• Applying 20 kg/ha of phosphorus (P) increased grain yield and protein content above a replacement P rate, however there was little economic benefit from the extra P on either a deep or a shallow constrained soil in 2009.

The knifepoint plus press wheel seeding system consistently maximised wheat seedling establishment on sand and clay soils, independently of herbicide application.

• Field peas have proven to be the most reliable pulse option on the upper Eyre Peninsula with yields remaining the most stable across seasons.
• Under favourable conditions there is potential for alternative pulse crops to be successful.
• Paddock selection, soil type, time of sowing, pulse agronomy, marketing and storage options all need careful consideration when looking at growing alternative pulse crops.
• New varietal options offer earlier maturity as well as improvements in harvestability, disease resistance and herbicide tolerance over older commercial standards, aiding production and profitability.
• Higher value alternatives, such as lentils, may be a high risk option and pulse crops better suited to the region could still prove to be the most profitable option in the long term.

• This and other research demonstrates that it is possible to improve crop establishment and productivity on water repellent soils using modified furrow sowing techniques.
• Banded wetting agents are helpful with early dry or partially dry sowing before opening rains but show less benefit later in the sowing program when there has already been rain and the soil has started to wet up more (see Banded wetting agent paper WMG 2012 research annual). In very erodible conditions with high wind erosion risk the use of this strategy may be safer than the options with winged points or boots due to less soil disturbance and release of root anchorage for existing plant cover. Optimal wetting agents for WMG areas still need identification.
• Winged points and winged-paired row systems perform better than knife points under certain soil conditions but the benefits are variable and in some sowing conditions may provide little benefit. Further research is required. Winged points look most attractive when shallow moist soil can be ‘delved’ to the seed zone to provide early establishment (as in the winged knife point on the gravelly sand with shallow moisture).
• Simple approaches like sowing next to or at a shallow angle across the previous year’s crop row and broadcast spreading a portion of the seed in front of the seeding tynes are relatively simple approaches that can provide establishment benefits.
•  

There was no difference between nitrogen treatments for grain yield and all grain quality parameters except for TGW (thousand grain weight). The very dry year had an effect with limited moisture available to assist in nitrogen uptake at growth stage 31, when all N was applied.

We focussed on measuring paddock variability rather than implementing an actual variable rate trial. Soil pH mapping proved to be a valuable step towards variable rate lime with significant variability found, pH(CaCl2) varying from 4.0 to 7.1 across a 50ha paddock. A variable rate management approach to pH on this paddock would deliver a 75% saving of lime.

The dry September limited yields at this site, yields were about on par with the district, there was no difference between treatments at flowering or at any stage of growth. Available soil sulphur (S) at sowing was 55 kg/ha (taken to a depth of 35cm) and with a yield of 1.5 t/ha maximum, only 38kg S was required for the crop. This crop had enough soil sulphur already supplied before additional sulphur was applied.

None of these trials have given a clear sulphur (S) response irrespective of form even though some had quite low soil sulphur levels. This indicates that elemental sulphur is quite a suitable sulphur source especially where it is for maintenance sulphur requirements as appears to be the case in all of Hi Ferts trials.

There has been widespread use of continuous cereal in the Mallee over the past decade, and with many drought years throughout this period fertiliser inputs have generally been greater than crop demand. As a consequence, soil phosphoruslevels are often well above the critical level. By identifying soils and conditions where continuous cereal systems perform best and where inputs can be most effectively targeted, there is an opportunity to reduce input costs and increase profitability. This trial used PA methods to identify soil types for targeted soil sampling to achieve a greater understanding of soil phosphorus levels in different soil zones. Yield mapping was then used to identify if and where fertiliser applied to the crop impacted grain yield.

• There is still a lot of work to be done but it appears crops can be sown successfully into perennial pastures in some situations.
• Agronomic results from the Moora focus site appear to support the view that Marginal or problem soils are a potential fit for pasture cropping systems. However, it is important to note that the extra green feed produced over summer-autumn needs to be converted into wool or meat in order to offset any grain yield losses.
• Further research is required across different sites and seasons as the yield penalty on better soil classes may well be greater than on deep pale sands which have limited capacity to store moisture from summer rainfall for crop production. The viability of pasture cropping systems based on other sub tropical grass species, native grasses. lucerne and bluebush are also worth evaluating.

Key findings:

• Increasing levels of inoculum (oospores/ plant) of Phytophthora medicaginis (P. med) was strongly correlated with the decreasing yield of Yorker, a moderately resistant chickpea variety.
• An inoculum level of 660 oospores/plant (PreDicta B >5000 P. med copies/g soil) at sowing significantly reduced yield compared with lower inoculum levels under both dryland and irrigated conditions.
• These findings provide further evidence that the PreDicta B P. med test will be a useful tool for growers to determine their risk of Phytophthora root rot before sowing chickpeas.
• Note: the SARDI PreDicta B test for Phytophthora medicaginis is under development and is not yet available commercially.

Summary

P.med inoculum level, PRR disease and yield

Can the P.med DNA soil test predict the risk of Phytophthora root rot?  Based on the results of this trial with Yorker (MR) and the 2014 Tamworth trial with Sonali (S), the answer is YES.  For Yorker significant yield loss can be expected with starting (pre-sow sampling) inoculum levels above ca 3000 P.med DNA sequences/g soil (ca 130 oospores/plant). However, these values may need to be interpreted with some caution as seasonal conditions will modify outcomes, for instance in a dry season less disease may develop from the same amount of inoculum.

