• There were good dry matter responses to starter fertilisers at either 16 or 32 kg/ha of P although only certain treatments gave a significant dry matter inrease when raising P rate from 16 to 32 kg/ha. The best dry matter response was from Gree Top which supplied all the nutrients lacking in the soil test report.
• Potassium seed burn was not apparent possibly due to the relatively wet conditions.
• Both DAP and Gree Top grew over 70 kg DM/ha/kg P at the lower rate of 80 kg/ha, which supplied 16 kg/ha of P.
• Only Green Top, Croplift and Superfect+Mo increased yields with increasing rate of application indicating they supplied the lacking nutrient required to make use of the extra P available.

• Both the grazed disc and grazed tyne treatments yield the same.
• In contrast to one of the initial years where the tyne treatments saw greater Patterson’s Curse density, there have not been any further or continual patterns of weeds within the site.
• Disc seeder saw limitations in ungrazed stubble, when stubble lodged along with soft wet soil. Solutions will include reducing stubble harvest height, to lower risk of post-harvest lodging, however even spread across header width will be essential.
• Addition of “residue managers” to brush material aside from path of disc openers would reduce level of poor establishment and ensure discs continue to roll and cut.
• Poor establishment means that it is behind on tiller density and ultimately head density. This is the basis of building yield potential and water use efficiency. Focus on maximum and consistent establishment to efficiently use nutrient and moisture resources.
• Tyne seeder is more “forgiving” in troublesome conditions, as there are fewer variables to manage.
• To date, total yields are virtually level, signifying there is no silver bullet to seeding machine or stubble management.
• To manage the variables which pose risk to any such system will be the key to limit downfalls (as seen this year with the ungrazed disc) and maximise profitability. This is the silver bullet!

• The completion of the Wimmera Mallee Pipeline will introduce long term changes to wildlife populations on farms across the region.
• Surveys undertaken by BCG have shown that the wildlife values on farms are higher where there is open water available and where native vegetation is present.
• Installing a wildlife water point on a farm can be an efficient and cost-effective way of enhancing wildlife values in the Wimmera and Mallee within a piped water delivery system.

During the first year (2004/05) sites were selected, the monitoring program established, baseline data collected and the experimental (trial) water troughs installed. The second year (2005/06) will see further data collected, analysis of results and an extensive communication program implemented.

• The highest yielding plots were the ‘Medium’ input which was 150kg urea at tillering and 100kg/ha urea at stem elongation.
• The High input plots were the lowest yielding.
• Protein levels were directly related to nitrogen at stem elongation.
• Nitrogen response is varied depending on timing of application so make decisions wisely!

This comparative study focused on the role of livestock in whole farm performance and has shown:

• the Wimmera and Mallee farming systems that achived the highest profits typically operated with approximately 75% cropping and 25% non-cropped, with some livestock
• livestock income is less volatile than crop income;
• farms with livestock use fewer herbicides, livestock being effective as a tool to delay the developmet of herbicide resistance in crops;
• labour costs are higher when runinng livestock
• livestock do not substantially decrease from total farm operating expenses;
• the most profitable farms are not making their profit from thier livestock enterprise.

• Zinc is an essential nutrient to crops on alkaline soils in hte Mallee and Wimmera zinc deficiencies are common.
• The regular (once every three to four years) use of a fertiliser with a zinc additive overcomes most of these dificiencies.
• Some crops such as faba beans may require more zinc.

• Winter habit canola was successfully sown in spring 2011, grazed over summer and harvested for grain in 2012.
• Grazing over summer increased grain yield compared to no grazing. Ungrazed yield was 1.9 t/ha, grazed was 2.7 t/ha. Taurus sown at the conventional time (April) yielded 2.3t/ha. 
• Number of grazings had a small effect on yield. Grazing twice produced the best result, yielding 0.1t/ha more than grazing once and 0.2t/ha more than grazing three times. Although there was a yield penalty by grazing 3 times compared to two times, the third grazing supplied an additional 1t/ha of high quality feed at the beginning of May.
• Heavy grazing reduced yield compared to light grazing irrespective of the number of times it was grazed. However the reduction in yield was small and the heavy grazing produced 4t/ha of feed compared to 1.4 t/ha when lightly grazed. 
• Applying nitrogen over summer has no yield benefits except for multiple (3) heavy grazings. In this case yield went from 2.0 t/ha to 2.7 t/ha

Glyphosat, Trifluralin and diflufenican residues, plus glyphosate metabolite AMPA are frequently detected at agronomically significant levels at the start of the winter cropping season.

The risk to soil biological processes is generally minor when herbicides are used at label rates and sufficient time is given for them to dissipate before re application.

Further research is needed to define critical thresholds for glyphosate, trifluralin and diflufenican and AMPA and the potential impacxts to soil function and crop production.

Growers should continue to be encouraged to employ land management practises that increase SOC in Western Australia’s cropping soils. Increasing soil C benefits crop production, and has the potential to decrease N and other fertiliser needs. Although increasing SOC increased soil N2O emissions (and inhibited CH4 uptake) in the present study, these losses were relatively low.

The greatest risk of N2O emissions from a sandy soil in the Western Australian grain belt occurred in response to summer-autumn rainfall events, and more so with increasing SOC. This observation is consistent with previous observations for semi-arid soils where a large proportion of annual N2O emissions occurred between crop growing seasons, when the soil was fallow, and in response to soil wetting following summer and autumn rainfall. Approaches to decreasing N2O emissions following summer rainfall events is limited to decreasing N2O emissions from nitrification (e.g., liming, nitrification), and increasing soil N immobilisation and plant N update during summer and autumn.

