• With an average grain yield of 18.28t/ha there were no significant differences in header grain yield from varying nitrogen rate or timing of prilled urea (46%N).
• Where no nitrogen was applied early in the season a significant decrease in nitrogen content was observed in the stalk of the plants at harvest, but there no influence on grain N content.
• Test weight was significantly reduced when only 207kg N/ha was applied to the crop, there was no significant benefit in test weight when the highest rate of nitrogen was applied.

• With an average grain yield of 17.29t/ha there were no significant differences in header grain yield from varying nitrogen rate or timing of prilled urea (46%N) when 230 kg N/ha was applied as fertigation post sowing.
• Dry matter was between 30 and 35t/ha at harvest with approximately 50% of this dry matter present as grain and the remaining 50% as stover.
• In terms of nitrogen uptake in the crop at harvest 70% of the N on average was in the grain with 30% in the stover (leaves, stalk and cob husk).
• There was some evidence that additional N increased grain N content, but this was not associated with yield increases.
• The trial results are similar to the same trial run in 2019/20 which following oaten hay had an average yield of 18.2t/ha compared to 17.3t/ha when sown maize on maize.

•  Delaying post sowing applications of nitrogen (92 kg/ha N) to the flag leaf stage for both Kellalac and MacKellar at the Gnarwarre site, resulted in the best grain yield and grain quality.
• Application of nitrogen (35 kg/ha N) to barley at the early jointing stage (GS32), gave the best grain yield and quality at Gnarwarre.
• Late nitrogen applications appeared to result in more flower sites (florets) filling with grain for both wheat and barley. 
• For further conclusions please see the attached trial report.

To manage N2O emissions in low to medium rainfall environments, growers need to match nitrogen supply to crop demand. Lowest emissions were measured where nitrogen levels were least, while highest emissions occurred where nitrogen levels were greatest. Applying late nitrogen to increase wheat protein is not economic when segregation price differentials are small.

• N2O losses appear to be minimal from dryland low to medium rainfall farming systems; peak emissions of only 4.0 gN2O-N/ha/day were measured following rainfall.
• N2O emissions from legume stubble over summer and with synthetic fertiliser applied in-crop were low.
• An increase in soil water was the major driver of N2O emissions.

• N2O losses appear to be minimal from dryland low to medium rainfall farming systems; peak emissions of only 4.0 gN2O-N/ha/day were measured following rainfall.
• N2O emissions from legume stubble over summer and with synthetic fertiliser applied in-crop were low.
• An increase in soil water was the major driver of N2O emissions.

• N2O losses appear to be minimal from dryland low to medium.
• Rainfall farming systems; peak emissions of only 4.0 g N2O-N/ha/day were measured following rainfall.
• N2O emissions from legume stubble over summer and with synthetic fertiliser applied in-crop were low.
• An increase in soil water was the major driver of N2O emissions.

1. The district practice Baseline system is the most profitable to date. However apart from the 2016 winter crop there is very little difference between the seven grain systems.
2. Water use efficiency is higher for cereals than pulses and is highest in high-yielding crops.
3. Subsoil constraints are limiting PAW extraction by pulse crops.

Three projects are running, one in each of the western, northern and southern GRDC regions. NSW DPI and FarmLInk, together with Southern Farming Systems, the Mackillop Farm Management Group and AgGrow Agronomy, are responsible for the Southern GRDC region.

The project still underway, the analyses of samples will be completed during 2016.

• The site was very responsive to nitrogen (N) fertiliser. Increasing N inputs from 12 to 75 kg N/ha increased yields by about 0.36 t/ha
• NUlogic suggested very little response to P and K after soil testing. It is important to be soil testing at least every 3-4 years so that fertiliser rates recommended are applied for maximum economic returns to the grower.
• Tissue tests on the 3rd July indicated marginal S deficiency in the no S treatments but there was no yield response.
• Wind and rain after seeding caused furrow fill resulting in poor germination (5-15 plants m²).
• Yield potential  probably limited by low soil pH
• Decile 1 rainfall year for the area, interpret results accordingly.
• Quality analysis not yet available.

• A review of fertiliser responses on different soils in the southern Wimmera.
• Unfortunately the scanned copy I received was illegible, there is only one copy in the Victorian library system and they would not release the printed version.
• Primarily on pastures but some cropping experiments.

Variable rate fertiliser application has a real and profitable place in the Mallee when combined with good paddock science. The precision technology gives the ability to examine the yield data for many effects including other possible influencing factors such as elevation, slope aspect or orientation to the sun, and probably many others.

• Calculate the quantity of key nutrients (N and P) that you removed from your paddocks in grain last year using simple rules of thumb – aim to at least replace this and add more if you can.
• Deep N soil test in paddocks where protein was low.
• Sow into standing stubbles if possible.
• Make more informed nutrient decisions - know your soil organic carbon & PBI.