As Phytophthora can reproduce rapidly and cause new infections over a relatively short period there was concern that under PRR conducive conditions (a wet season), that low initial levels of inoculum could catch up to high initial levels as cause similar disease severity and yield loss.  The 2015 season was wet but not very wet, under these conditions there was separation in the disease and yields of the low and high inoculum treatments.

P.med DNA detection in commercial in paddocks and disease risk determination

These second season of detection capability results for the soil P.med DNA test were again generally promising, with most samples with positive and negative P.med DNA results corresponding to expected P.med isolation results.  However, results for some samples indicate that further work is required to a) identify what factors may contribute to false negative results and b) determine if false positives are due to the presence of dead or inactive P.med DNA

The DNA result for a soil sample from a paddock can only provide an indication of inoculum concentration and disease risk for the areas of the paddock which were sampled.  Therefore, the spread and locations of sampling across a paddock will affect how representative DNA results are for a paddock.  Because of the risk of rapid PRR disease buildup following wet conditions it may be appropriate to treat a negative Predicta B® test result as indicating a low risk rather than a nil risk, as the pathogen could still be in areas of the paddock that were not sampled and so still cause PRR and reduce yield. 

Work in 2016 will evaluate maximising the probability of detecting P. med by targeting those areas of the paddock where P.med is more likely to occur.  The pathogen thrives in high soil moisture contents and so often occurs in low lying regions of paddocks where pooling following rain may occur.  The pathogen also carries over from season to season on infected chickpea volunteers, lucerne and, native medics.  Including low lying areas and weedy areas of paddocks during PreDicta B® soil sampling may provide the best strategy to detecting P. med and so identifying a paddocks disease risk of PRR in chickpea.

In this survey, 76% of the paddocks had a Colwell P greater than 20mg/kg.

In this survey, 76% of the paddocks had a Colwell P greater than 20mg/kg.

In this survey, 76% of the paddocks had a Colwell P greater than 20mg/kg.

In this survey, 76% of the paddocks had a Colwell P greater than 20mg/kg.

In this survey, 76% of the paddocks had a Colwell P greater than 20mg/kg.

In this survey, 76% of the paddocks had a Colwell P greater than 20mg/kg.

In this survey, 76% of the paddocks had a Colwell P greater than 20mg/kg.

In this survey, 76% of the paddocks had a Colwell P greater than 20mg/kg.

In this survey, 76% of the paddocks had a Colwell P greater than 20mg/kg.

In this survey, 76% of the paddocks had a Colwell P greater than 20mg/kg.

In this survey, 76% of the paddocks had a Colwell P greater than 20mg/kg.

In this survey, 76% of the paddocks had a Colwell P greater than 20mg/kg.

In this survey, 76% of the paddocks had a Colwell P greater than 20mg/kg.

In this survey, 76% of the paddocks had a Colwell P greater than 20mg/kg.

The variability across the paddock in the level of Take-all and deep soil N were relatively low and the results can be used to devise a management plan. Rhizovonia and Pratylenctus neglectus the results between the site were more variable

Removal of subsoil compaction by deep ripping resulted in a 370 kg/ha (45%) yield benefit with spading giving an additional benefit of 12% (100 kg/ha) and mouldboard ploughing 39% (320 kg/ha) compared with the deep ripping treatment. Higher biomass and increased head density in the cultivation treatments are indicative of improved nutrient access and effcient use of available water through the season. Water use efficiency was 4.9 kg/ha/mm of growing season rainfall for the control treatment compared with 7.1 kg/ha/mm for ripped, 7.6 kg/ha/mm for spaded and 8.9 kg/ha/mm for mouldboard ploughing. Recent research is showing that nutrient availability is improved when top soil is buried by spading or mouldboard 
ploughing because nutrients become concentrated in the rootzone and less suscpetible to soil drying from evaporation, which can be the case when majority of the nutrients are on the soil surface, (Davies et al, 2012).

• Spading has mixed the non-wetting layer of soil in this paddock through the soil profile, resulting in an increase in crop yield in two out of past three years.
• Using the spader to mix lime and dolomite into the subsoil has improved the pH of the soil and increased yield. 
• Wind erosion is a big risk with spading and caused a yield decrease in 2010, the year the spading occurred. 
• Spading also reduces compaction at a similar level to deep ripping by physically breaking down any compacted layers in the top 30cm.
• Soil type is a large factor in the success of a spading operation; careful consideration must be given to this prior to commencing any spading program. 

 

• Spading has buried the non-wetting layer of soil in this paddock, resulting in an increase in crop yield in two of the past three years.
• Using a spader to mix lime and dolomite into the subsoil has improved soil pH soil and increased yield.

Report: Erin Cahill - on-farm results summary: Soil water repellence is relatively easy to diagnose but because numerous soil types can be affected and there are many possible management options deciding how best to address the problem can be difficult. Deciding on a water repellence management strategy in cropping systems will be determined by many factors including: the severity of the water repellence, soil types affected, how much of the farm is affected, impact of other constraints and whether repellence occurs in discrete patches or larger more widespread areas.