Nitrogen supply (via mineralisation) prior to seeding varied depending on soil type and summer rainfall, and needs to be included when determining annual N fertiliser requirements. Optimising N fertiliser input will increase farm profitability and decrease the risk of N2O emissions arising from under-utilised N fertiliser.

The proportion of N fertiliser applied that was lost as N2O from a sandy soil in the Western Australian grain belt ranged from 0.08 to 0.12%. This finding, plus past research in the Western Australian grain belt, supports further lowering current Australia’s emission factor (0.3%) for calculating N2O emissions from the application of N fertiliser to non-irrigated, cropped soils in Australia’s semi-arid regions.

• Canola yield was increased and oil % marginally decreased with increasing N rate applied.
• The highest yield (4.2 t/ha) was achieved at the highest N rate (160 kgN/ha).
• With adequate starting soil N (67 kgN/ha) and good spring rain, N application timing made little difference.
• 30% N fertiliser recovery in grain remains a good ‘rule of thumb’ for canola N budgeting.
• Easy N® application shows promise for topping up N at early flower.
   

• Changing the pre-plant N fertiliser from the non-irrigated side of the plant bed to the irrigated side of the plant bed did not affect soil mineral nitrogen (N), plant growth or cotton lint yield.
• The pattern of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions after the first irrigation event differed according to N fertiliser placement treatment, but the total amount of N2O released was the same.
• Pre-plant N fertiliser placement did affect N2O emitted after the second irrigation (with water-run N), with more lost from the irrigated, non-fertilised side of the hill.
• The cumulative N2O losses summed over all the measurement events showed no treatment differences resulting from pre-plant N fertiliser location, indicating that there is no agronomic or environmental benefit to changing N fertiliser location.
   

• Changing the pre-plant nitrogen (N) fertiliser location from beside the non-irrigated furrow to beside the irrigated furrow increased nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, primarily from the fertiliser band location.
• Irrigating every single furrow instead of every second furrow did not significantly change N2O emissions.
• Altering irrigation furrows in relation to pre-plant N fertiliser did not significantly affect mineral N in the surface soil, nor did it affect any measure of crop production.
• These results do not support changing from the current irrigation and N fertiliser placement system in use.
   

• Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions at the Gunnedah site were approximately three times higher than at the Emerald site, probably because of the heavier clay soil at Gunnedah.
• High and highly variable N2O emissions occurred at both sites during the week following the first irrigation event after the pre-planting nitrogen (N) application. There was no significant effect from the amount of N applied at pre-planting on these first emissions, nor overall at Gunnedah. At Emerald, overall N2O losses were greater from the split N treatment.
• N2O emissions were low–negligible following the subsequent 4–5 irrigation events, except where N was water-run, which caused small and temporary increases in N2O.
• The greatest N2O emission came from the soil above the pre-plant N fertiliser bands. More was emitted from the non-irrigated side of the plant bed, even when both sides of the bed had been fertilised (Emerald).
• Cotton lint yield was not affected by N timing treatment, however, plant biomass was smaller and more N-concentrated from the split N treatment at Gunnedah.
• The 2015–16 weather conditions did not favour either N-timing treatment agronomically or environmentally, but different rainfall patterns in other years may be more influential.
   

• Stubble height did not affect fallow efficiency at Weethallee following the 2013 or 2014 harvests.
• Stubble height during the 2014 fallow did not impact on 2015 crop yields.
• Leaving higher stubbles may reduce harvest cost but may also cause issues during fallow sprays and sowing. Individual producers need to target a stubble height that best suits their equipment and techniquies.

Most named varieties gave similar grain yields to other TT or conventional varieties. Canola varieties known to have the Sylvestris gene for blackleg (Surpass 603CL and Surpass 501TT) did not suffer grain yield losses due to breakdown of the resistance gene. However, these varieties still should not be grown. The 2 speciality oilseeds (MC20I and MC202) produced comparable grain
yields to conventional canola varieties. Several new varieties were released; Skipton, Hyola 61 and Bravo TT. 2005 Blackleg ratings
guide should be used to assess blackleg rating of all varieties.

• Simulated dry sowing was not shown to have any detrimental effect on Zn fertiliser use efficiency.

• Commercial granular and liquid monoammonium phosphate fertilizers enriched with zinc were incubated under dry and wet conditions to test the effects of dry sowing on fertilizer diffusion, lability, and subsequent availability to wheat (Tritium aestivum L. ‘Axe’) plants in the growth chamber using isotopic techniques.
• Fertilizer incubated in dry soil tended to have a much greater lability than in wet soil, but diffusion was limited.
• The restricted diffusion during the incubation did not negatively impact nutrient availability to plants subsequently grown in the growth chamber, however, and simulated dry sowing was not shown to have a detrimental effect on fertilizer efficiency.

Because a crops ability to produce and finish is so tightly linked to how much water is available to it a simple yield forecast combined with how much water a crop still has left to access in the soil is surprisingly informative when it comes to reducing risks associated with forward selling decisions. At any point in the growing season it is surprisingly easy to use the data to see if the crop has access to enough water to finish, or if more rainfall is needed to reach a target yield. The graph below shows and compares the yield forecasts from each of the sites this year from when the soil probes were installed up until 20 Jan 2017.

