• For the fourth year running, on-row sowing proved it has potential as a brome management tool on non-wetting sands, reducing brome grass seed set by 55%.
• The use of trifluralin with metribuzin reduced the brome density in July but did not reduce seed set.
• On-row sowing resulted in more soil water and nitrogen supply potential near the crop,  improved crop establishment and higher crop biomass.
• On-row sowing did increase root disease incidence, but there were low levels of disease for both on- and inter-row sowing in 2017.

All tillage treatments had a little effect on the management of SWR and plant establishment in the severe water repellent gravel sand at Moora. Nevertheless, yield improvements were recorded, in particular with the “Large offsets” and the “Modified one-way with standard discs” treatments.

At this stage, it is not possible to clearly state what changes drove the yield increase. Given the little effect that the cultivations had on the SWR it is possible that improved soil structure, increased nutrient availability and nitrogen mineralisation may have played a role on the increased productivity.

The yield potential of the canola crop in 2015 was low given it was sown relatively late, plant numbers were low and there was a dry finish, this may have compromised the response to the tillage treatments. Observation of the trial in the following growing seasons and the response of a cereal crop in 2016 will help us to better understand the long term effect of the treatments on crop growth.

On deep sandy profiles subsoil compaction and acidity are major constraints. At this site the limited cropping history resulted in an expectation that the site would not be compacted but compaction was severe, indicating how susceptible these pale sands can be to compaction. For many deep sands, liming followed by deep ripping with topsoil slotting may be one of the most economical ways of effectively overcoming subsoil compaction and acidity to depths of 40-60cm.

On severely repellent sands however, it may be that deep ripping alone is inadequate and options which overcome the repellence and assist with weed control while at the same time addressing subsoil compaction and acidity may be required to get sustained productivity benefits (Davies et. al. 2017). The impact of deep ripping on highly repellent soils is variable with anecdotal reports that ripping can sometimes worsen the expression of repellence and result in poorer crop establishment. Other reports indicate substantial productivity gains can also be achieved (Blackwell et. al. 2016). Deep ripping may help overcome soil water repellence by: 1) creating a rougher soil surface allowing water to pond and infiltrate over time; 2) loosening the dry topsoil making it a more effective mulch, reducing soil moisture loss from the subsurface soil; 3) delving some seams of subsoil to the surface which act as pathways for water entry, with some ripper tine designs and attachments facilitating this more than others. Conversely the negative effects of deep ripping can include: 1) enhanced drying of the repellent topsoil from the loosening action; 2) increased expression of the water repellence when the soil is ripped when it is quite dry. Repellence severity, or expression, is increased with these negative effects which was the case for this site. For other sites where repellence is more moderate any benefits of deep ripping may outweigh the negative impacts. The mixed effects of deep ripping on repellent soils needs further research to be better understood. It is likely that rippers with C-shaped or parabolic shaped tines with broader points and wider ‘face’ plates will achieve more subsoil delving into the topsoil. Some rippers can also be fitted with wings which can also increase the degree of soil mixing. A greater degree of subsoil delving could result in development of more effective infiltration paths and longer lasting reductions in topsoil water repellence.

In this study rotary spading and modified one-way ploughing were effective in improving water infiltration on severely repellent sand even if they did not remove the deeper compaction. Second-hand one-way disc ploughs have a relatively low capital and operating cost (Table 1) and are relatively cheap to modify into a simple but robust tool for partial soil inversion (Davies et. al. 2016), although good seed bed preparation is still essential.

• Onion weed is a significant pest and competitor of medic pastures. In mixed farming systems, control in the pasture phase is often reliant on cultivation.
• None of the herbicides evaluated in this trial provided adequate onion weed control in the medic pasture phase without unacceptable reduction in medic biomass.
• The use of non-selective herbicides and their mixes, combined with strategic cultivation if required, is still the most effective short term strategy in reducing the impact of onion weed on crop/pasture systems on Eyre Peninsula (EP).