• The zinc content of particle size fractions of 12 mainly zinc deficient soils was measuredly extraction with three contrasting extractants.
• The soils, which ranged from sands to a black earth, were from Western Australia and Queensland Particle size fractions were obtained by sieving and sedimentation after ultrasonification of soil suspended in deionized water.
• High clay soils had higher concentrations (mean 54 mg kg-I) of acid extractable –zinc than low clay soils (mean 2 mg kg-I)After fractionation.
• Lowest acid extractable - and DTPA-zinc were found in coarse sand fractions and concentrations increased with decreasing particle size.
• Clay plus silt fractions contained 60-99% of the whole soil acid extractable –zinc.
• The CaCl2-zinc concentrations were very low (<0.5 ug/kg-I) for all soils.
• In whole soils, DTPA-zinc was only a small proportion of the acid extractable-zinc.
• Acid extractable -zinc was correlated with oxalate extractable Fe and with oxalate aluminium whereas DTPA-zinc was correlated with oxalate extractable Fe.The AE- and DTPA-zinc were correlated with organic carbon only in some fractions.
• The DTPA- and CaCl2-zinc were not correlated with acid extractable -zinc content, nor was DPTA-zinc correlated with CaCl2-zinc in whole soils or fractions.

• Know the risk of yield loss from eyespot before sowing a cereal - inspect stem bases (lodging does not always occur) in a previous cereal crop or take soil samples pre-sowing and submit them to PreDicta B for analysis.
• Select less susceptible varieties which are well adapted to the area - untreated they will perform better and they may also be more responsive to fungicide application, particularly where disease pressure is high. Avoid varieties with weak straw strength as they are more likely to lodge when affected by eyespot.
• No fungicides are registered at present for eyespot management, but a number are in the process of registration. Once these are registered - use the correct rate (lower rates can be less effective); apply before canopy closure (GS30-31 is usually recommended); use high water rates; target the base of the plant.
• Delays (due to waterlogging) in fungicide application until after early stem elongation may reduce eyespot incidence and severity but may not give a yield response.
• Inoculum carryover is unlikely to be influenced by variety resistance alone but is likely to be reduced where a fungicide is applied prior to canopy closure. Greatest reductions in inoculum carryover were seen where two fungicide applications were made (tillering plus GS30-31) or where one fungicide application was made to a less susceptible variety.

Current projects are:

• Can adjusting zones within N1 paddock at Minnipa improve VRT outcomes?
• Small plot evaluation of the variable rate sowing paddock N1 at Minnipa
• Farming systems WUE survey 2010 – practices
• Responsive farming for soil type at Mudamuckla
• Responsive farming for soil type at Wharminda
• Manganese response in barley at Wharminda
• Can we reduce our phosphorus inputs?
• Crop production using replacement P
• Measuring the effect of residual P

The following series of articles are from trials undertaken in 2010 on the three focus sites:
• Responsive Farming Using Variable Rate Sowing at Minnipa
• Responsive Farming for Soil Type at Mudamuckla
• Responsive Farming for Soil Type at Wharminda
• Farming to Soil Potential on the Upper Eyre Peninsula: How Accurate was In-season Yield Prediction in
2010?
• Crop Production Using Replacement P Rates
• Measuring the Effect of Residual P
• Nitrogen Management on Upper Eyre Peninsula
• Wheat Variety Response to P on Grey Calcareous Soil

• Yield of faba beans (ignoring the broad bean PBA Kareema) averaged 1.5t/ha at Wanilla in 2012. Early establishment and growth was excellent, disease pressure was low, and beans showed high yield potential.
• Beans appeared to “hay off” late in the season due to high early season biomass production and the dry and rapid finish to the season, together with the occurrence of several high temperature events during late flowering.

• Soil pH (6.8) at this site was ideal for bean growth, and attempted amelioration through application of lime had no effect on grain yield. In soils with higher acidity beans may still benefit from the application of lime.
• Inoculation of beans is considered to be “cheap insurance” in areas with low previous history or acidic soils prone to water logging. However the addition of inoculum may not always provide a significant yield response, but will generally improve nodulation and consequently N fixation.

• Sowing time has far greater consequences on growth, development, dry matter and grain yield of faba bean than variety choice.
• The dry spring combined with temperature constraints, imposed a common ceiling to yield despite large differences measured in dry matter (DM), height and reproductive number across all treatments.
• Early sown faba bean was primarily affected by severe frosts, while later sown was limited by flower node production and heat stress.
• Under these conditions, early April sowings resulted in greater biomass, taller plants, more flowering nodes, additional lodging, more disease and greater frost damage. Given a more favourable spring, disease and lodging could have been further exacerbated, inflicting even greater yield penalties to the first time of sowing (TOS).
•  Findings from this and previous experiments show the optimum sowing window for faba bean on acidic, red brown soils of southern NSW to be from 20 April to 15 May. The later sown crops within this window could still be disadvantaged under early unfavourable finishing conditons. 

• Inoculating faba beans prior to sowing improved nodulation on acid soil.
• New acid tolerant rhizobia (strain SRDI-969) increased nodulation but not grain yield, which was limited by low rainfall.
• The SRDI-969 is a promising strain, which is under evaluation as a future replacement for the current commercially available strain (WSM-1455).

•  Group B herbicide application timing significantly influenced herbicide damage of faba bean varieties. Herbicide damage scores generally increased with delaying herbicide application timing from PSPE to 4 node, 8 node and flowering stages. Although the level of damage in PBA Bendoc was significantly less than PBA Samira, both varieties showed the highest sensitivity to in-crop application of sulfonylurea herbicides (see Table 1 in attached trial report summary). Grain yield results are not presented due to soil variability and poor root nodulation caused by soil acidity. 