• Yield premium for Long season wheat varieties April sown vs May sown was 920 Kg/Ha
• SCF dual purpose/dual use long season HRZ wheat production package is being upgraded with each year’s research and case studies (2016-2019)
• Product testing for flour blend characteristics and feed qualities such as metabolisable energy in progress
• CBH trial offer for dual purpose/dual use long season wheat

• Varieties responded similarly in yield and many quality measurements to applied nitrogen, but showed large differences in grain screenings.
• Large amounts of early applied nitrogen predisposed WID803 with inherent small grain to quality downgrading due to high screenings, varieties with inherent larger grain (Tjilkuri and Caparoi) were not downgraded across N treatments.
• The strategic approach to nitrogen management was a more effective method to maintain grain size and achieve 13% protein rather than applying all nitroen at stem elongation.

• High yielding, water efficient DR1 durum was achieved in most of the 18 benchmarked fields.
• Grain protein, Hard Vitreous Kernels, Test weight, 1000 grain weight, falling numbers, semolina colour and semolina yield all fell within desirable limits.

• Hyperno (3.44 t/ha) and WID802 (3.50 t/ha) were the highest yielding durum varieties in this trial at Hart.
• Nitrogen application timing did not influence grain yield at Hart in 2009.
• Durum grain yield was reduced by 17% in the presence of ryegrass.
• Grazing in the absence of ryegrass increased durum grain yield.

• The presence of ryegrass reduced grain yields by 25%.
• Reduced sowing rates did not affect the grain yield or quality of new or standard durum varieties.
• A split application of nitrogen at GS31 and GS37 produced a significantly higher yield, 1.3t/ha.
• Growth regulants did not improve grain yield.

• Applying nitrogen to durum later in the season (GS47) was the most economically viable treatment maximising both yield and quality.
• A late tillering (GS30) application of N reduced grain plumpness in new varieties, WID803 and hyperno.
• A GS30 and split N application between GS30 and GS47 produced the lowest yields in all varieties. 
• WID803 and Saintly were highest yielding while Caparoi and Kalka produced teh best grain quality. 

The high soil nitrogen levels at this site and follow up topdressing applications produced protein levels high enough for durum quality, however, yields were approx 0.8t/ha lower than Mitre grown at the same site.

• Durum varieties (CaparoiA, DBA AuroraA, DBA LillaroiA and JandaroiA) displayed differential grain quality and yield responses to time of sowing (TOS) and nitrogen (N) management. Increased screenings (>5%) were the most common cause of quality downgrades.
• DBA AuroraA, due to increased risk of screenings (>5%) in part because of reduced grain size, would appear to offer less flexibility in terms of agronomic management, specifically delayed sowing and N management.
• The newly released Northern Durum breeding program variety DBA LillaroiA appears to offer excellent grain size and grain stability, achieving low screenings from a delayed sowing and high N rates.
• Results also highlight the need to sow varieties within recommended sowing windows. An earlier than recommended sowing date of May 19 for the Liverpool Plains resulted in yield losses of ~25% averaged across N treatments for earlier maturing varieties such as JandaroiA and DBA LillaroiA, with possible grain quality implications (e.g. increased screenings).

• Durum varieties displayed differential grain quality and yield responses to time of sowing (TOS) and nitrogen (N) management.
• DBA AuroraA appears to offer good yield potential, but exhibits an increased risk of screenings with increasing rates of N application at sowing or when N is applied before stem elongation (GS31). It also appears to have an increased potential for lower grain protein concentrations (GPC) due to yield dilution under high yielding situations.
• A strategy involving a split application of N at sowing and either GS31 or GS39, could reduce the potential for screening issues in DBA AuroraA while maintaining adequate GPC.
• Findings from this experiment further highlight the need to sow appropriate variety maturity types within their recommended sowing windows.
   

• The high nitrogen rates caused the plants to burn off in early August.
• Grain fill of earlier season varieties was affected by frost damage.

• Two wheat trials sown during mid-April 2015 showed no difference in grain yield or quality as a result of being grown on 22.5cm, 30cm and 37.5cm row spacings, when averaged across four varieties.
• Although crops grown on a 22.5cm row spacing produced more dry matter (DM), this did not correspond to increased yield.
• The results were identical to that seen with wheat sown in mid-April 2014.
• There were no differences in yields of the four wheat varieties, although Bolac produced higher screenings than the other three varieties in both trials.
• There was no difference in the overall water use efficiency (WUE) between narrow and wide row spacing, although calculated water losses (soil evaporation, drainage or unused water) were greater with wide spacing than the narrow spacing.

• Four wheat trials sown during mid-April 2014 and 2015 showed no difference in grain yield or qualityas a result of being grown on 22.5cm, 30cm and 37.5cm row spacings, when averaged across four varieties (Bolac/Kiora, Lancer, Trojan and EGA Wedgetail).
• The 2016 trial sown during mid-April again showed no difference in yield between 22.5cm and 30cm row spacings, however yields were significantly less with the widest row spacing (37.5cm).
• Trial yields in 2016 were 1.5t/ha higher than 2014 and 2015 (3–4.25t/ha), with the higher yield potential likely to be a key factor in the poor performance of the widest row spacing (37.5cm).
• The Riverine Plains Water Use Efficiency (WUE) project (2009–13) showed that when crops weresown in the traditional sowing window, the 22.5cm spacing was more successful than the 30cm spacing, except in drier years with lower yield potential (2.5–3.0t/ha).
• In the three years (2014–16) of trialling row spacing on early-sown crops, crops grown on a 22.5cm row spacing produced more dry matter (DM) than crops grown on wider rows. However, the 2016 trial was the first to show a yield disadvantage to the widest
row spacing (37.5cm) when sown early.
• As a result of lower yields, the 37.5cm row spacing gave significantly poorer water use efficiency (WUE) than 30cm row spacing, with a greater proportion of calculated water losses (soil evaporation, drainage or unused water).
• A barley row spacing trial, sown at the same time alongside the wheat, provided some usefulcomparative observations during 2016, with La Trobe barley producing higher DM and yields thanwheat with a harvest index (HI) of approximately 50% compared with wheat at 40%.