 There was no yield response in winter feed wheat cv RGT Accroc to additional nutrient input above the standard N input of 168kg N/ha, which included a standard of 120kg/ha MAP at sowing (12N, 24P) despite yields of 9.5-10t/ha.
 The average yield of the trial in RGT Accroc was 9.47t/ha compared to 7.83t/ha in the milling wheat Rockstar trial (in surrounding commercial crop).
 Protein levels in the zero N plots (control) were significantly increased from 9.5% to 11.7 – 12.0% with the additional nutrients, but the increases were not associated with higher grain yields above standard nutrition (168N, 24P) in the feed wheat RGT
Accroc.
 With the farm crop milling wheat trial in Rockstar additional nutrition increased both yield and protein, even though protein was over %12.6.
 On average, protein levels were higher in the milling wheat Rockstar (13.6%) compared to the feed wheat RGT Accroc (11.3%).
 At harvest there were increased head numbers and dry matter production associated with greater nutrition input (cv RGT Accroc – feed wheat) but this did not lead to increased grain yield.
 There was no effect of additional nutrition on harvest index (data not presented), however the milling wheat Rockstar had higher harvest index (40.5%) compared to the feed wheat RGT Accroc (34.2%).
 The unfertilised crop of RGT Accroc had a N offtake in the grain of 129kg N/ha based on 7.74t/ha and 1.66% N in the grain (9.5% protein). If it is assumed that 25% of the N at harvest is in the straw and chaff then the unfertilised crop would have removed
approximately 172kg N//ha of which 59.3 kg N/ha was recorded in the soil core on 29th July (0-60cm) with 12kg N/ha provided by the MAP.
 This residual fertility in the farming system would explain why the standard nutrition control removed 242kg N/ha in the canopy (based on the same calculations) when only 168kg N/ha was applied as fertiliser.

 There was a significant response to N application in the trial with a 2.41t/ha yield increase associated with a 200kg N/ha application applied in three splits.
 200kg N/ha produced a crop canopy of 23t/ha dry matter
 There was no significant increase in yield over and above 200N or from the application of additional P and S, although grain protein continued to increase up to 291N the highest rate of nitrogen fertiliser applied.

 The unfertilised crop (100 MAP only at sowing) resulted in a 9.37t/ha crop and 8.9% grain protein.
 Based on the N concentration in the grain the N offtake in the grain alone was approximately 146kg N/ha. If 25% of the N typically resides in the straw and chaff at harvest, then crop uptake in the unfertilised plot was approximately 195kg N/ha.
 On this basis of soil N available in May (103N) and 10N from the MAP it would indicate 82kg N/ha from mineralisation.
 Increasing grain protein did not increase crop canopy size beyond 23.8t/ha dry matter at harvest. Application of 291N produced significantly lower yields than 204N and 252N applied.
 Although grain protein increased with higher N fertiliser input screenings gradually increased with test weight and thousand seed weight showing a decreasing trend.

• The omission (absence) of nitrogen and phosphorus fertiliser inputs at the Inverleigh canola trial site caused a statistically significant reduction in canola grain yield
• Visual biomass differences at the Glenthompson wheat site were noted during the season, but did not translate to yield
• Low rainfall and high temperatures in the 2015 spring reduced the response of crops to the presence or absence of nutrients

• Wheat fertilised with DAP placed with seed yielded 0.5 t/ha (20%) less than wheat with DAP placed below seed in 2017 at Loxton but had no effect at Karoonda.
• Using 50 kg DAP/ha with the seed and 35 kg Urea/ha deep was better than 50 kg DAP/ha and 35 kg Urea/ha all below the seed on sand at Loxton.

• Previously observed benefits of improved N use efficiency where Zn is supplied with the N were not captured in the 2017 season.

• Grain sorghum is the staple food of lowland farmers in semi-arid tropical areas of Africa and Asia, but crop yields are commonly less than 30% of those in developed countries.
• Nutritional disorders frequently diminish yields because grain sorghum is grown in areas with impoverished soils and little fertiliser.
• This handbook describes a range of micronutrients deficiencies and toxicities of grain sorghum, drawn from field work in India and glasshouse trails in Queensland.
• The most common nutritional disorders observed in sorghum growing on alkaline soils are deficiencies of iron, zinc, and manganese.
• The major nutritional problems for sorghum growing on acid soils are toxicities of aluminium, iron, and manganese, and deficiencies of phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, molybdenum, and zinc.

There may be an opportunity to enhance phosphorus uptake in wheat following an albus lupin crop.

• It was difficult to see the carryover of residual P into 2003 in this trial as some plots were affected by crown rot or common root rot (still to be determined).
• The maximum wheat yield was achieved when 5 kg P/ha was applied in 2003 on top of 11 kg P/ha applied in 2002.

• Canola yields in 2003 were below average, mostly less than 0.5 t/ha.
• No yield response was reported with increased rates of P and N fertiliser.

The response to nitrogen in these trials should encourge the application of urea for wheat crops in these regions when the deep soil N test shows that the soil is low in available N prior to sowing in relation to the target yield set for the crop.

• Continuous cropping can be sustained for decades, but requires careful management.
• A larger proportion of N supply as fertiliser will be required over time even when grain legumes are included in crop sequences.
• Herbicide resistance develops faster under continuous cropping. Integrated management to keep key weed populations at very low levels is essential for long-term viability.
• Suitably diverse crop and end-use portfolios and flexible management help build resilience to climate and crop price shocks.