The response to nitrogen in these trials should encourge the application of urea for wheat crops in these regions when the deep soil N test shows that the soil is low in available N prior to sowing in relation to the target yield set for the crop.

Opportunistic summer cropping can make use of summer rainfall that may otherwise be lost to evaporation.

In this instance the opportunistic crop of canola in 2011 has proven the more successful rotation. At the beginning of the season, given the rainfall during harvest, the soil had comparable moisture at depth irrespective of the crop in 2011. The weed break given by the canola was significant, very few grass weeds coming through in old canola plots. The management of weeds proved telling in this trial. Much of the potential wheat yield was removed by the brome grass in the wheat on wheat plots.

Wheat on wheat this season achieved approximately 16kg/mm of rainfall. Wheat growing without the competition of weeds on the canola plots achieved in excess of 19kg/mm. Making crude assumptions that wheat on fallow grew at 19kg/mm, and the additional 400kg/ha yield was the result of additional moisture alone, then there was approximately 21mm of additional moisture in the fallow plots. Fallow had more moisture available closer to the surface than the other plots though not significantly more moisture throughout the remainder of the profile.

In 2012 wheat on fallow plots returned $100 more than wheat grown on either wheat or canola residue. This recouped the $40 loss from the 2011 fallow with additional profit. But fallow did not result in the greatest total profit over the two seasons of the trial. The extra production on the fallowed treatments was unable to make up the opportunity cost of not growing a crop in 2011. This is not unexpected given the high crop yields achieved in 2011.

In this instance the opportunistic crop of canola in 2011 has proven the more successful rotation. At the beginning of the season, given the rainfall during harvest, the soil had comparable moisture at depth irrespective of the crop in 2011. The weed break given by the canola was significant, very few grass weeds coming through in old canola plots. The management of weeds proved telling in this trial. Much of the potential wheat yield was removed by the brome grass in the wheat on wheat plots.

Wheat on wheat this season achieved approximately 16kg/mm of rainfall. Wheat growing without the competition of weeds on the canola plots achieved in excess of 19kg/mm. Making crude assumptions that wheat on fallow grew at 19kg/mm, and the additional 400kg/ha yield was the result of additional moisture alone, then there was approximately 21mm of additional moisture in the fallow plots. Fallow had more moisture available closer to the surface than the other plots though not significantly more moisture throughout the remainder of the profile.

In 2012 wheat on fallow plots returned $100 more than wheat grown on either wheat or canola residue. This recouped the $40 loss from the 2011 fallow with additional profit. But fallow did not result in the greatest total profit over the two seasons of the trial. The extra production on the fallowed treatments was unable to make up the opportunity cost of not growing a crop in 2011. This is not unexpected given the high crop yields achieved in 2011.

• Continuous cropping can be sustained for decades, but requires careful management.
• A larger proportion of N supply as fertiliser will be required over time even when grain legumes are included in crop sequences.
• Herbicide resistance develops faster under continuous cropping. Integrated management to keep key weed populations at very low levels is essential for long-term viability.
• Suitably diverse crop and end-use portfolios and flexible management help build resilience to climate and crop price shocks.

• No crop type on any soil achieved optimum plant density at this site, with canola treatments having extremely poor establishment.
• Overall, wheat had a significantly higher biomass than canola, lupins or chickpeas.
• Wheat yields were average to above average for the area depending on the soil type, which is a favourable result given the average decile 4 growing season rainfall.
• Canola yielded extremely poorly and proved to be a risky crop choice for the given season and soil types

• Crop establishment, biomass, yield and harvest index of wheat was largely unaffected by break crop rotation from the previous two seasons.
• Wheat yield was above district average for both the light and heavy soil site which was not expected on the average decile 4 rainfall.
• Grain produced from wheat following a pulse-canola rotation had higher protein content compared to the canola-chickpea rotation.