New acid-tolerant rhizobia strains can increase nodulation of faba beans on acid soil. However, sustained ability of faba beans to fix atmospheric nitrogen strongly depends on appropriate lime programs. Inoculating faba beans with peat inoculants significantly increased nodulation compared to the controls that were not inoculated.

• Grain yields were low and variable in 2018 due to low soil pH at the site, and waterlogging that occurred during winter. The removal of molybdenum from the fertiliser significantly reduced plant vigor and grain yield. However, due to the high soil variability results should be treated with caution. 
   

• The optimum time to sowing faba bean at Junee in 2015 was mid-April.
• PBA Zahra, PBA Samira and PBA Nasma are the highest yielding varieties.
• Commercial yields of 3 t/ha are achievable with appropriate varieties and management.

• The optimum time to sowing faba bean at Wagga Wagga 2015 was mid-late April.
• PBA Nasma, PBA Samira, PBA Zahra, Farah and Fiesta VF were the highest yielding commercial varieties.
• Choice of sowing time had far greater consequences on growth, development and grain yield of faba bean than choice of variety in this experiment.
• PBA Nasma produced a small grain size of 53 gm/100 seeds which may have negative marketing implications

• Faba bean and its specific Group F rhizobia are sensitive to pHCa below about 5.0
• Faba bean rooting depth is limited by acid layers in the soil profile
• Unincorporated, surface-applied lime increases pH of the soil surface, but has limited effect on subsurface pH in the short to medium term
• Lime incorporation to 10cm is necessary to rapidly increase subsurface pH
• Check for pH stratification before using Group B SU herbicides – elevated surface pH slows the breakdown of herbicide residue and may extend re-cropping intervals for legume species on acid soils to 22 months – check herbicide labels

• Soil amelioration, particularly liming with incorporation to depth, increases break crop options.
• Faba beans can be successfully grown on light soil types if pH is managed.
• Subsequent nitrogen fertiliser programs should take account of residual N to optimise the benefits of pulse crops.

• The Making Better Fertiliser Decisions for Cropping Systems in Australia (BFDC) database allows us to search for soil test calibrations for four macronutrients across a range of crops, soils types, regions and time spans.
• As an example, the critical range for soil test P (Colwell) for wheat grown in red chromosols in NSW has increased under minimum-tillage management.

Cu greatly increased yield fro 560 kg/ha to 1570 kg/ha.  Grain yield and analyses of tops of wheat showed large granules greatly reduced the effectiveness of Cu incorporated into them, the effect being more marked at the lower granule number provided by the 100 kg/ha super mix compared with the 200 kg/ha. Doubling the rate of Cu applied by doubling the Cu concentration in the granule had little effect on Cu uptake and failed to ovecome the restrictivew effect of large granules. It is the number of granules in the root zone of the wheat plants that is critical for adequate uptake of Cu and that large granulated "wet mixed" Cu superphosphate mixtures are unsatisfactory Cu fertilisers.

In general oxide source was equal to or superior to the sulfate source in wet mixes. In dry mixes in the same trial Cu oxide was only 66 % as effective as the sulfate.

Shallow placement was miuch less effective than placing Cu fertiliser at 5 cm or more. Cu foliar at 0.54 kg cu/ha applied at 6 weeks after seeding gave highest yield.

It was concluded that application methods that reduce the number of CXu particles available for root copntact greatly reduce the effectuiveness of Cu fertiliser.

 

Cu greatly increased yield fro 560 kg/ha to 1570 kg/ha.  Copper was applied as copper sulfate at 6.6 kg/ha.

Highlights of the results are:

(a) preseeding cultivations after drilling the Cu in 1979 markedly increased Cu uptake;

(b) medium sized Cu-OSP was inferior ti fine granule size

(c) the effects of granule size & 1979 pre-seeding cultivations were not reflected in 1980 Cu uptakes.  The effectiveness of the treatments which were relatively ineffective in 1980 as those treatments which were most effective in 1979

(d) Cu drilled with the seed in 1980 was much less effective than all Cu treatments applied the previous year

(e) although all grades of Cu-OSP drilled with the seed in 1980 were relatively ineffective compared with that applied the previous year, the inclusion of 15% fine material with 85% medium material increased Cu uptake from the fertiliser by 40%, 50% fine material increased Cu uptake from fertiliser by 80%.

GRanules > 3 mm are much less effective than medium sized granules.

REsearch suggests that 1 kg/ha copper sulfate at early boot is required for the first crop where Cu fertiliser is applied at recommended rates.

 

• A soil and sediment survey of 10 irrigated cotton paddocks across four cotton-growing valleys revealed the tail drain sediments were enriched in organic carbon (1.03% ± 0.05) and nitrogen (0.11% ± 0.01) compared with head ditch soils (0.73% ± 0.07 for carbon and 0.08% ± 0.01 for nitrogen) of the same paddocks. Nitrate-nitrogen and dissolved organic carbon analyses showed similar trends.
• After irrigation, tail drain samples tended to release more nitrous oxide compared with head ditch samples. Emission rates were linked to the pre-irrigation mineral nitrogen concentrations of the soil/sediments.
• These non-cropped areas, representing up to 2% of the paddock area, are a significant source of nitrous oxide emission per unit area of farm as they retain high soil moisture and nutrient concentrations in the absence of plants.
• Nitrous oxide emission calculations for cotton farming systems should incorporate the emissions from head ditch and tail drain sections of the irrigation network.
   