EGA Wedgetail can successfully be grown for grain only or dual purpose use and achieve yields competitive with recently released main season cultivars sown in May.  Growers wishing to graze EGA Wedgetail should use high plant densities (at least 100 plants/m2 on 305 mm row spacing, higher on narrower spacing) and some N fertiliser at sowing (particularly if soil mineral N is low) to maximise forage yield.  Gorwers who wish to grow EGA Wedgetail for grain only should defer N fertiliser application until after Z30 to reduce early vegetative growth.  Neither of these experiments or any others during the early sowing project have found a yield benefir from reducing plant populations, and target plant density should be kept at 100-150 plans/m2 (less on wide rows, more on narrow rows) in order to better compete with weeds.

Canola yield increased significantly up to, but not above, 200 kg N/ha.

There was little benefit to applying above 15P or any K, S or trace elements.

Fertilisers (both banded and top-dressed) significantly decreased plant establishment and early growth.

Phosphorous fertiliser is rapidly fixed into unavailable forms after sowing when the soil wets up in winter. There were no phosphorous fertiliser responses in a wide range of crops on sites with good fertiliser histories. At the Donald site, which has a poor fertiliser history, the phosphorous responses were significant, especially for the pulse crops, less for barley, and none for wheat.

Fertiliser P trials were undertaken on wheat, barley, canola, field pea, lentil and faba beans at four sites over two seasons (1999 and 2000). Fertiliser P is rapidly fixed and becomes unavailable to plants on neutral to alkaline soils. P responses over the two seasons indicate that for wheat, barley, canola and field pea the responses to P fertiliser were insignificant or if a response did occur it occurred from 0 to 6 kg P/ha. It appears that faba beans do respond to higher rates of P (up to 18 kg P/ha), which was a consistent result in both years. It is not clear how lentils respond to P fertiliser. It is recommended to base a P fertiliser application rate on:

• long-term P balance (P fertiliser applied minus the P exported in grain),
• soil test result (soil P test of above 15ppm Colwell appears to indicate adequate Phosphorus levels), and
• whole farm expenditure (not more than 10 to 12% of gross farm income expenditure on fertiliser (inclusive of N and S) - as an average of a minimum of 5 years).

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

2018 Season

• At Speddingup, yield of late sown Scepter wheat was highest (3.6 tonnes/ha) in treatment strips that received a 100L top-up of Flexi-N at early stem elongation in early September following a period of waterlogging in August. Yield was lowest (3.4 tonnes/ha) in the treatment to which all nitrogen was applied up front at seeding.
• At Condingup, mid-May sown Scepter wheat yield and grain protein increased as nitrogen application increased, with the Playing the Season treatment seeing the highest (8.4 tonnes/ha) and the Farmer Practice treatment seeing the lowest (6.9 tonnes/ha).
• Moderation of nitrogen applied up front provided the host grower at the Speddingup demonstration site with an opportunity to tailor nitrogen applications to the potential of the season and to address waterlogging issues faced during the season.
• The addition of extra nitrogen following waterlogging at the Condingup demonstration site resulted in improved yield and financial return (after nitrogen input costs had been deducted).
• Applications at stem elongation at Speddingup and as late as full flag leaf to head emergence at Condingup were able to provide yield with an associated positive effect on grain protein.

2019 Season

• There was no statistically significant difference in Scepter wheat grain yield or protein between the nitrogen application regimes applied at the Jerdacuttup, Speddingup and Condingup demonstration sites, despite there being a difference in the rate of nitrogen and timing of application. Each of these sites experienced below average rainfall in 2019 and no waterlogging occurred. Crops at Jerdacuttup and Speddingup were also affected by frost.
• Despite dry growing conditions and exposure to a significant frost in September, Scepter wheat replicates that received the highest rate of nitrogen were the most profitable at the Jerdacuttup demonstration site. The margin between the most profitable and the least profitable treatment was $79/ha while the difference in nitrogen rate applied between these was 54.9kg/ha.
• The difference between gross income achieved from each of the 4 treatments applied at the Speddingup demonstration site was very small but the variation in input costs did affect profitability. The most profitable treatment was the ‘Farmer Practice’ treatment as it had the lowest fertiliser input cost with little yield or grain quality penalty. The ‘Regular Intervals’ treatment was the least profitable of the nitrogen treatments as the input and application costs were highest. Conditions were too dry for the crop to utilize the additional applied nitrogen in this treatment. The difference between these 2 treatments was $72/ha.
• Grain price varied by only $0 to $10/t between nitrogen treatments at the Condingup demonstration site. The most profitable treatment was the ‘Playing the Season’ treatment, with the highest rate of nitrogen applied and the latest application date when the crop was at growth stage Z24/32-33; just prior to flag leaf emergence. The ‘Farmer Practice’ treatment was the next most profitable of those applied, the difference being $29/ha, followed by the ‘All Up Front’ treatment with a margin of $31/ha. The difference between the most profitable and least profitable treatment was $60/ha.

