those sown later, as the heat wave event in early
  November compromised yield of late sown lentil crops by terminating seed fill prematurely.
• The 2009 data was inconclusive in determining whether foliar fungicides for BGM control
  can be delayed until after the canopy closure stage in situations where conditions are not
  conducive for disease development at canopy closure (ie less than 10oC at night and 18oC
  during the day).
• The rapid finish to the season favoured early maturing varieties PBAFlash and CIPAL610 at
  both sites, averaging 5-32% above site means across sowing dates.
• Canopy closure sprays with follow up sprays dependent upon disease observation were
  successful in reducing BGM in all varieties tested at Paskeville, even at the early sowing
  date.

• The take home message from the lentil production trial in a disease-free year is that lentils should to be sown prior to mid June, preferably in the late May to mid June period to achieve optimum yields.
• A difference of 1t/ha was achieved between sowing in late May compared to an early July sowing. However it must be remembered that with an early sowing if crops are reaching canopy closure in late winter/early spring then significant levels of disease could be expected under conditions conductive to disease.
• Fungicide applications made no improvements to yield regardless of fungicide type, application timing or the number of applications made.
• However, if the season had been wetter with a higher disease incidence, then crops may have benefited from one or more fungicide applications.

This trial indicated that rolling just prior to coleoptile emergence delivered a desirable paddock surface for harvest without impacting on yield. There have however been reported cases of shoot damage in crops when rolled at this stage.

• Desiccating lentil crops was critical in 2010 to minimising losses by allowing an earlier harvest, prior to the heavy rainfall events. Rainfall affected crops yielded up to 50% less.
• The earlier maturing varieties PBA Flash and PBA Blitz offer higher yields in drier years but not necessarily in long seasons such as 2010.  
• In the Mallee, PBA Blitz offers good disease resistance which improves reliability and yield and its medium large seed makes it attractive for export.
• Late in 2010 in the Mallee, disease and virus were observed. These may have resulted in higher seed infection and inoculum levels. Be prepared for higher disease and virus levels in 2011.

• Lentils are a viable pulse option for the Southern Mallee, except in dry years on soils where high soil boron, sodicity and salinity are a problem.
• Digger has consistently been the highest yielding variety tested in the Mallee but the new variety Cassab offers a good alternative to growers.

• PBA Hallmark XT handled SU residues better than PBA Bolt
• Lentils should not be sprayed with Metribuzin on light lands until metribuzin tolerant varieties are made available. 
• Until that time IMI herbicides and XT lentils are probably the safest option on light lands in WA or consider alternative species.

• Field peas and vetch were most profitable in this low rainfall year. While grains yields were low, all crops either ‘broke even’ or made a small profit, indicating that pulses have a fit in farming systems in this region with additional benefits achieved in the following crop. Always consider varietal performance over several seasons to ensure suitability. 

Herbicide damage on crops was negligible. Grain yield of PBA Hurricane XT (1.94 t/ha) was 150 kg/ha greater than PBA Hallmark XT, at Coomandook, 2019.

When sowing was delayed until rains in May (Wet) overall grain yields in varieties decreased by 20 – 80% in lentil, 40 – 80% in chickpea and 30 – 60% in field pea compared to Early and Dry sowing in April.

In 2021/22, six successful field trials were spread across the medium to high rainfall zones of the Central Wheatbelt, Great Southern and Southern Coastal regions of WA. Excessive winter waterlogging occurred in the 2021 season across all trial locations.

 

The results showed that:

• Extremely late (October) sown cereals can be profitable on the South Coast of WA when sown into a full soil moisture profile.
• Growing a summer crop may conserve more soil moisture than a chemical (bare) fallow.
• There was no negative impact in any of the trials/demonstrations of the summer crop on the productivity of the following winter crop.
• Summer forage crops can be profitable, or at least pay for themselves, if more than one grazing can be achieved.

• Lodging began in early October in the control (no PGR) and trace element treatments.
• The application of the micronutrients copper and manganese had no effect on plant height or in reducing lodging.
• The grazing and Moddus Evo were effective in reducing plant height and lodging.
• Yield was increased by all treatments over the control.
• Grazing had a negative effect on grain protein and retention. This reduced the grain quality to feed grade (too low in protein).
• Grazing did result in 1.4 t/ha of dry matter being taken off the plots.