There was no response to fungicide in this trial and few significant effects on grain quality. Disease levels were extremely low and a stem green area score at senescence revealed no consistent preservation of green tissue with the use of fungicides.

Fungicides were cost effective provided the cost of the products were kept to a minimum. 

• Scepter (6.17t/ha) yielded the highest from the 20 April sowing date; Cutlass (4.38t/ha) yielded the highest from the 19 May sowing date; and Viking (3.22t/ha) yielded the highest from 1 June sowing date. 
• The 20 April sowing date germinated and established well before the waterlogged conditions occurred during late May and early June causing reduced germination and poorer establishment for the 19 may and 1 June sowing dates (SD).  This low establishment resulted in reduced yields between sowing dates of 0.78t/ha from SD1 and SD2 and 1.01t/ha from SD2 and SD3.
• Grain yields of varieties were highest when they were sown in their recommended sowing window. 

• Highest yields were obtained when flowering started in early to mid-August. Treatments that flowered in July were affected by frost and treatments that flowered in September were affected by heat and drought.

• The strongest yield response to nitrogen was on treatments that flowered in early to mid-August.

• Hybrids tended to recover better from frost damage than open-pollinated (OP) triazine tolerant (TT) varieties, but flowering date and nitrogen management were more important to maximise yield potential than variety type.

• The highest oil concentration was obtained from varieties that flowered in early to mid-August.
 

• Standard inoculation practices are unlikely to deliver satisfactory nodulation where pulses are sown into dry soils.
• Pea and chickpea sown late (26 June) had the higher nodulation and crop production than those sown dry. Where the soil remained dry for 20 days after sowing nodulation was poor, regardless of the inoculation strategy used.
• Nodulation of pea was low regardless of sowing time at Minnipa in 2018. Both peat applied to seed and granule formulations resulted in similar nodule numbers per plant.
• Nodulation can be improved when dry sowing if inoculation rate of peat is increased. Doubling the rate of inoculation significantly improved pea nodulation. 
• The performance the rhizobial granules was inconsistent. A granule produced at SARDI was more effective in one experiment, but not the other. Two commercial granules provided no advantage compared to peat applied to seed.

EGA Wedgetail can successfully be grown for grain only or dual purpose use and achieve yields competitive with recently released main season cultivars sown in May.  Growers wishing to graze EGA Wedgetail should use high plant densities (at least 100 plants/m2 on 305 mm row spacing, higher on narrower spacing) and some N fertiliser at sowing (particularly if soil mineral N is low) to maximise forage yield.  Gorwers who wish to grow EGA Wedgetail for grain only should defer N fertiliser application until after Z30 to reduce early vegetative growth.  Neither of these experiments or any others during the early sowing project have found a yield benefir from reducing plant populations, and target plant density should be kept at 100-150 plans/m2 (less on wide rows, more on narrow rows) in order to better compete with weeds.

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• Lentils were better at establishing and reaching target plant densities than canola.
• Canola was considerably more responsive to converting increasing sowing densities into yield than lentils.
• Seeder type had no consistent effect on establishment and yield.
• The differences in yield response to plant numbers suggests that it is more critical to get it right in canola than lentils.

• Once you have decided on how much crop to put in, the greatest impacts on your bottom line will come from how you managed the crop and what it cost you.
• Making in-crop decisions on inputs has to be done in context of the likley yield.
• Yield Prophet will help you make better decisions.

• At the Howlong site, applied nitrogen gave a yield and dry matter (DM) response, however there was no sulphur response.
• The Yarrawonga site showed a clear response to applied sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N), despite high soil sulphur levels. This suggests canola roots may not be effectively exploring the soil profile to access soil sulphur.
• The Yarrawonga site had an optimum sulphur application rate of 20kg S/ha, with yield penalties measured with sulphur rates above and below this optimal rate.
• The dry finish to the season caused significant challenges during 2017. This trial will be repeated at two sites during 2018 to understand how variable the responses to sulphur are likely to be during different seasonal conditions.