With the varying results from this project, it is evident that response to N is both site and situation dependant. Further work needs to be undertaken to be able to create a broad rule of thumb around the cost/benefit of feeding N to crops on waterlogging soils

• Fertilising above the optimum plant nitrogen (N) demand level reduced N-use efficiency and increased environmental impact.
• Despite receiving 8–9 irrigations as well as several intense rainfall events in a season, there were typically only 3–4 significant nitrous oxide (N2O) flux periods during the season, with most occurring early in the season, i.e. irrigations 1 and 2.
• Other significant N2O emissions events occurred mostly in response to adding in-crop N fertiliser followed by irrigation and/or intense rainfall.
• Initially, higher N2O emissions came from the beds where N fertiliser had been applied pre-sowing. Later in the season, emissions often peaked in the non-irrigated furrows after rainfall and irrigation events, particularly after additional N was added in the irrigation water.
• Farmers’ N rates were at least 25% higher than necessary to achieve the same lint yield in 2014–15, i.e. 50–100 kg N/ha. Less N fertiliser could have produced the same amount of cotton.
• Increasing N rates increased total N2O emissions, especially in prolonged wet conditions.
   

• Seeding rate and resultant plant population had little influence on grain yield. A seeding rate of 100 seeds/m2 is the equivalent of approximately 60 kg/ha seeding rate established 70 plants/m2.
• Establishment rate for the trial averaged 75%, but was generally lower at higher seed rates.
• Biomass at GS30 showed a trend to higher biomass generated by higher shoot numbers as plant population increased.
• There was no difference in biomass at mid-flowering (GS65) in DBA Aurora due to plant population.
• Biomass at harvest was influenced by variety and plant population.
• Seeding rate had little influence on grain yield. A seeding rate of 100 seeds/m2 is the equivalent of approximately 60 kg/ha seeding rate or an establishment of 70 plants/m2.
• Protein content was influenced by variety more than seeding rate and resultant plant population with DBA Vittaroi producing 13.9% protein vs 12.7% protein with DBA Aurora
• Water use efficiency was 21.4 kg/mm.

• Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions respond to large rainfall events.
• Most N2O emissions were generated after the crop was harvested.
• Tillage did not increase N2O emissions significantly in the first two years under wheat and canola.
• Including perennial grass into legume-based pastures would reduce N2O emissions.

• Crop productivity on infertile sandy soils can be greatly improved by incorporating organic matter deep into the soil (>30 cm).
• In some cases, crop yields are further boosted with the incorporation of clay and/or fertiliser to depth.
• Two years of recent research show that the best soil modification treatments can increase crop yields by 70 to 200 %, even in challenging seasons.
• Treatments that address multiple constraints in these soils provide greater benefit than those addressing individual issues.
• Crop yields are reduced when clay is poorly incorporated into the soil.

5 Experiments started in 1980's.

3 sources of Cu (sulfate (25%); oxychloride (52%)  & chelate (EDTA 15% Cu) at 7 levels of Cu

Applied at 2 growth stages of wheat grown at 5 sites

1 kg Cu/ha rsuilted in maximum yield of 2.5 t/ha (summarised over 5 experiemnts in each particular year.

1-2kg of Cu sulfate required for maximum yield on severely deficient soil (.5 tha nil Cu ; 2.5 t/ha adequate Cu)

Little foliage damage if sprayed under cool, cloudy conditions. Warm sunny conditions increased leaf damage and decreased response to foliar sprays.

Chelate Cu always resukted in the highest yield per quantity of Cu while oxychloride always rsulted in the lowest grain yield per quantity of Cu .For example 100 g Cu/ha of chelate , 200 g as sulfate and 4000g oxychloride Cu for maximumgrain yield.

Sprays at 6th leaf were higher than late boot.

Cool condition for leaf absorption.

Results replicated over several season and soil types.

5 Experiments started in 1980's reported in 1985-86.

Sources of Zn (sulfate (22%);  & chelate (EDTA 15% Zn) at 5-7 levels of Zn

Applied at 2 growth stages [4th leaf; mid-tillering] of wheat grown at 5 sites.

Wheat sprayed at 4th leaf yielded higher [ about 0.5 t/ha higher) than delaying until mid-tillering under severely Zn deficient plants.

0.45 kg Zn/ha for both times of spraying resuilted in maximum yield of 1.5 -2.5 t/ha (summarised over 5 experiemnts) in each particular year. About 50 -60% grain yield increases.

Zn chelate was more effective at the  4the leaf stage. About 200 g Zn/ha for maximum grain yield for chelate while 450 for the sulfate source.

At mid-tillering about 250-300 g Zn/ha required for maximum yield for both chelate and sulfate 

 Recommendation : 1 kg of Zn sulfate required for maximum yield on severely deficient soil; spray on onset of symptoms.

Little foliage damage if sprayed under cool, cloudy conditions. Warm sunny conditions increased leaf damage and decreased response to foliar sprays.

Sprays at 4th leaf were higher yielding than the mid-tillering stage.

Cool condition for leaf absorption.

Results replicated over several season and soil types.

• Drying soil conditions at the time of sowing, caused a poor initial germination of seedlings.
• Grain yield tended to increase as the rate of phosphorus fertiliser applied increased.
• The liquid NP source performed no better or worse than the solid NP source.