Key messages
•  Longer coleoptile wheat  varieties  provide opportunities and flexibility to  successfully  
establish crops in situations where previously not possible.
•  The coleoptile provides protection to the emerging shoot. Longer coleoptiles allow wheat to 
successfully emerge from deeper sowing.
•  2021 trials conducted on sandy soils at Cootra found that both a Mace and a version of Mace with 
a long coleoptile gene emerged equally well from a sowing depth of 10 cm.
•  The long coleoptile genetics did not show any yield penalty when sown at 10 cm.
•  Four   newly   released commercial  varieties  with longer coleoptiles were all able to 
establish well from a depth of 10 cm.
 

• Disease suppression has not developed in this soil type after 8 years.
• Higher nutrition treatments allowed crops to cope better with high disease levels in both 2010 and 2011.
• Canola will reduce Rhizoctonia inoculum but only one year of wheat will result in high levels of Rhizoctonia inoculum again.
• In good seasons the high input treatments have shown that district practice performance is limited by poor nutrition.

• The higher input brassica break system had higher cereal yields than the other systems in 2009.
• Rhizoctonia inoculum levels were higher under the continuous cropping systems compared to the medic pasture and brassica break crops.
• The different rotations and fertiliser systems have resulted in differences in the microbial community (number) and microbial diversity (their ability to use different sources of carbon).
• Disease suppression is still the same in all rotations.

• After 18 years there was no standout rotation, in terms of profitability, in any given season. All  rotations had their pros and cons in both wet and dry years. Therefore having a mix
  of rotations and doing things on time is a recipe for a resilient business.
• The most profitable rotation for the duration of the trial was the continuous cropping rotation, which included two wheat crops followed by a pulse crop in a no-till system. The addition of the pulse crop every third year was beneficial, especially for adding extra nitrogen, however added issues such as broadleaf weed blowouts with weeds like fumitory.

• Grain yields of all pulses evaluated in 2014 were very much higher than their long term averages and also than those achieved in 1999, the last time these four pulse types were compared at Minnipa.
• The higher yields achieved last year are largely a result of the more favourable season that
  occurred in 2014 compared with 1999. Growing season rainfall was 85 mm higher in 2014 and
  annual rainfall 144 mm higher. Another major factor was the earlier sowing date in 2014 (May 5) compared with May 28 in 1999.

• Autumn removal of lucerne significantly decreased subsequent winter crop yields compared to spring removal of lucerne.
• Crops sown after spring removal of lucerne yielded the same as the crops grown in a continuous crop rotation.
• The crop yield penalty from autumn removal only lasts for one year.
• Apart from Grazon, all other herbicide treatments gave unacceptable lucerne control.
• Cultivation in combination with other herbicides will increase lucerne control by  20 to 30%. 
   

Lucerne (medicago sativa) is being utilised for a range of benefits in modern farming systems. This includes the incorporation of phase farming principles into dryland cropping systems within the Mallee and Wimmera. In the Mallee, recharge rates vary from 5 to 35mm per year under traditional cropping systems. The principle of phase farming involves the tactical insertion of a lucerne pasture in a crop rotation to retrieve deep soil moisture and create a dry band below the rootzone of annual crops.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Pasture cropping across subtropical grasses is viable in the West Midlands but success is dependent on effective weed control, adequate fertility and moisture, and winter dormancy (or suppression) of the perennial pasture.
• Pasture cropping can also provide out of season fodder, improve the feed value of stubbles, and reduce the likelihood of wind erosion and groundwater recharge on deep sandy soils.

Using a combine harvester to manage stubble at harvest was expensive and exposed crops to greater risk of weather damage.  Harvesting tall and inter-row sowing was the cheapest form of stubble management and also gave good establishment.  Burning is cheap and effective at removing stubble, and allowed excellent establishment and greater early vigor for competition with weeds, but may not suit all paddock types.

The main messages from the workshop were:

P fertiliser inputs can be reduced in most situations and MAP will be the product of choice next year,

N fertiliser inputs will be low at sowing, but growers should top-dress crops if the season turns wet,

Work out your requirements as soon as possible and discuss these with your supplier.

• Including legume crops and pastures in rotations increases soil nitrogen even two years after the legume break was grown.
• Brown manure vetch has proven to be the best break phase for increasing soil mineral nitrogen.
• Crop sequences have had small and variable effects on plant available soil water.
• Rhizoctonia inoculum levels are highest following cereal crops and high Rhizoctonia levels have corresponded with poor root health. Canola decreased inoculum levels to levels similar to a fallow.
• High brome grass numbers re-emerged two years after a one year break.