• Disease pressure Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus (BYDV), and Zymoseptoria triticii is going to restrict sowing of susceptible varieties earlier than mid-May in the South East High Rainfall Zone.
• Growers who wish to sow early (dual purpose crops) should select BYDV resistant varieties (eg.Manning), and use resistant cultivars, fungicides and grazing to manage Zymoseptoria triticii.
• The photoperiod (daylength) requirements of Trojan increase its suitability to earlier time of sowing compared with other spring cultivars

• Disease pressure - Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus (BYDV), and Zymoseptoria triticii is going to restrict sowing of susceptible varieties earlier than mid-May in the South East High Rainfall Zone.
• Growers who wish to sow early (dual purpose crops) should select BYDV resistant varieties (eg. Manning), and use grazing/fungicides to manage Zymoseptoria triticii.
• The photoperiod (daylength) requirements of Trojan increase its suitability to earlier time of sowing compared with other spring cultivars.

• Improving water use efficiency across mixed cropping and livestock systems thorughout Eastern South Australia
• Improving whole farm profitability, whole farm sustainability and whole farm ground cover across Eastern South Australia.

• The use of variable-rate technology for nitrogen (VRT-nitrogen) application had mixed gross margin results given measured wheat yields, protein levels, calculated income and nitrogen costs in the nitrogen-rate trials undertaken at Yarrawonga and Dookie during 2017.
• Based on initial results at Yarrawonga and Dookie (using 19 and 13 years of wheat and canola yield responses to growing season rainfalls, respectively), the costs of conducting variable rate applications of nitrogen would require crop yields to increase by about 1%, or applied nitrogen costs to be reduced by at least 70%, before the approach breaks even over time.
• High overhead cost structures increase the risk of negative farm income. As VRT increases overhead costs, reviewing overall cost structures before adopting the technology is advisable.

1. Differences of $204-670/year were found between systems across sites.
2. Cropping intensity is the major factor driving good/poor economic performance.
3. A system water use efficiency of $2.50 of crop income/mm of rainfall over the cropping sequence is achievable and could be used to benchmark current farming systems.

Ecopar proves to be a sound mixing partner to improve wild radish control

• Summary of 2 seasons esperiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.4 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on September Dry matter (DM) (3.1 t/ha); Seed yield (1.1 t/ha) or N % in DM (3% N) or N in the seed (3.55%).

• B had no effect on %oil (42.8) or on oil yield .

  Notwithstanding the marginal B levels on acid sands of the SWA region, care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary 1994 experiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.3 mg/kg.

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 20 mg/kg

• B fertiliser had no effect on September Dry matter (DM) (2.9 t/ha); Seed yield (1.2 t/ha) or N % in DM (3% N) or N in the seed (3.50%).

• B had no effect on %oil (43.1) or on oil yield (515 kg/ha) .

  Notwithstanding the marginal B levels on acid sands of the SWA region, care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary 1994 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.7 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser decreased seedling density (71 to 48).

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 24 mg/kg B nil; 31 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.62 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.32 t/ha  &  increased N % in DM (by 0.46%) and  N in the seed (0.33% increase).

• B had decreased %oil (1.2% decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 142 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.7 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1994 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 1..1 mg/kg.

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 30 mg/kg B nil; 36 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.35 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by .27 t/ha  &  increased N % in DM (by 0.26%) and  N in the seed (0.33% increase).

• B had decreased %oil (1.63% decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 128 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site

• Summary 1994 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0..4 mg/kg.

• B decreased seedling density (53 to 38).

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 15 mg/kg B nil; 19 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.48 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.32 t/ha  &  increased N % in DM (by 0.3%) and  N in the seed (0.12% increase).

• B had decreased %oil (0.59% decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 144 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.40 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1995 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0..4 mg/kg.

• B decreased seedling per sq. metre (50 to 39).

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 17 mg/kg B nil; 22 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.40 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.2 t/ha  &  had no effect 0n N % in DM  and  N in the seed.

• B had decreased %oil (1.4 % decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 100 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.40 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1996 : summary of 2  experiment 

• Soil extractable B was 0.6 & 0.7 mg/kg.

• B application decreased seedling per square metre (63 to 48).

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 27 mg/kg B nil; 36 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.21 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.137 t/ha  &  had no effect 0n N % in DM  and  N in the seed.

• B had decreased %oil (0.58 % decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 70 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.40 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1994 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.7 mg/kg.

• B application (Borax) decrease seedling emergence (57 to 42)

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 22 mg/kg B nil; 27 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.37 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.17 t/ha  &  had no effect 0n N % in DM  and  N in the seed.

• B had decreased %oil (0.29 % decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 90 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.40 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1994 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.37 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser decreased seedling density (67 to 41).

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 28 mg/kg B nil; 36 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.62 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.29 t/ha  &  increased N % in DM (by 0.43%) and  N in the seed (0.11% increase).

• B had decreased %oil (0.5% decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 124 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.37 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1996 : summary of 2  experiment 

• Soil extractable B was 0.6 & 0.7 mg/kg.

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 27 mg/kg B nil; 36 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.7 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.217 t/ha  &  had no effect 0n N % in DM  and  N in the seed.

• B had decreased %oil (0.8 % decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 100 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.40 soil extractable B.