• Movement of water towards P fertiliser granules occurs and in calcareous soils this causes P to form a solid precipitate with calcium ions and prevents P moving away from where it is applied and reduces likely availability.
• Manganese from fluid fertilisers moves further away from point of application compared to a granular source of Mn and was potentially more available.
• Movement of zinc away from point of application was restricted regardless of the source and in both soils but fixation of zinc was less when the sources was fluid rather than granular.

There are two main forms of ‘precision agriculture’: guidance, to improve accuracy, decrease overlapping, improve efficiency etc (the benefits are well understood for guidance); and variable rate agriculture. Variable rate agriculture

The Victorian Mallee has experienced more than a decade of below average rainfall (including 3 droughts). This has placed an enormous amount of financial pressure on the farm businesses. By reducing up-front expenditure on inputs such as fertiliser, provided there is no yield penalty, delayed applications can significantly reduce risk. Delayed applications also allow for rates/inputs to be refined to suit the season.

• Plant tests at the end of July showed that crop N and P uptake were significantly increased where 300 kg/ha Super Phos had been previously applied.
• Super Phos applied to pasture increased crop yield from 3.0 t/ha to 3.9 t/ha but responses to more than 100 kg/ha Super Phos were not significant. There were no significant responses to potash, lime, manipulation or to Intake in Furrow.
• Grain proteins were about 11 %, hectare litre weights 78 kg/hl and screenings 2 % (data not presented).
• 100 kg/ha Super Phos increased protein yield by 77 kg/ha (or grain N recovery by about 14 kg N/ha). 
• This is the equivalent to about 40kg fertiliser N/ha (assuming a nitrogen use efficiency of 35%).
• The value of the crop response to pasture topdressing alone was big enough to more than offset the cost of 100 kg/ha Super Phos applied over the previous three years.

• Describes research into the opening up of new land in east Gippsland Victoria and the need for fertiliser application .
• Superphosphate, lime, potash and copper sulphate are all required before pasture growth can be assured.

• The MLA trials demonstrated that early summer seeding (January) of Serradella pod was a viable option. The summer sowing of Serradella pod has outperformed the twin sowing methods in the two trials conducted by SCF growers
• The current district practice of dry seeding pasture seed in Autumn on sandplain soils has severe limitations compared to summer pod sowing or seeding when soil is moist after full seasonal break. This was confirmed in the 2014 season in the MLA trial where the second time of sowing (into moist soil) outperformed the first time of sowing in total legume biomass production and this advantage has carried right through to seed set in Year 3 (in M1 trial Santorini and Margurita plots).
• The performance of a precision seeder for sowing Serradella in a 2015 trial demonstrated that modifications of conventional seeding systems could improve plant establishment efficiency by more that 35%.
• The hard seeded Serradellas are performing well in specific treatments in the MLA trials even on the lower fertility, acidic and non-wetting sandplain soils. Mixed maturity Serradellas like cv Margurita lose significant pod set with spraytopping ryegrass compared to Cadiz or Santorini.

• First wheat following canola yielded between 3.65 and 5.35t/ha depending on row spacing, plant population and nitrogen application.
• A narrow row spacing of 22.5cm produced higher dry matter (DM), grain yields and water use efficiency than a wider row spacing of 37.5cm.
• Higher grain yields were associated with plant populations of 150-165 plants/m2.
• Wide row spacing reduced grain yields by and average of 6.5% and DM by 15% compared with narrow row spacing. 

• Crusher TT canola yielded between 2.24–2.79 t/ha with 232mm of growing season rainfall (Apr–Oct) and an estimated 118mm of stored available soil moisture (total 350mm).
• All plant populations were high (150–200 plants/m2) due to an error in calibration, however results produced were similar to previous years, with no significant difference in yield between the narrowest (22.5cm — 2.67t/ha) and widest (37.5cm — 2.75t/ha) row spacings.
• The 30cm spacing yielded significantly lower than both the 22.5cm and the 37.5cm spacings in this trial. 

For a summary of key messages and results see the attached trial report.

• Canola following two years of wheat yielded 2.08t/ha despite establishing 50% fewer plants than canola grown during 2009, which yielded 1.59t/ha. The higher yield achieved during 2011 was attributed to more stored soil moisture at sowing. 
• The higher biomass produced with the narrower row spacing (22.5cm) did not translate into higher grain yield with the same yield achieved across the narrowest (22.5cm) and widest (37.5cm) row spacings.
• About 102-122kg nitrogen/ha was removed in aboveground biomass (straw and grain). There was no statistical difference in nitrogen off-take between the 22.5cm and 37.5cm row spacings.  

• Canola trials during 2012 had high plant populations, which may have created atypical crop canopy structures in relation to different row spacings.
• In four canola datasets generated from 2009 – 2012 at Coreen, New South Wales and Bungeet, Victoria the influence of row spacing on yield has been inconsistent.
• During 2012, the narrow row spacing (22.5cm) produced higher yields and a higher harvest index (HI) than wider row spacing, however this has not been the case in previous years. 

• With 537mm growing season rainfall (April- mid-November) wheat yields followig faba beans were 2.2t/ha higher than those experienced in 2009.
• The yield reduction moving from a narrow row spacing (22.5cm) to wide (37cm) was 12% (0.64t/ha), compared with 16% (0.49t/ha) in 2009.

For a summary of key messages and results see the attached trial report.