Average trial yield was 3.8 t/ha, close to the potential as identified by Yield Prophet during the season. No significant differences in yield were found between stubble treatments (stubble retained, worked or removed) and nutrient treatments (normal practice, normal practice plus additional nutrients to enhance stubble breakdown). Changes in Soil Organic Matter fractions over the duration of the trial (2012 to 2014) resulting from the stubble and nutrient treatments will be assessed in March, 2015.

No difference in yield or quality was noted for the stubble or nutrient treatments. It is likely that soil carbon is being increased as the additional nutrients did not increase yield. Increasing soil carbon is a slow process and several years are needed to see whether these treatments do increase soil carbon. A range of sites across southern Australia have been chosen to see if soil carbon can be increased.

The extra nutrition treatment had no effect on yield or grain quality this season. In the 2012 season the stubble removed treatment had the highest yield.

Average trial yield was 2.8 t/ha, approximately 1 t/ha below the nitrogen unlimited potential as identified by Yield Prophet® during the season. No significant differences in yield were found between stubble treatments (stubble retained, worked or removed) and nutrient treatments (normal practice, normal practice plus additional nutrients to enhance stubble breakdown). After three years of trial work, no significant differences in soil carbon were found between the stubble and nutrient treatments.

The farming systems trial is in its first yera of operation and has collected base line information so that the effects of each farming system on soil characteristics, weed composition and disease burden  an be assessed as the trial progresses.

• Crop yields in 2006 were driven by fallow (no difference between mechanical/conventional).
• Early sowing set an upper limit to yield but did not compensate for not being sown on fallow.
• Crop emergence was very sensitive to sowing conditions, with later sowing and sowing into 2005 cereal crop stubbles leading to much later crop emergence.
• The difference in soil available water driving the fallow response was difficult to measure with soil sampling on these soils; soil available nitrogen was a better predictor of yield in 2006.
• There were no yield penalties to adopting no-till in the Hungry Sheep and Fuel Burner systems.
• Cultivation in No Till and Reduced Till paddocks produced inconsistent effects on yield.

• There is no clear difference between till and no-till crop establishment systems for yield at the Farming Systems Trial.
• Low protein in some plots indicated nitrogen deficiency in 2009.
• Pre-sowing deep soil nitrogen tests indicated low protein but not always at the levels expected.

• Long chemical fallow plots achieved record yields in 2010.
• Rotation was a factor in higher 2010 yields, but the cause of differences is not clear.
• Pre-sowing soil nitrate was not a good predictor of crop yield potential in 2010.

The Farming Systems trial has expressed some significant differences in soil health between each of the systems from 2000 to 2012. If these are not managed in the long-term, the sustainability of the affected systems may be reduced. The Fuel Burner System had significantly lower organic carbon in the soil compared with the other farming systems, reflective of the regular cultivation.

• Using crop growth models to quantify the season to season yield performance on different soil types and predict in-season potential yield can be a very useful tool for managing risk and inputs.
• Given the high spatial variability in soils and grain yield, mapping paddocks into zones of similar soil and yield potential enables farmers to better target input levels as well as understand crop yield potential in different seasons.
• Information about the capacity of a soil to hold water, the water and mineral N levels at sowing are the basic information needed to use Yield Prophet - given this information, grain yield can be accurately predicted.

The humus portion of soil carbon has relatively constant ratio of N, P and S. This has been established as 80N, 20P and 14S per tonne of humus carbon.

• Application of P fertilisers increased pasture growth and dry matter production (t/ha).
• Application of P above maintenance levels will increase soil P levels.

The success of this project continues to grow as the concept of developing useful tools to empower farmers to make changes to their practices takes hold

Stretegic (up-front) nitrogen was useful in a wet year, but no N rate used was high enough to anticipate the wet and cool spring at Ouyen.

• Both desi and kabuli chickpea varieties suffered severe plant establishment reductions from
  fertiliser placement with the seed and with increasing fertiliser rates.
• All amounts of fertiliser placed with the seed had a significant negative effect of kabuli grain yields.
• Desi type PBA Slasher can tolerate low rate of fertiliser with the seed.
• Yields increased with fertiliser rate up to about 20kg/ha of P in this particular season and soil type

Many wheat varieties grown in WA already have the major gene for acid soil tolerance. In this trial several other acid tolerance traits are being assessed under field conditions to determine if they confer growth and yield advantages in addition to the major gene. If the traits do prove useful they can then be back-crossed into current well-adapted WA wheat varieties and ultimately become available for growers to use. In addition to these field trials, the project aims to identify molecular markers to facilitate the breeding process. The traits are likely to be beneficial in situations where soils are being limed to correct soil acidity but are not likely to help in highly Al toxic soils in the absence of liming. This trial and others like it will help determine under what soil acidity levels the traits are likely to be beneficial.

Acid soil tolerance in wheat is not a stand-alone solution for managing acid soils, rather it complements a liming program to ameliorate subsoil acidity. Subsoil at the site is acidic to a depth of at least 40 cm as demonstrated by the indicative site soil pH (CaCl2): 0-10 cm = 5.4; 10-20 cm =  4.2; 20-30 cm = 4.3; 30-40 cm = 4.3. Prior to the site being seeded 1.5 t/ha limesand was spread and this has lifted the topsoil pH to ~5.4 on average. More lime will need to be applied to the site to lift the low subsoil pH values.