• Summary of   experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.6 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (55-56 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 19 -23 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.43 t/ha); Seed yield (1.23 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.0 % N) or N in the seed (3.45 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (42.52) or on oil yield (535 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.6 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of   experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.3 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (55-56 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 15 -19 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.8 t/ha); Seed yield (1.23 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.4 % N) or N in the seed (3.65 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (42.52) or on oil yield (485 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.3 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of  experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.5 mg/kg.

• Planr density were not effected by B fertiliser (55 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 21 -25 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.84 t/ha); Seed yield (1.2 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.2 % N) or N in the seed (3.54%).

• B had no effect on %oil (43.8) or on oil yield (510 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.5 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of  experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.5 mg/kg.

• Planr density were not effected by B fertiliser (55 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 21 -25 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.84 t/ha); Seed yield (1.2 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.2 % N) or N in the seed (3.54%).

• B had no effect on %oil (43.8) or on oil yield (510 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.5 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of 2 seasons experiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.94 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (5.5 t/ha); Seed yield (1.71 t/ha) or N % in DM (3% N) or N in the seed (4%).

• B had no effect on %oil (40.8) or on oil yield (680 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of o.9 was adequate

  Notwithstanding the marginal B levels on acid sands of the SWA region, care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of 2 seasons experiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.4 mg/kg.

• Plant B concentration 20 -23 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (5.5 t/ha); Seed yield (1.71 t/ha) or N % in DM (3% N) or N in the seed (4%).

• B had no effect on %oil (40.8) or on oil yield (680 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of o.9 was adequate

  Notwithstanding the marginal B levels on acid sands of the SWA region, care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of  experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.6 mg/kg.

• Planr density were not effected by B fertiliser (53 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 21 -24  mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.3 t/ha); Seed yield (1.0 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.0 % N) or N in the seed (4.30%).

• B had no effect on %oil (38.8) or on oil yield (350 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.5 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of  2 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.3 mg/kg.

• Planr density were not effected by B fertiliser (53 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 18 -21   mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (5.9 t/ha); Seed yield (2.23 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.0 % N) or N in the seed (3.60 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (42.8) or on oil yield (950 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.3 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of   experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.7 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (64 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 22 -27 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (5.1 t/ha); Seed yield (1.73 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.0 % N) or N in the seed (3.5 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (44.2) or on oil yield (750 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.7 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of   experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.7 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (71-66 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 29 -33 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.63 t/ha); Seed yield (1.2 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.4 % N) or N in the seed (3.55 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (42.5) or on oil yield (500 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.7 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of   experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.6 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (55 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 23 -27 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.4 t/ha); Seed yield (1.43 t/ha) or N % in DM (2.9 % N) or N in the seed (4.0 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (40.0) or on oil yield (540 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.6 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of 2 experiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.4 mg/kg.

• Plant B concentrations 20 -23 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (4.76 t/ha); Seed yield (1.23 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.2 % N) or N in the seed (4%).

• B had no effect on %oil (44.8) or on oil yield (580 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.4 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of   experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.4 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (56 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 15 -18 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (5.1 t/ha); Seed yield (1.73 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.4 % N) or N in the seed (3.45 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (44.52) or on oil yield (775 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.7 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of  2 experiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.8 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (70-65 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 31 -36 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.0 t/ha); Seed yield (1.02 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.3 % N) or N in the seed (3.6 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (41.9) or on oil yield (420 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.8 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of  2 experiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.7 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (59-56 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 26 -30 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (2.0 t/ha); Seed yield (1.55 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.43 % N) or N in the seed (3.6 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (41.9) or on oil yield (650 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.7 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of 3 seasons esperiments mainly located in the Yuna & Badgingarra region

• Boron (B) deficiency frequently occurs on soils that are low in organic carbon (C) (<1.0% organic C), pH (soil pHCa <5.0), and clay content (<5% clay). Acid sands with these soil properties are common in south-western Australia (SWA). Moreover, hot calcium chloride (CaCl2) extractable B levels are commonly marginal in the acid sands of SWA. This study examined the effects of soluble and slow release soil-applied B fertilizer and foliar B sprays on crops most likely to respond to B fertilizer on these soils, canola (oil-seed rape, Brassica napus L.) and lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.).

  At 25 sites over three years, canola was grown with (0.34 kg ha-1) or without B applied as borax [sodium tetraborate decahydrate (Na2B4O7·10H2O) 11% B], and this was followed by nine experiments with B rates [0, 0.55, 1.1 kg ha−1, applied as borax or calcium borate (ulexite, NaCaB5O6(OH)6·5(H2O), 13% B] and foliar sprays (0.1% solution of solubor, 23% B) in 2000–2001. A further five sites of B rates and sources experiments were carried out with lupin in 2000–2001. Finally, foliar B sprays (5% B w/v as a phenolic complex) at flowering were tested on seven sites in farmers’ canola crops for seed yield increases. No seed yield increases to soil-applied B were found while foliar B application at flowering increased canola seed yield in only one season across seven locations. By contrast, borax fertilizer drilled with the seed at sowing decreased canola seed yield in nine of 34-farm sites, and decreased lupin yield in two of five trials. Toxicity from drilled boron fertilizer decreased yield could be explained by decreases in plant density (by 22–40%) to values lower than required for optimum seed yield. Seedling emergence was decreased by borax applied at sowing but less so by calcium borate. Foliar B spray application never reduced seed yield due to toxicity effects.

   

  Boron fertilizer drilled with the seed increased the B concentration in plant dry matter at early to mid-flowering. Boron application decreased the oil concentration of grain of canola at four sites. The oil yield of canola was significantly decreased at seven sites.