• With 570mm growing season rainfall (GSR) 2010 wheat yeilds were more than double those experiences during 2009 in the same rotation position (wheat after canola).
• Yield drop-off associated with the wide row spacing (37.5cm) was almost identical to 2009 results, with a 12% yield reduction compared with the narrow row spacing.

• In the 2012 wheat after canola trial, moving from a narrow row spacing (22.5cm) to a 30cm spacing reduced yield by 9%.  Moving from 22.5cm to the widest (37.5cm) row spacing reduced yield by 11%.
• In a season where yields averaged about 3t/ ha overall (based on a GSR of 196mm plus 85mm stored soil moisture), increasing row spacing beyond 22.5cm significantly reduced yield.
• During 2009, in the same rotation position on the same trial site, there was no difference in yield between the 22.5cm and 30cm row spacings (based on 2.5t/ha average yields), although the 37.5cm row spacing still yielded significantly less. 

For a summary of key messages and results see the attached trial report.

• In second wheat after faba beans, moving from a narrow row spacing of 22.5cm to 30cm and 37.5cm row spacings reduced yield by 4% and 10% respectively.  This compares with respective yield reductions of 12% and 14% in the fi rst wheat trial grown in the same paddock at the same time.
• The narrow row spacing (22.5cm) produced greater biomass than the wider row spacing but had a relatively poor harvest index (26%) compared with other row spacings in this trial.
• There was no difference in crop establishment or yield due to drill opener (tine versus disc), however plant establishment was superior with the narrow row compared with the wider spacings tested.
   

• Gauntlet wheat sown as the second wheat crop after canola yielded between 3.84–4.44t/ha with 232mm of growing season rainfall (Apr-Oct) and an estimated 118mm of stored water at sowing (total 350mm).
• Moving from a narrow row spacing (22.5cm) to 30cm and 37.5cm row spacings reduced yield by 13% and 11% respectively in the 2012 season.  In 2011, moving from a 22.5cm spacing to 30cm and 37.5cm spacings reduced yield by 4% and 10% respectively for the second wheat trial grown in the same paddock.
• It was estimated that the narrow row spacing (22.5cm) resulted in better water use efficiency (WUE) than the widest spacing (37.5cm), despite having a lower harvest index (44% vs 47%) than the widest rows.  

• Wheat on wheat (following canola) yielded 4.91t/ha, almost 1t/ha less than the neighbouring first wheat trial after canola, which yielded 5.84t/ha.
• There was no yield drop-off associated with wider row spacings (30cm and 337.5cm) in this wheat-on-wheat situation.

• Plant establishment at a 22.5cm row spacing was signifi cantly superior to 30cm, which in turn was signifi cantly higher than 37.5cm. The disc drill opener gave better establishment than the tine at the narrow (22.5cm) row spacing but not at the wider row spacing. 
• Advantages with the narrow row spacing were seen early in the season in terms of plant population, dry matter (DM) and tiller production. These advantages did not translate to signifi cantly higher yield in this rotation position. This result was identical to the results of the 2010 trial when wheat on wheat yields showed a similar, but not signifi cant, trend for narrow row spacing (22.5cm) to be better than wide row spacing (37.5cm). 

• Wheat on wheat sown 15 May 2013 yielded between 3.35 and 4.70t/ha depending on row spacing, plant population and nitrogen application.
• The narrow row spacing (22.5cm) produced the same yield and water use efficiency (WUE) as the wider row spacing (37.5cm).
• There was no difference in dry matter (DM) at harvest and grain yield due to plant population, though the lower plant population produced grain with significantly higher protein levels.
• Wider-row-spaced crops produced significantly higher protein than narrow-row crops, though there was no difference in yield.
• Wide row spacing significantly reduced DM compared with narrow row spacing at all assessments from tillering onwards until harvest when the difference was not statistically significant.
• This result is in contrast to the first wheat after canola, where the wider row spacing (37.5cm) yielded less and had lower WUE compared with the narrower rows.

• Trial sown at Lameroo on a zinc deficient soil, very dry season.
• Untreated crop was severely zinc deficient.
• Zinc seed dressings (Teprosyn and Broadacre products) were effective at alleviating zinc deficiency but not as effective as the dressings plus mid season foliar spray.
• The soil sprays were not very effective, even at double the recommended rate, perhaps because the soil was so dry.
• Although laboratory experiments had shown that MAP was more effective than DAP fertiliser in terms of zinc availability, no differences were observed in the field experiment.

SANTFA’s 2010 field trial in calcareous cropping country near Streaky Bay demonstrated the strongest evidence  yet for biochar’s capacity to influence fertiliser efficacy and crop yield in SA’s cropping system.

The biochar data collected from the 2010 trials is analogous in many ways to what we would expect from spreading clay on non-wetting sands: little response at very low rates, an excellent response at the appropriate rate and a potential problem if the soil is over-clayed or the wrong clay (such as a limey clay) is applied. 

• Banding low rates of biochar can reduce cropping input costs and improve profi tability.  
• Biochar can improve the effi cacy of fertiliser but should not be regarded as a fertiliser in its own right.
• More is not better. A rate of around 35kg/ha of biochar plus a modest rate of DAP produced the best economic outcome for all rates of DAP used in the trial (0, 50 and 100kg/ha). 