• Overall lentil and pea grain yields averaged 1.18 t/ha across all sites and treatments.
• There was no significant foliar disease and the major yield limiting factor was the lack of late season rainfall, only 25mm in September and October.
• Although only small the slightly higher grain yield at the eastern site compared to the western site highlights the importance of paddock and crop selection to maximise pulse yields in these more marginal areas.
• A similar result was found in 2011 where there was a 0.46t/ha yield increase from the western site to the eastern site, 1.76 t/ha to 2.23 t/ha respectively.

• A high rainfall growing season favoured blackspot disease build up and generally later flowering pea varieties at Minnipa in 2009.
• Kaspa was 17% higher yielding than Parafield, its highest margin over this variety at Minnipa in 11 years of testing.
• Kaspa’s grain yield was reduced by 19% when sowing date was delayed from 30 April to 20 May, however no grain yield reduction occurred in the advanced PBA field pea lines OZP0602 and OZP0601 with this delayed sowing date.
• OZP0601 and OPP0602, despite lower performance than Kaspa in the MAC variety trial in 2009, will provide better adapted “Kaspa type” options for low rainfall environments when they become available due to their earlier and longer flowering periods.

• Field peas performed exceptionally well at Minnipa in 2012, despite a decile 3 growing season and a rapid season finish. This is likely due to good stored soil moisture levels, good early winter rainfall amounts and generally mild winter temperatures.

The best field pea varieties recommended for growers in the Wimmera and Mallee are for:

• Dun type peas: 1) Kaspa, 2) Parafield,
• White peas: 1) Snowpeak, 2) Mukta,
• Blue peas: 1) Excell.

A new high yielding white field pea "Sturt" was commercialised in 2003 and showed the highest yield performance in 2003 in Victoria. Sturt will be available from growers from 2005/06.

Field pea grain yields were severely affected by a combination of moisture and heat stress and frost damage during flowering and podding. As a consequence, experimental and commercial grain yields were very low and discrimination between varieties often too small to interpret. Downy mildew and bacterial blight were observed in the Wimmera but had relatively very little impact on yield.

• Yields were relatively high at these sites in 2012, particularly given the drier than average growing season. Chickpeas performed particularly well, yielding equal to lentils at Minlaton
  and higher than lentils at Pinery. Yields may have been buoyed by the presence of stubble in all treatments, helping to conserved soil moisture, and the mild (although dry) finish to the season.

This project is funded by SAGIT as a follow-up to a 12-month study which screened oat varieties using pot assays in growth room/greenhouse. Two seasons (2018 and 2019) of field trials will be conducted.

 

About 60% of SA agricultural soils are sodic (high Na, etc) or saline-sodic (high NaCl & high Na, etc), which reduces yield. This study extended screening trials into two seasons of field trials at Redhill and Turretfield, to assess tolerance of oats to saline-sodic soils.

Main findings:

• The most tolerant oats (grain yield) were early-to-medium maturity milling varieties: Bannister, Bilby, Mitika, Williams, Echidna, Kowari. My message to farmers: “To maximize yield and profitability from salty paddocks, sow milling oats Bannister, Bilby, Mitika, Echidna or Kowari”

• The most tolerant oats (biomass yield) were Kangaroo, Bannister, Wintaroo, Mulgara, Mitika. All oats listed are commercial varieties, available now

• The grain yields of tolerant oats at Redhill (the saline-sodic site, under low growing season rainfall of 170 mm) were outstanding, e.g. Bannister (3.2 t/ha), Bilby (3.1), similar to Compass barley (3.2) and much higher than Mace bread wheat (1.5) and Aurora durum wheat (1.1)

• Pasture oats (e.g. Bond, Wizard) and overseas oats were intolerant of saline-sodicity

• The pot and field trials showed that the ability of the plant to extract water from salinesodic soil, rather than its ability to exclude sodium, is the key to acceptable yield on this type of soil.

Knowing phosphorous levels in the soil is critical. At low levels of nutrition, an economic response to phosphorous application will be achieved. This work is critical in determining where the nutrient response curve flattens out – allowing for improved management decisions to be made.

• X-rays of small dishes of soil to which fertiliser had been added in the centre showed that fluid forms of copper, zinc and manganese are more mobile (diffuse further) in soil compared to granular forms.

This site had high soil nitrate reserves (45 mg/kg Nit N in 0 - 10cm) but there were still very good responses to Flexi-N. Although there were no Flexi-N placement/timing or stubble effects on yield, an analysis of protein yield showed that stubble reduced N recovery in the grain by about 30 kg protein/ha or 5 kg N/ha – most likely due to increased immobilisation. Leaf disease symptoms were most severe where stubble was retained but they were less obvious where Flexi-N was banded. Hectolitre weights were 78 – 79 kg/hl and screenings were 2 - 3% in all treatments.

These results show a strong tend towards N applied and what is remaining in the soil after the failed wheat crop.

• Grain yields can vary considerably within the paddock in the Victorian Mallee. The spatial pattern of this yield variation, however, is not always consistent, with relative yield patterns differing over consecutive seasons, and/or crop types, in a flip-flop (alternating) pattern.
• Consistently high yielding zones existed where the shallow subsoil (10-20cm) was a clay loam texture (33% clay) with low salinity. In contrast, consistently low yielding zones possessed a shallow subsoil of light clay (40% clay) and medium to high levels of salinity.
• Flip-flop yield zones were associated with gilgai (crab-hole) depressions where yields tended to increase in dry seasons (due to a concentration of surface water) but decreased in wet seasons (due to water logging of the heavy textured soils). In contrast where gilgai depressions and light textured soils occurred, crop yields were depressed in dry seasons.
• Overall, the flip flop patterns in grain yields observed within paddocks was attributed to the effect of gilgai microrelief and changes in soil texture which influence soil water availability to crops.