In years with high summer rainfall, growing break crops is low risk and is an effective management strategy for reducing weeds, while growing profitability. Two year breaks are better than one at achieving favourable returns and reducing brome grass populations. The best brome grass control and gross margins were achieved by two year rotations of Clearfield canola/vetch and continuous Clearfield wheat followed by wheat.

• Yitpi - Watch out for stem and leaf rust and yellow leaf spot - otherwise an excellent wheat for the Mallee.
• Mitre - Smaller grain size than Yitpi, but higher yields - an excellent wheat for the Mallee.
• Camm - Possibly at risk because of a new race of stripe rust, a good wheat for the Mallee where CCN is controlled in other ways.
• Chara - An option to achieve a Prime Hard premium, if markets are available.
• H45 - An alternative very early maturity wheat to Silverstar with improved grain size, but lacking CCN resistance.

Later grazing may have benefits in severely frost prone areas, but in the event that there is no frost, yield will be compromised. Grazing has successfully delayed flowering date and for the early grazing it would appear that there is roughly a 1 day delay in flowering for 2 days grazing.

Later grazing may have benefits in severely frost prone areas, but in the event that there is no frost, yield will be compromised. Grazing has successfully delayed flowering date and for the early grazing it would appear that there is roughly a 1 day delay in flowering for 2 days grazing.

• Increasing incidence of barley grass in cropping paddocks in southern Australia is likely to be associated with selection of more dormant biotypes by weed management practices used by growers.
• In some districts, barley grass management is now being complicated by the evolution of group A resistance. However, there appear to be several effective potential herbicide alternatives for barley grass control in broadleaf crops.
• Integrated weed management strategies are critical to delay onset of herbicide resistant barley grass.

• The key to long term Rhizoctonia disease control is to keep inoculum in the soil low in the crop and pasture phases and increase the ability of crops to tolerate the infection (create environments where plant infection is reduced and plant tolerance to infection improved).
• The success of available disease control strategies, e.g. soil disturbance, fertilizer addition or fungicides is greatest at low to medium inoculum levels and their effectiveness declines as inoculum levels increase or where disease suppressive activity is low.
• Overall, effective control of rhizoctonia disease in cereal crops requires both the reduction of the pathogen inoculum in the soil prior to seeding and control of the infection process in the crop itself. This has to be achieved through management practices spread over more than one cropping season and through an integrated management strategy.

• If crown rot is a concern, conduct a DNA test before sowing a susceptible cereal in 2007.
• Break crops and grass free fallows are still the best practice for reducing crown rot inoculum levels.
• If inoculum levels are high, it will take at least two years free from grass and volunteers, to reduce levels significantly.

• Crown rot has become an important disease to manage in Victorian wheat crops.
• A soil test can be used to identify paddocks most at risk of crown rot.
• In the presence of medium crown rot levels crop losses can be reduced by chosing tolerant crops.

• Incorrect identification could be costly as with Take all and Crown rot require different management.
• Check the bases of plants for symptoms, don’t rely on whiteheads (which need not even be disease related).
• Even where whiteheads are not present, significant yield losses can occur.
• Know the risk of yield loss in your paddocks before sowing. For 2012 crops, this will mean sending summer/autumn soil samples to the Predicta B testing service for analysis.
• The most effective management tool for both diseases is host-free breaks.
• Where old cereal rows have medium to high inoculum levels, sowing between those old rows can reduce yield losses from these diseases, but only if the inter-row has low levels of inoculum.
• When Take-all inoculum levels are medium to high, the best option is a 12 month break from hosts. If susceptible cereals must be sown, keep the paddock(s) weed free and sow the atrisk paddock(s) last in the cereal cropping program.
• When crown rot inoculum levels are medium to high, the best option is a break from hosts (2-3 years may be needed). If cereals must be sown then barley is least likely to show yield loss, followed by oats and bread wheat. Do not apply excessive nitrogen early in the season.

• Trial work funded by GRDC via the Southern Pulse Agronomy Program.
• Early sowing of beans in 2016 at Bool Lagoon did not increase grain yields.
• Agronomic treatments applied at Conmurra in 2016 did not alter plant canopy size or plant architecture.
• Trial planning for 2017 is underway.

• Wheat dry matter production and total crop nitrogen was significantly lower in wider row spacing treatments.
• For the all the crops grain yield was significantly lower in the wider row spacing treatments.
• Treatments imposed to manipulate crop growth were unable to save more soil moisture for grain fill.