• Different crop types displayed varying phosphorus (P) use efficiencies (soil and fertiliser demand) under P deficient conditions.
• Crop types that have previously shown to be P efficient did not display the same traits in neutral to slightly alkaline soils.
• Soil testing can have significant economic benefits if the right test is used.

• Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plant development which cannot be effectively applied post sowing. Because of this it is imperative that decisions on its application are made now.
• P should be applied at rates necessary achieve the yields being targeted in a given paddock for a given year.
• Information to assist you in determining how much P is in your soil includes fertiliser history, removal through production previous yields, soil tests and paddock history.

• Hi-analysis granular fertiliser required the smallest yield to breakeven in 2009 .
• Hi-analysis granular P and liquid P had a similar response curve and both types of products performed well.
• Rock Phosphate product had a very flat response which slightly improved when 30% DAP was added.

The Rand site was sown on the 12th May 2010 with 8 treatments of various amounts of seed and P fertilizer. The variety was Lincoln and the sowing fertilizer was MAP. The site had grown canola in 2009 and had been summer sprayed for weeds. It was direct drilled into the canola stubble. The site had an N rich strip of 50hg/.ha of N applied about 5 weeks prior to the assessment in July 2010.

Phosphorus treatment had no significant impact on grain yield, screenings or protein at Hart in 2008.

• A response to fertiliser after 5 years of no phosphorus applications.
• Alternative phosphorus sources such as biosolids, chicken litter or biochar, produced significantly lower yields compared to phosphorus fertiliser.
• Biosolids and chicken litter significantly increased leaf and grain zinc concentrations.

• A response to fertiliser after 5 years of no phosphorus applications.
• Alternative phosphorus sources such as biosolids, chicken litter or biochar, produced significantly lower yields compared to phosphorus fertiliser.
• Biosolids and chicken litter significantly increased leaf and grain zinc concentrations.

• After 4 years of no applied phosphorus fertiliser grain yield of barley was significantly lower than where phosphorus had been applied.
• Alternative phosphorus sources such as biosolids, chicken litter or biochar, produced significantly lower yields compared to phosphorus fertiliser.

There was a significant yield response to 0 P rates again in year four at Ariah Park.

The apparent better performance of MAP T3 is noted but when looking at the other MAP based products they don't follow the same trend. There was no significant response to applied phosphorus, sulphur or zinc. The CV of the trial is quite high, meaning that a 0.48 Tonnes/ha yield response was needed for anything to be significant. There was no negative effect of applying starter nitrogen in this trial, however there was no positive effect. At current pricing the MAP based products are a very cost effective source of phosphorus and sulphur regardless of the starter nitrogen. Tissue tests indicated all nutrients were adequate see Table 99.
 

• On light soils, nitrogen is generally the most important nutrient in achieveing optimum cereal yields and maximising return.
• It is important to maintain a balanced approach to crop nutrition.
• In deficient sandy soils, nitrogen can be confidently applied to malting barley, particularly if applied early and to crops free of disease and weed competition.

Previous trials and demonstrations have highlighted zinc deficiencies in both cereals and pulses, which could provide farmers substantial profits over the cost of zinc. A trial conducted on wheat at Sea Lake in 2000, on a highly responsive soil type with a poor zinc history clearly defined responses to zinc and demonstrated that responses to phosphorus or nitrogen cannot be achieved if zinc is deficient. This trial also endorsed the conclusions of trials conducted in 1999 that adequate zinc enriched granular fertiliser should be regularly applied

• Due to the dry season yeilds were very dissapointing, 0.2-0.3t/ha, and there was no response to fertiliser. Results were not printed in the report.

Barley yields exceeded 5 t/ha with strong responses to lime and potassium fertiliser.

The 1.0 t/ha response to potassium (K) was not as strong as in the previous two wheat crops (1.4 t/ha in 2013 and 2.4 t/ha in 2014). This was probably partly due to better control of ryegrass in plots without K fertiliser compared to previous years.

The response to lime applied in 2011 and 2014 was also 1.0 t/ha. This followed a 0.35 t/ha response in 2014 wheat. Like 2014, lime did not affect response to K.

Compared to topdressing potash, banding K increased early crop vigour, but 140 kg/ha K-Till Extra (15K) did not supply enough K to satisfy demand of the high yield potential.

This trial has highlighted the importance of maintaining K inputs (if required) when undertaking liming programs.

Ongoing responses to lime are likely to increase future demand for K because soil reserves will be depleted at an increasing rate.

• This trial produced a 0.9 t/ha yield response to potassium (K) fertiliser (trt 1 v 6).
• Early rains and a wetter than average season contributed to waterlogged growing conditions through June/July and most likely to significant leaching losses of nitrogen (N).
• Topdressed MoP treatments lacked the early vigour of plots sown with potassium (K) banded with K-Till Plus. This was despite about 50mm of rain falling between the date of topdressing (12 April) and sowing (16 May).
• As the season progressed, crop growth improved up to the highest rate of MoP (144 kg/ha) applied.
• There were no significant yield differences between strategies supplying between 9 and 24 kg K/ha (trt 2, 3, 4, 5).
• There was no response to magnesium (Mg) supplied by kieserite (trt 7).