• Phosphoric acid as a liquid fertiliser resulted in 13% and 8% higher yields in 2014 and 2015 respectively at Streaky Bay, and an 8% yield increase at Warramboo in 2016 when compared to the same rate of P delivered in granular fertilisers.
• Despite the yield increases at Streaky Bay and Warramboo, the economics showed granular fertiliser had greater returns in $/ha compared to using phosphoric acid at 9 units of P.
• The guidelines for moving to the adoption of phosphoric acid as a P source exist in the Fluid Fertiliser Manual which adequately covers the principles, economics, recommendations and chemistry of adopting fluid delivery systems. The manual is available at www.fluidfertilsers.com.au.
• Knowing the responsiveness of a soil type to phosphoric acid is an important factor to consider before investing in a fluid delivery system. The responsive soil types are generally higher n calcium carbonate (greater than 25%). P source responses may also be driven by soil moisture conditions because in 2016, which had wetter seasonal conditions, phosphoric acid and granular P performed similarly in the same soil type at Streaky Bay.
• The adoption of fluid fertiliser systems to place fungicides in-furrow for rhizoctonia disease management is not recommended in this environment. The addition of fungicides showed small and variable yield advantages at Warramboo in 2014 and 2016 and Streaky Bay in 2016. Using fungicides in above average seasons the greatest yield benefit was only 0.22 t/ha with an in-furrow application with granular phosphorus and trace elements. This is lower than the benefits achieved in other regions where yield increases of up to 0.49 t/ha in wheat with split applications of fungicides were achieved. Inluding fungicides on wheat up front will increase input costs and risk over a large cropping program. 
• Large scale demonstrations by growers across Eyre Peninsula with in-furrow fungicide applications at seeding did not reduce rhizoctonia or produce yield benefits over three seasons.
• The adoption of fluid fertiliser systems will depend in growers' soil types for phosphorus responses, the existence of trace element deficiences and ease or timing of application (in-furrow at seeding) and machinery ability to deliver fluids.

• Fluid forms of Phosphorus such as Ammonium Polyphosphate (APP) and Phosphoric Acid have been shown to significantly increase the growth and grain yield of crops on highly calcareous soil on the Eyre Peninsula of SA compared to granular fertiliser forms such as DAP and Triple Super.
• Field trials conducted at three sites in 2003 in Victoria on alkaline soils (central and southern Mallee and Wimmera Plains) demonstrated that fluid forms of P fertiliser promoted the growth of wheat more than granular forms at all sites but this was translated to a yield response at only one site (Birchip).
• There is no reliable diagnostic tool however presently available for predicting under what circumstances fluid forms will outperform granular forms of P.
• Experimentation will continue at the same sites in 2004.

• Field trials were conducted at two sites (comprising Sodosol and Calcarosol soil types) in the southern Mallee and one in the Wimmera (Vertosol soil) to assess the responsiveness of wheat to fluid forms of phosphorus (P) fertilisers.
• Fluid P forms (APP and phosphoric acid) generally produced greater growth during vegetative stages of crop growth compared to granular forms (DAP and Triple Super) at all three sites.
• However, in a season characterised by a late break and dry conditions prior to flowering, early growth responses to P fertiliser (regardless of form) translated to grain yield responses at only one Mallee site. In contrast there was significant grain yield responses to fluid P at Dooen (Wimmera).
• At this site, fluid P forms produced 0.24 t/ha (or nearly 10%) more grain on average than granular forms at commercially applicable rates (4 to 12 kg P/ha).

• Copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and molybdenum (Mo) were applied as foliar sprays at 75, 150 and 30 g/ha, respectively, to tillering wheat (5-6 leaf stage) growing on a strongly acid soil (Rutherglen site, pH CaCl2 4.38) limed at three rates (0, 2.5 and 10 t/ha lime).
• The highest lime treatment (pH CaCl2 increased to 7.18) was included to determine if lime induced any micronutrient deficiency.
• Two further sites were established on farmers' properties (Devenish, pH CaCl2 4.36; Goomalibee, pH CaC12 4.72), the same three micronutrients were applied with boron (B, 200 g/ha) to adjacent limed and unlimed areas.
• At the Rutherglen site plants were sampled on three occasions (3 leaf stage, jointing and flowering). The youngest fully emerged leaf (YFEL) was separated for chemical analysis.
• There was no effect of lime or applied Cu to the concentrations in the YFEL's.
• These concentrations considerably exceed the suggested deficiency value of <2 ppm (2). Zn concentrations in YFEL's at flowering were above 20 ppm for all treatments, well in excess of the critical deficiency level (<10 ppm).
• There were no effects on YFEL Zn concentrations from applying Zn or lime.
• The levels of Mo were significantly increased (P<0.01) by lime from 0.3 ppm to 0.6 and 0.8 ppm respectively, for 2.5 and 10 t/ha lime (SED0.059). However, YFEL Mo concentrations were more than adequate for plant needs.
• There was no effect of foliar applied Cu, Zn or Mo on grain yield.
• Lime has consistently increased grain yield at this site. At the Devenish and Goomalibee sites, lime significantly (P<0.01) increased grain yields (36% and 13% respectively) but there were no improvements from the applied foliar nutrients nor any interaction with lime.

• No significant yield response was recorded in either year.
• The trial site appeared to be badly affected by rhizoctonia root rot in 2000.