• Early sown (10th April) SQP Revenue was significantly more responsive than Manning to a programme of agrichemicals for foliar disease and Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus control (BYDV)
• Ungrazed SQP Revenue gave a significant 0.66 t/ha response to a two spray fungicide programme and a further 0.28 t/ha response to an additional insecticide programme for BYDV control, compared to a maximum response of 0.39 t/ha for both fungicide and insecticide for Manning
• Simulated grazing did not significantly reduce yield with either cultivar and gave an average dry matter benefit of 1.89 t/ha with laxed grazing at GS16 & GS30 and 2.39 t/ha with laxed grazed followed by a hard grazing at the GS30
• Leaf rust Puccinia triticina which was the principal disease in the trial was at significantly higher levels in SQP Revenue than Manning and required two foliar fungicides to give control
• In SQP Revenue grazing was not an effective control measure for leaf rust control compared to an early GS31 fungicide when assessed at flag leaf
• At the Westmere site, simulated grazing reduced grain yield by 0.2-0.5 t/ha compared to 1.7 t/ha dry matter removed by grazing
• Low levels of disease at this site did not allow the hypothesis that grazing reduces disease pressure to be tested. 

The occurrence of frost and subsequent frost damage to grain crops is a complex phenomenon. The factors affecting frost damage in wheat crop include seasonal conditions (temperature, humidity, and wind), soils characteristics (topography, soil type), variety (maturity and flowering window) and agronomic management (sowing date, row spacing, and seed and fertiliser inputs). In 2012, frost had significantly damaged and reduced the grain yield for all varieties at two different sowing dates at Wickepin. On average the later sowings (8 June) yielded 1 t/ha greater than the earlier sowings (18 May). Comparatively longer season varieties such as Magenta and Calingiri flowered late, avoided some of frost damage and yielded the highest at both sowings. Preliminary results indicate varieties differed in their relative performance and resilience (i.e. ability to yield) in response to stresses of radiant frosts in both time of sowings. More comprehensive results on variety performance and frost damage will be available after measuring grain quality and sterility estimates.

For further information please see the attached trial report.

• This set of trials indicates that SACOA ‘Irrigator’ banded wetting agent can improve crop establishment and grain yield but that responses can be highly variable. The 27-32% yield increase seen in 3 of the trials is very encouraging. Based on these and other trials it can be suggested that banded wetting agents are most likely to be effective when:
• Soils are moderate to strongly repellent and there are few residual roots form the previous year’s crop; and points and tines are used for seeding.
• Banded wetter is applied in a consistent stream to the base of relatively stable furrows. Collapsing furrows, furrow infill and a disrupted band of wetting agent can reduce efficacy. Presswheels with a more rectangular cross section tend to rip up furrow walls and the disturbed soil buries and mixes banded wetting agent. ‘V’ section or round section presswheels with no deep flange reduce such problems.
• The banded wetting agent kit needs to be robust and reliable and needs to accurately apply the wetting agent in a continuous stream into the base of the furrow
• Crops sown early into dry or partially dry soil before opening rains derive more benefit from banded wetter. Banded wetting agents are typically less beneficial when used later in the sowing program when there has already been rain and the soil has started to wet up.
• Growers already using wetting agents are tending to modify their usage of banded wetter to better match the likelihood of significant benefits. Some growers only use banded wetter for the dry seeding or early part of the program and don’t use it later in the program after there has been more rain.  Other growers are planning to use higher rates of banded wetter early in the program but then aim to reduce the rates when sowing later in the season. Both of these strategies will reduce cost while maximising the opportunity for benefits to crop establishment and yield. Current research in the state is showing that different banded wetting agent products can have a wide range of effects of crop establishment and especially on yield. DAFWA is continuing to research a range of products to help growers evaluate which types of banded wetting agent are more suitable for their farming system.