  Notwithstanding the marginal B levels on acid sands of the SWA region, care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Plants grown in small pots containing Mn deficient calcareous (pH 8.5, 80% CaCO3) sand collected from Wangary, S.A with 0-50 ppm added Mn in growth room at 15°C.
• Plants harvested at approx. 4 weeks (early tillering). Also 30 wheat cultivars were screened at Wangary using plant breeders' plots (4 rows x 5 m) with a split plot application of foliar MnSO (1 kg/ha ).
• Effects of seed soaking were evaluated for wheat and barley by soaking for 6 h with 1.5% MnSO4 prior to sowing.
• Without Mn, all cultivars showed no differences in growth and Mn uptake at 4 weeks (pots) but significant differences at 8 weeks in the field. With Mn supplied either in soil or on seed large cultivar differences were apparent at 4 weeks.
• Conclude that use of Mn efficient varieties coupled with a suitable seed Mn content will lessen the need for Mn fertilisers.

• Summary of  2 experiments

• Soil extractable Cu was 0.23 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by Cu or N fertiliser (29-36 plants/m of row2)

• Plant B concentrations 26 -30 mg/kg.

• Cu fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (2.0 t/ha); Seed yield (1.55 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.43 % N) or N in the seed (3.6 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (41.9) or on oil yield (650 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.7 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Rosalind (fast maturity) had the highest grain yield at all rates of applied nitrogen.
• Higher lodging at higher nitrogen rates reduced yield response to applied nitrogen in Compass, Commander and scope CL
• High spring rainfall and mild growng conditions resulted in high yields and full use of applied nitrogen

• La Trobe and Compass displayed the best combination of yield and quality traits for achieving malt specification.
• The environment, or experiment site, had a greater effect on yield than variety, nitrogen (N) rate or sowing rate. Low rainfall at Condobolin resulted in significantly lower yields than at Parkes.
• The sowing rate did not significantly affect yield above 150 plants/m2 at Condobolin or Parkes.
• Nitrogen (N) applications, in the absence of adequate rainfall, can have a negative effect on yield.

• Yield was reduced by dry and hot conditions during flowering for both times of sowing.
• Spitfire yielded highest in time of sowing 1 (1.55t/ha) and Condo yelded highest in time of sowing 2 (1.15t/ha).
• The nil nirtogen treatment yield highest (1.01 t/ha); increasing nitrogen rate decreased grain yield for both times of sowing.

The Hart field site has a background of pea rhizobia that are numerous, but only moderately effective. Inoculation treatment did not affect measured root parameters. Some inoculation treatments increased shoot biomass and pod number, but not grain yield or grain N content. The N benefit from the extra biomass residues is estimated to be 51 kg N/ha

• Sowing wheat 75mm deep compared to 40mm deep reduced crop establishment by up to 62% and wheat yield by up to 24%.
• Within the same variety small seed was much more sensitive to deep sowing than large seed.
• Corack and Mace were the least sensitive varieties to deep sowing in terms of yield.
• Growers should endeavour to use seed larger than 35 g/thousand seeds, especially if sowing into stressful conditions.

• Yield responses to seeding density and nitrogen rate varied between the 2016 and 2017 seasons.

• BannisterA achieved the highest grain yields and had consistent grain quality in both years compared with other varieties.

• In 2017 the new milling variety KowariA had a yield advantage over benchmark variety MitikaA, and had a more stable grain quality at higher seeding and nitrogen rates.
 

• Increased nitrogen application rates equated to increased grain yield.
• Eary sowing had a grain yield advantage of 0.74t/ha averaged accross all varieties and nitrogen application rates.
• Corack was the highest yielding variety in this trial.
• Splittimg nitrogen application in the second time of sowing increased grain yield. 
• Grain protein concentration increased as nitrogen application rates increased.
• The highest protiens occured at the maximum nitrogen rate of 160kg/ha in Lancer, EGA_Gregory and SPitfire from the 12th May sowing. 

• The variety Beckom sown on 5 May yielded highest (5.67 t/ha).
• Grain yield reductions up to 4t/ha occured when varieties were not sown at the correct time (due to flowering throughout August - September frost events).
• Greatest yield losses occured when quick maturing varieties were sown early rather than longer season varieties sown late.
• Winter wheats and very long springs spring wheats performed better in 2015 than 2014, presumably due to less aphid pressure (BYDV) in 2015. 
• Grain yield was maximised when winter wheats were sown early (mid-April) or mid to mid-fast varieties were sown in teh first week of May. If spring conditions had been favourable, the winter whaets may have outperformed the mid to mid-fast varities when sown in late May.
• Screening increased as sowing was delayed. 

Key findings

 Sowing time had a huge effect on grain yield.

 Delaying sowing time reduced grain yield, TOS 1 yielded 4.84 t/ha and TOS 2 yielded 3.55 t/ha.

 Suntop was the highest yielding variety, 4.47 t/ha.

 Lancer was the lowest yielding variety, 3.73 t/ha.

 Given profitability and return on investment 40 kg N/ha at sowing was the ideal rate of nitrogenSowing time had a huge effect on grain yield.

Delaying sowing time reduced grain yield in all varieties across all nitrogen treatments.The effect of nitrogen varied between the two sowing times. The ideal target rate of nitrogen, given profitability and return on investment was 40 kg N/ha.

Key findings:

• Sowing time had a huge effect on yield.
• Delaying sowing time reduced grain yield in all varieties across all nitrogen treatments. 
• Given profitability and return on investment 40 kg N/ha at sowing was the ideal rate of nitrogen.