• No significant yield response was recorded in either year.
• The trial site appeared to be badly affected by rhizoctonia root rot in 2000.

• Organic amendments improved ‘soil health’ in terms of free living nematode community structure.
• The Tilled + Organic Matter treatment had a more well balanced soil microbial system than other treatments.
• Numbers of omnivorous and predatory nematodes are quite low in comparison to other cropped soils around Australia, thus room for improvement.
• Soils have improved, as the number of omnivorous nematodes in 2013 significantly increased in organic amended treatments, in comparison to 2011.

Frost events will occur when temperatures at the soil surface are below 0°C. These conditions often occur when a cloudy day is followed by a windless cloud free night. Cereal crops are at the greatest risk of damage when there is a frost during flowering however, damage can be done any time between late stem elongation and late grain fill.

• Foliar applications of blackleg fungicides such as Aviator Xpro or Prosaro achieve the largest gains on varieties such as Bayer 3000TR and Bonito which are both rated MS-MR or lower for blackleg resistance.
• Canola varieties rated R-MR or better are unlikely to benefit from foliar blackleg sprays for disease control,
  however some secondary benefit from green leaf retention may be seen in years where moisture is not limiting.
• Blackleg management should be tackled with an integrated approach using buffer zones, rotations, varietal selection and fungicides.

Severe moisture stress was a key feature of both barley fungicide trials this season with the Mallee trial yields ranging from 0.49 – 0.72 t/ha and Wimmera yields from 1.85 – 2.09 t/ha.

One way ploughing slightly improved establishment, head numbers, biomass production and yield but is not a viable long term solution for the severe non wetting on this soil type.

Deep ripping and spading improved head numbers by over 60% and biomass production by 87% compared to the control.

Grain yields were improved by over a 1 t/ha and gross margin by about $200/ha when treatment costs were amortized over 5 years in the combined ripping and spading treatments.

• Gibberellic acid is a safe, cheap and convenient way to increase winter fed growth, but it must be applied early in the season (ideally by late autumn/early winter).
• Only apply Gibberellic acid if there is sufficient soil moisture and adequate levels of surface cover.
• Applying early in the season will boost winter growth.
• Applying too late can potentially cause a decrease in spring feed production.
• Don’t graze the paddock within 3 weeks of application.

• Gibberellic acid is a safe, cheap and convenient way to increase winter fed growth, but it must be applied early in the season (ideally by late autumn/early winter).
• Only apply Gibberellic acid if there is sufficient soil moisture and adequate levels of surface cover.
• Applying early in the season will boost winter growth.
• Applying too late can potentially cause a decrease in spring feed production.
• Don’t graze the paddock within 3 weeks of application.

• Clover content in kikuyu can be increased by hard grazing of the kikiyu stand prior to the opening rains (insure RLEM are controlled, lime if soil is pHCaCl<5).
• Sowing legumes can increase legume content. If grass suppression is used, weeds may also increase unless control measures are taken.
• Legume content can be increased after the break by using a grass selective herbicide to suppress the kikiyu, if you have an adequate clover seedbank.
• If clover needs to be added, drill seed in, don't broadcast.

• CWFS regional site trials during 2013 and 2014 suggest stubble loads greater than 3 t/ha can limit yield.
• “No till with no stubble is no good” on hard setting red brown soil types. The delimma is that the annual incorporation of stubble just prior to sowing by cultivation or removal by burning would result in the loss of signifigant long term benefits to soil health.
• “If you do not measure it you cannot manage it!” Field measurements of stubble are the starting point for deciding what to do.
• Options to manage stubble loads above 3t/ha need to be made seasonally. Good planning may allow other agronomic and farm efficiency outcomes to be achieved at the same time.

• There has been no evidence of any soil health or production losses with grazing after seven years, irrespective of whether crop or pasture inputs were increased or kept at district practice levels.
• In 2014 higher input systems showed how increased inputs and costs throughout the season can result in increased productivity and subsequent profitability.

• There has been no measured grain production or soil health decline associated with grazing sheep on pastures and crop stubbles over a 4 year pasture-wheat rotation. Grain yields were higher as a result of increased wheat seed and fertiliser rates in 2013.
• Higher applied crop seed and fertiliser rates with an improved medic pasture increased estimated gross margins by $16/ha/annum over a 6 year wheat-wheat-pasture-wheat-pasture-wheat rotation

• Grazing sheep have not damaged soil health over eight years of several crop/pasture rotations.
• In 2015 total annual biomass was greater in higher input and grazed rotations. High input grazed systems carried twice the stocking rate of a low input system.

• Over nine seasons, incorporating livestock into the rotation improved overall system outcomes in this trial, including; increased nitrogen cycling and water use efficiency, reduction in weed and pest populations and no negative effects on cereal performance or soil health, while value adding to stubble and pastures by grazing.
• The high input grazed farming system had a gross margin of over $100/ha/year more than lower input and ungrazed treatments over the nine-year trial period.

• Pasture cropping is a relatively new system combining livestock and crop production on the one area of land.
• Production of crop and pasture individually can be lower when grown together in a pasture cropping system compared with when either is grown alone, however the overall annual production can be higher.
• Pasture cropping systems can be managed so that annual winter crops have no direct competition from pastures while the crop is growing.
• Pasture cropping can improve year-round resource use increasing overall annual productivity compared with conventional annual cropping or pasture systems.
• Pasture cropping will be most effective in soil types that do not store soil moisture well and have some summer rain.