• This set of trials indicates that SACOA ‘Irrigator’ banded wetting agent can improve crop establishment and grain yield but that responses can be highly variable. The 27-32% yield increase seen in 3 of the trials is very encouraging. Based on these and other trials it can be suggested that banded wetting agents are most likely to be effective when:
• Soils are moderate to strongly repellent and there are few residual roots form the previous year’s crop; and points and tines are used for seeding.
• Banded wetter is applied in a consistent stream to the base of relatively stable furrows. Collapsing furrows, furrow infill and a disrupted band of wetting agent can reduce efficacy. Presswheels with a more rectangular cross section tend to rip up furrow walls and the disturbed soil buries and mixes banded wetting agent. ‘V’ section or round section presswheels with no deep flange reduce such problems.
• The banded wetting agent kit needs to be robust and reliable and needs to accurately apply the wetting agent in a continuous stream into the base of the furrow
• Crops sown early into dry or partially dry soil before opening rains derive more benefit from banded wetter. Banded wetting agents are typically less beneficial when used later in the sowing program when there has already been rain and the soil has started to wet up.
• Growers already using wetting agents are tending to modify their usage of banded wetter to better match the likelihood of significant benefits. Some growers only use banded wetter for the dry seeding or early part of the program and don’t use it later in the program after there has been more rain.  Other growers are planning to use higher rates of banded wetter early in the program but then aim to reduce the rates when sowing later in the season. Both of these strategies will reduce cost while maximising the opportunity for benefits to crop establishment and yield. Current research in the state is showing that different banded wetting agent products can have a wide range of effects of crop establishment and especially on yield. DAFWA is continuing to research a range of products to help growers evaluate which types of banded wetting agent are more suitable for their farming system.

• Significant crop biomass responses were observed on wheat, barley and canola crops at anthesis.
• The large crop biomass responses under organic amendment treatments were largely due to extra nutrients from lucerne pellets.
• The dramatic crop biomass responses observed at anthesis on canola and barley crops did not translate into grain yield under treatments with lucerne pellets applied, due to severe lodging.
• Soil chemical, physical and biological properties will be monitored to understand the soil-plant interactions, the factors driving the differences in crop response to the various treatments and the residual value of the amendments.

• Incorporating seed behind press wheels resulted in the best crop establishment and one of the higher yields.
• A split application of seed, some broadcast in front of the seeder and some sown through the seeding boots shows promise.
• Soil wetters were ineffective for increasing emergence or grain yield.

Increasing plant density is a tool to improve a crop’s competitiveness against weeds. This strategy did not adversely affect the yield of the varieties at the Liebe Main Trial Site in 2012. 

Nitrogen treatments did not significantly influence crop yield however, did influence grain protein. The soil nitrogen levels and season are likely to have influenced this result. Soil testing and understanding the crops requirements as the season unfolds are useful strategies to manage crop performance economically.

The environment is likely to have had the bigger influence on the performance of the varieties than plant density or nitrogen. Growing season rainfall for 2012 was lower than average and disease patches (likely Rhizoctonia) were evident at the trial. The water use efficiency at the site was 13 kg/mm given growing season rainfall (April to October) was 133mm (plus 34mm in January) and grain yields of 1.98 t/ha across whole trial.

• There was no increase in wheat (2015) or barley (2016) performance with application of manganese on highly calcareous sands, even though these environments have regularly produced severe Mn deficiency in the past.
• Current industry guidelines still appear to be relevant for diagnosing trace element deficiencies in cereal crops and how they are best managed.

• Unusually high manganese concentrations are found in the leaves of manganese tolerant crops.
• We grew these 2 species in solution culture and examine the relationship between manganese and silicon implant tissues.
• Manganese is distributed differently in the leaves of lupin and sunflower.
• In sunflower manganese was found with silicon and calcium in the trichomes and the large vessels of the vascular bundle.
• In lupin the addition of silicon course increasing manganese concentrations in xylem vessels and also in vacuoles of spongy parenchyma.

• There is the potential to increase plant dry matter production and grazing using mixtures of plant species.
• Kaspa peas produced the greatest dry matter overall with 1.7 t DM/ha, and an oats/medic mix also did well (1.3 t DM/ha). The short season oats variety, Durack, produced the greatest dry matter for oats with 1.1 t DM/ha. Toreador disc medic (bred for sandy soils) produced the best dry matter (0.75 t DM/ha) amongst the pasture species.
• In a poor season like 2018, dry matter production in pastures could be improved compared to the current district practice of volunteer annual medics.
• Further research needs to be done on regeneration and herbicide tolerance of newer pasture species.

Program findings that $300 million of grain are being spilt on the ground in Western Australia has increased awareness of the issue, has created a benchmark and is driving change (increased attendance at harvester setup forums). These results have identified a significant issue in Western Australia that is likely to have some relevance and application to other cropping regions across Australia.

• Recommendation 1: The survey continue in Western Australia to increase awareness of the issue, to measure grower’s level of adoption of closer attention to waste and to determine the extent of losses in lower yield harvests.
• Recommendation 2: Growers use a grain collection (drop) tray to measure losses and fine-tune productivity. Change one setting at a time and re-test to check the results
• Recommendation 3: Growers measure losses for each crop at the start of harvest and when conditions change markedly.
• Recommendation 4: The project be deployed to other grain growing areas to establish the extent of the issue.
• Recommendation 5: Growers consider the various elements of their harvester setup and ensure each is aligned with the findings of this report.
• Recommendation 6: The correlation of grain spilt to mouse numbers be explored.