• The combination of extra stored water (20mm) and early sowing (17 April) resulted in the highest grain yield in this experiment.
• Early sowing without extra stored water gave a higher yield than late sowing (4 May), regardless of teh irrigation treatment at the later sowing date.
• The extra grain yield from early sowing and irrigation was due to increased biomass accumulation and imprved harvest index.
• Oil concentration was low overall, but was higher from the early sowing (33.6%) than th elater sowing (30.5%).

In this trial, there has been a positive response to phosphorus fertiliser applied at 9kg/ha at sowing and a positive response to nitrogen fertiliser applied at 20kg/ha. There has been a negative response to applied nitrogen both at sowing and top-dressing at higher than 20kg N/ha rates, which can be attributed to low growing season rainfall (GSR), which has occurred through prolonged periods over the course of the trial.

At Hart, higher N-fertiliser rate (180 and 240 kg N/ha) produced lower grain yields compared to lower N rates (0, 60 and 120 kg N/ha).

Although the N2O emissions did not seem to correlate with the rate of N fertilizer applied the demonstration did clearly show that despite extremely wet conditions at and soon after application N2O emissions are still relatively low (less than 10%) compared to irrigation sites. These emissions are likely to be well above average in this soil and rainfall indicating the emissions from N2O in these cropping systems is relatively insignificant. The demonstration will be conducted again in 2014 using several rates of Non a single soil type to get a clearerpicture of the variation in emissions.

• Trial work with Southern Farming Systems over the past four years has demonstrated significant improvements in nitrogen efficiency from applying ENTEC treated urea to wheat crops, compared to untreated urea.
• The experiment this year showed no response to nitrogen, but did highlight some important tools for predicting the liklihood of nitrogen response.

• The trial showed up to a five-fold increase in dry matter at DC41 when 20 kg/ha of phosphorus was applied. This translated into a doubling of yield, despite waterlogging and stripe rust at the site.
• A low rate of P (5 kg/ha) did not provide a statistically significant yield response while higher rates (10 and 20 kg/ha) did.
• Soils continue to be highly responsirve to phosphorus even at higher Colwell P levels.
• There is some evidence of adequate phosphorus nutrition improving grain quality (screenings) through earlier maturity.

• Phosphorus rates of 10 and 20 kg/ha applied in various straight, compound, coated and liquid fertiliser forms were not found to result in any significant responses in grain yield or quality.
• Results were impacted by the failure to control a population of herbicide-resistant annual ryegrass at this trial site using both pre- and post-em herbicide options, resulting in a high variability between plot measurement.

• Best response with eNtrench was seen when applied early and IBS
• Highest yielding treatment was with 100L UAN applied at GS16
• No significant difference was found in protein results
• This is a difficult product to demonstrate using small plots as the benefit of nitrogen stabilisers is often shown improving the average result over a complete paddock.

• This and other research demonstrates that it is possible to improve crop establishment and productivity on water repellent soils using modified furrow sowing techniques.
• Banded wetting agents are helpful with early dry or partially dry sowing before opening rains but show less benefit later in the sowing program when there has already been rain and the soil has started to wet up more (see Banded wetting agent paper WMG 2012 research annual). In very erodible conditions with high wind erosion risk the use of this strategy may be safer than the options with winged points or boots due to less soil disturbance and release of root anchorage for existing plant cover. Optimal wetting agents for WMG areas still need identification.
• Winged points and winged-paired row systems perform better than knife points under certain soil conditions but the benefits are variable and in some sowing conditions may provide little benefit. Further research is required. Winged points look most attractive when shallow moist soil can be ‘delved’ to the seed zone to provide early establishment (as in the winged knife point on the gravelly sand with shallow moisture).
• Simple approaches like sowing next to or at a shallow angle across the previous year’s crop row and broadcast spreading a portion of the seed in front of the seeding tynes are relatively simple approaches that can provide establishment benefits.
•  

There was no difference between nitrogen treatments for grain yield and all grain quality parameters except for TGW (thousand grain weight). The very dry year had an effect with limited moisture available to assist in nitrogen uptake at growth stage 31, when all N was applied.

The aim of the trial was to investigate the use of variable rate liquid & urea applications and their impacts on yield & grain protein. The liquid N application of 120l/ha achieved 2.8T/ha yield and increased protein to 13% which was $199/ha higher return than the 120kg/ha of Urea treatment. The 120kg/ha Urea treatment yielded 2.6t/ha and was graded as H2 because of a protein level of 12.6%. In this case it was economic to use the liquid N rate of 120l/ha. There were no other economic impacts from this trial work.

The dry September limited yields at this site, yields were about on par with the district, there was no difference between treatments at flowering or at any stage of growth. Available soil sulphur (S) at sowing was 55 kg/ha (taken to a depth of 35cm) and with a yield of 1.5 t/ha maximum, only 38kg S was required for the crop. This crop had enough soil sulphur already supplied before additional sulphur was applied.

There has been widespread use of continuous cereal in the Mallee over the past decade, and with many drought years throughout this period fertiliser inputs have generally been greater than crop demand. As a consequence, soil phosphoruslevels are often well above the critical level. By identifying soils and conditions where continuous cereal systems perform best and where inputs can be most effectively targeted, there is an opportunity to reduce input costs and increase profitability. This trial used PA methods to identify soil types for targeted soil sampling to achieve a greater understanding of soil phosphorus levels in different soil zones. Yield mapping was then used to identify if and where fertiliser applied to the crop impacted grain yield.

Application of DAP fertiliser at time of sowing improves yield in barley. Application of additional nitrogen lifts yields further, and improves protein levels in the grain. Results suggest efficiencies in nitrogen application can be achieved with placement in the root zone compared to surface application. Further work needs to be undertaken to better understand the process. 