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• There was no response to topdressed muriate of potash but a 0.3 t/ha response to K banded in K-Till Extra.
• Nitrogen (N) use efficiency was maximised with K-Till Extra.
• Potassium (K) was a more limiting nutrient than N.
• Dry conditions frequently experienced in the Wheatbelt limit the effectiveness of topdressed K.

• Plant analysis indicated marginal potassium (K) status in July. Although there were visual responses to K during the season, there were no yield or grain quality responses.
• Grain protein was low which suggests that Nitrogen (N) supply may have limited responses to K.

• Plant testing should be used as a guide to better K fertiliser decisions.

• Sandplain soil with Colwell K analysis lower than 30 mg/kg is highly likely to be responsive to K.
• Potassium applied at 13-17 kg/ha in the compound NPK+traces fertiliser, Vigour, banded below the seed improved yields compared to NP+traces compound alone, and yields were further enhanced by applying additional 12.5 kg/ha K as MOP.
• Optimised returns will depend fertiliser and grain prices at the time. In the present trial, the greatest increase in returns were seen with Vigour 140 kg/ha at seeding plus 25 kg/ha MOP applied PSPE.

• Growth of lupins receiving chelated iron was greater than those receiving iron sulphate when grown on an alkaline soil (pH 8.7 H2O).

• There was no significant yield increase by applying fertiliser at seeding on this particular acidic sand for season 2003.
• Protein increased with fertiliser application.

In our demonstration the higher fertiliser (DAP) rates produced higher yields, slightly higher protein and also slightly higher screenings when compared to the lower rate of DAP, as you would expect. The PR70 did not have any influence on yield at the lower rate of DAP, however at the higher rate of DAP the PR70 treated plot yielded 400 kg/ha less than the untreated plot. Therefore our trial demonstrates that PR70 did not produce significantly beneficial results in our area this year. More extensive replicated trial work is now
needed in our soil type to confirm the potential benefits of PR70.

Using precision agriculture (PA) to apply variable rate of fertilise is an easy way to test new idea on farm. Precision agriculture can be used to apply different rates of fertiliser to different areas of a paddock. Wheat responded to applied phophorus, even though soil tests indicated it had a high level of Colwell P (56mg/ka).

Reducing sowing rates to 50 kg/ha did not impact on yield, which is consistant with 2009 trial results. Yield at the site did not respond to applied phosphorus or nitrogen fertiliser even following early plant growth responses.

Precision agriculture can be used to apply variable rates of nitrogen fertiliser; generating fertiliser savings and optimising yields throughout the paddock. Optimising applied nitrogen fertilser results in optimum yields and gross margin.

The higher yielding zone of the paddock did not require more DAPSZC than the lower yielding zones. Such on-farm experiments have a great potential to inform and improve paddock management for increased profits and environmental outcomes by using inputs more wisely.

• Precision soil mapping for pH and nutrients can result in significant cost savings for producers.

• Mapping soil pH has greatest value if the paddocks are into their second or third rotation of lime.

• Consider including sulphur in the testing if mapping phosphorus.

• Establish several sites across the farm to monitor the ongoing pH, P and S status.

• There was good correlation between yield predicted from historical yield maps and actual yield data.
• Wind during harvest caused over 0.5t/ha yield loss in the lower yielding areas of the paddock.

• From soil tests we knew that P was going to be the limiting factor.
• This trial shows that there is no substitue for keeping your P rates up. For example a ~$90/ha investment achieved a return of $483/ha.
• It also show the importance of soil testing.
• Plant analysis did not show any improvement in P uptake from either product enhancer and neither of these'enhancers' improved crop yeilds.

• Proximal sensing reflectance data predicts soil moisture with reasonable accuracy from samples taken at depths (0-10, 10-30, 30-60, 60-100 cm) across 46 Eyre Peninsula locations.
• Moderate relationships were found between % organic carbon, pH(water) and soil spectral data.
• Reflectance data have been proven useful for predicting the amount of crop macronutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur.
• Further experimental data is required to test the reliability of the existing predictive models of soil absorbance and crop reflectance as a means to predict nutrient content.

• In glasshouse trials, which grew normally and produced grain when soil dressings of copper sulphate replied to surface soil from the field sites.
• There is therefore no inherent characteristics of the soils which makes fertiliser copper unavailable for plant uptake.
• The pattern of rainfall at each field site was compared with the rate of development of the wheat. When symptoms of coffered deficiency appeared in negligible grain yields occurred despite fertiliser application no effective rain fell in the 20 days before the plants reach the boot stage of growth.
• When soil dressings improved grain yield effective rainfall occurred within 14 days prior to booting.
• It is postulated that wheat cannot absorb sufficient copper for normal growth and development from a dry fertiliser zone.
• When the zone is dry just before booting wheat suffers an acute deficiency of copper during a critical phase of pollen formation resulting in infertile pollen.

• Raised beds increase productivity on saline, waterlogged land along with fertiliser and fencing our wildlife.
• Potential issues: uneven bed formation can make seeding difficult, saline soil may be brought to the surface, leached salts may cause damage.