• Proper rotations (irrespective of tillage methods) incorporating no more than two cereal crops in sequence with the addition of either a break crop or a fallow once in every three years is ideal. This rotation allows a very productive and sustainable farming system in our environment.
• The most profitable system since 1999 has been two years of cereal followed by a break crop such as peas under no till.
• No till systems are now becoming more profitable in the trial than cultivated systems under every rotation.
• No till will work on our problem soils so long as effective weed control is achieved.
• Under a continuous cereal rotation, the impact of weeds, diseases, poor nutrition and subsequently lower yields has lowered profitability

• Trial work in other states suggests plant growth regulators (PGR’s) can manipulate plant architecture in early sown cereal crops.
• MFMG funded PGR trials at Conmurra and Millicent on wheat and barley.
• The application of PGR’s on wheat increased yield overall at Conmurra, but did not alter plant architecture, flowering or grain quality.
• This trial provided growers the opportunity to increase their knowledge on the use of PGR’s.

On these two sites, the addition of copper or zinc supplements to MAP had no effect on grain yield or grain Cu or Zn content. Based on the soil test, the Horsham site could have been considered marginal for Cu, but Zn levels were not considered limiting. Soil tests for micronutrients are unreliable and diagnosis of paddocks where crops can benefit from micronutrient supplements is also unpredictable.

• A literature review of micronutrient limitations to nodulation and N2 fixation in tropical legume crops.

• Grazing did not change grain yield or quality. Rather, moisture stress was more important in a dry finish
• In a dry year, the ratio of grain yield to crop biomass at flowering is 0.40. In an average year it is around 0.55
• Grazing slows crop maturity by one to two weeks, which meant Revenue (long season variety) was still booting during the October heat wave 

• Crop intensive farming systems are running down soil carbon.
• Mixed species cover cropping offers a new approach that may address the issue.
• Local guidelines need to be developed so that farmers can make informed decisions about incorporating cover crops into their farming systems.

• Crop intensive farming systems are running down soil carbon. 
• Mixed species cover cropping offers a new approach that may address the issue.
• The cover crop species grown in 2019 had no influence on the growth, yield and grain quality of the wheat over-sown in 2020.

• Most suitable summer crop species for Kangaroo Island soils are tillage radish, French white millet, sunflowers, turnips and buckwheat
• Bees have a higher preference to forage on sunflowers and tillage radish flowers compared with buckwheat.

Manypeaks

At the Manypeaks site, Pallaton Raphno had a higher nutritional value than the ryegrass control, resulting in higher crude protein, digestibility, and metabolic energy. 

The raphno and ryegrass at the Manypeaks site produced similar levels of biomass. 

The raphno resulted in a weight gain advantage of 62.5g/head/day over the ryegrass. 

Raphno produced higher biomass levels under grazing pressure, allowing for much higher stocking rates than the ryegrass, with 1400 lambs on 45ha (31 lambs/ha), compared to 360 lambs on 30 hectares (12 lambs /ha).

Lamb live weight gain measured in kg/ha/day was 5.35kg/ha/day for the raphno compared to 1.31kg/ha/day achieved on the ryegrass.

North Manypeaks

The summer crop (Millet) had a higher nutritional value, crude protein, digestibility, and metabolisable energy than barley stubble.

The control (stubble) produced 3.5t/ha compared to the millet which produced 1.2t/ha. 

The millet growth was highly variable and showed signs of heat and moisture stress before the grazing period. 

Despite the environmental stress, the millet resulted in an average ADG of 253g/head/day, compared to 120g/head/day on the barley.

Green Range

Successful cattle induction to raphno was challenging to achieve. Best results were attained when weaner cattle were moved off Raphno onto pasture each day over the first week, slowly introducing them to longer grazing periods.

Poor induction the first grazing event saw steers reduce their ADG from 2kg/day on rye clover pasture down to 0.08kg/day on raphno.

Second grazing event by growing weaner cattle received a better induction and Heifers slowly built up to and maxed out at 1kg ADG.

Optiweigh system is a game-changer to better understand different forages and how different grazing systems influence weight gain and pasture utilisation.

• There was an effect of Moddus on plant height, the length of node interval and cell wall thickness when compared to the untreated area.