With increasing pressure on rotations, there are a number of forage options that can be considered;

• On higher fertility sites, with better N levels-  Annual ryegrass such as Drummer and Grassmax as well as forage cereals such as Graza 80 and 51 are an option
• Brassicas (Leafmore) should be avoided on canola stubble
• On lower N sites, Blaza Crimson Clover,  Laser Persian Clover, Zulu Arrowleaf clover and Bolta Balansa grow reasonable hay and fix Nitrogen
• Further work needs to be conducted to evaluate competition value (esp with Wimmera RG) and yield benefits to following crops.   

• A range of forage varieties were grown as rotational options at the MFMG site at Frances.
• Drummer Annual tetraploid ryegrass (6.482t/ha DM) grew the largest amount of dry matter, followed by Graza 80 (5.491t/ha DM) and Grassmax (5.099t/ha)
• The annual clovers grew signifcantly less dry matter, with Laser Persian Clover growing (3.025t/ha DM), Zulu Arrowleaf (3.008t/ha DM) and Bolta Balansa (2.977t/ha)
• The cereal/grass based options grew more DM and offered more competition, but legume & broadleaf crops offered different herbicide options, disease breaks and in case of legumes, nitrogen fixation.
• More work required to show possible yields, both as monocultures and as mixes for rotational options

Due to unforseen circumstances, results for 2011 aren’t available for the Seedmark pasture evaluation sites. Seedmark do however look forward to continuing their work with MFMG in 2012 to explore the most appropriate Forage/Pasture rotation options.

The Field Days did however see the release of the new pasture variety “Monti” bred and developed by SARDI’s pastures group and released by the Australian Pasture Alliance (APA), an alliance between SARDI and Seedmark. Struan based SARDI researchers Andy
Craig and Freya Hawker lead the development of Monti with an extensive evaluation program run across a number of research site for the last 4 years. Below are some photos from the event.

• A range of forage varieties were grown as rotational options atthe MFMG site at Frances and Conmurra. 
• At Conmurra and Frances,the highest DM producing forages were annual ryegrass; R2 tetrapkhid annual ryegrass (12.28 t/ha DM) at Conmurra and Grassmaar Diploid annual ryegrass  (7.53 t/ha DM), primarilty due to their ability for a winter cut. 
• The best annual clovers at both Conmurra and Frances include Zulu II Arrowleaf (6.46t/ha and 3.93t/ha) and Bolta Balansa (6.27t/ha and 4.11t/ha).
• The cereal/grass based options generally grew more DM and offered more competition but legume and broadleaf crops offered different herbicide options, disease breaks and in the case of legumes, nitrogen fixation. 
• The legume and brassica varieties produce forage of a higher quality than that of cerels and grasses, which provides greater benefit to grazing animals.
• More work required to show possible yields both as monocultures and as mixes for rotational options. 

• Pie-sowing treatments of trifluralin herbicide are effective in increasing yields in a barley crop infested with Vulpia. Application rates of 3.0 1/ha produced a significant result, while application rate of 1.5 1/ha produced a strong trend.
• No significant differences could be demonstrated between Post-sowing treatments employed in this trial due to large variations between plots. However averaged results indicate trends that can be further explored with more trial work. 
• For further conclusions please see the attached trial report.
   

(i) The most significant outcome from these trials was the very strong effect of increasing grain protein. In nearly all cases, the higher rate of 50kgN/ha had a more significant effect, as did delaying the timing until GS55. (ii) There were no differences between product type and rate had a small effect. (iii) The higher rate of 50kgN/ha had a higher yield than 25kgN/ha. (iv) For the majority of sites, the key timing that influenced yield was GS39. This timing is slightly later than previously thought suitable for applying N for yield, with GS32 being the recognised standard. The data needs to be interpreted with the 2013 season in mind because a tighter finish in spring could mean plant uptake of late applied N would be limited.

Application of metconazole to canola resulted in a reduction in plant height but in this trial there was no effect on grain yield. Tebuconazole had no effect on plant height or final yield. In seasons where excess vegetative growth is a problem increases in grain yield following treatment could be expected through improved harvest efficiency (less lodging and/or redirection of plant assimilates to the grain).

The variability across the paddock in the level of Take-all and deep soil N were relatively low and the results can be used to devise a management plan. Rhizovonia and Pratylenctus neglectus the results between the site were more variable

Removal of subsoil compaction by deep ripping resulted in a 370 kg/ha (45%) yield benefit with spading giving an additional benefit of 12% (100 kg/ha) and mouldboard ploughing 39% (320 kg/ha) compared with the deep ripping treatment. Higher biomass and increased head density in the cultivation treatments are indicative of improved nutrient access and effcient use of available water through the season. Water use efficiency was 4.9 kg/ha/mm of growing season rainfall for the control treatment compared with 7.1 kg/ha/mm for ripped, 7.6 kg/ha/mm for spaded and 8.9 kg/ha/mm for mouldboard ploughing. Recent research is showing that nutrient availability is improved when top soil is buried by spading or mouldboard 
ploughing because nutrients become concentrated in the rootzone and less suscpetible to soil drying from evaporation, which can be the case when majority of the nutrients are on the soil surface, (Davies et al, 2012).

• Antas Sub clover (brachycalnium type) grew significantly more than other sub clovers, and more than twice the production of Trikkala (1.735t/ha DM)
• The more biomass you grow, the more nitrogen you fix. Using rules of thumb (25jg/ha N per 1t DM), Antas would fix 92kg/ha of nitrogen cf 43kg/ha N for Trikkala. 
• A later sowing combined with a dry spring produced some variances. and lower dm yields than expected. 
• More work is required to show possible yields, both as monocultures and as mixes for rotational options.