• At the Howlong site, applied nitrogen gave a yield and dry matter (DM) response, however there was no sulphur response.
• The Yarrawonga site showed a clear response to applied sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N), despite high soil sulphur levels. This suggests canola roots may not be effectively exploring the soil profile to access soil sulphur.
• The Yarrawonga site had an optimum sulphur application rate of 20kg S/ha, with yield penalties measured with sulphur rates above and below this optimal rate.
• The dry finish to the season caused significant challenges during 2017. This trial will be repeated at two sites during 2018 to understand how variable the responses to sulphur are likely to be during different seasonal conditions.

1. Heat and drought significantly influenced phenology and grain yield responses in 2018.
2. Higher grain yields were achieved by faster developing genotypes, with significant reductions in grain yield with delayed sowing (associated with later flowering dates).
3. Whilst 2018 conditions favoured faster-developing genotypes, some newer genotypes such as LongReach MustangP and SunprimeP showed flexibility with stable grain yields across a wide range of sowing dates.
4. It is important to consider long-term data to determine suitability of varieties based on matching phenology and sowing time for your growing environment.

• Significatn variation was observed with tiller counts from one time of sowing to another.
• Early sowing provided a clear yield advantage over the later sowing dates.
• Revenue wheat was the highest yielding variety in the trial and adaptable to sowing time variation.

2018 Season

• At Speddingup, yield of late sown Scepter wheat was highest (3.6 tonnes/ha) in treatment strips that received a 100L top-up of Flexi-N at early stem elongation in early September following a period of waterlogging in August. Yield was lowest (3.4 tonnes/ha) in the treatment to which all nitrogen was applied up front at seeding.
• At Condingup, mid-May sown Scepter wheat yield and grain protein increased as nitrogen application increased, with the Playing the Season treatment seeing the highest (8.4 tonnes/ha) and the Farmer Practice treatment seeing the lowest (6.9 tonnes/ha).
• Moderation of nitrogen applied up front provided the host grower at the Speddingup demonstration site with an opportunity to tailor nitrogen applications to the potential of the season and to address waterlogging issues faced during the season.
• The addition of extra nitrogen following waterlogging at the Condingup demonstration site resulted in improved yield and financial return (after nitrogen input costs had been deducted).
• Applications at stem elongation at Speddingup and as late as full flag leaf to head emergence at Condingup were able to provide yield with an associated positive effect on grain protein.

2019 Season

• There was no statistically significant difference in Scepter wheat grain yield or protein between the nitrogen application regimes applied at the Jerdacuttup, Speddingup and Condingup demonstration sites, despite there being a difference in the rate of nitrogen and timing of application. Each of these sites experienced below average rainfall in 2019 and no waterlogging occurred. Crops at Jerdacuttup and Speddingup were also affected by frost.
• Despite dry growing conditions and exposure to a significant frost in September, Scepter wheat replicates that received the highest rate of nitrogen were the most profitable at the Jerdacuttup demonstration site. The margin between the most profitable and the least profitable treatment was $79/ha while the difference in nitrogen rate applied between these was 54.9kg/ha.
• The difference between gross income achieved from each of the 4 treatments applied at the Speddingup demonstration site was very small but the variation in input costs did affect profitability. The most profitable treatment was the ‘Farmer Practice’ treatment as it had the lowest fertiliser input cost with little yield or grain quality penalty. The ‘Regular Intervals’ treatment was the least profitable of the nitrogen treatments as the input and application costs were highest. Conditions were too dry for the crop to utilize the additional applied nitrogen in this treatment. The difference between these 2 treatments was $72/ha.
• Grain price varied by only $0 to $10/t between nitrogen treatments at the Condingup demonstration site. The most profitable treatment was the ‘Playing the Season’ treatment, with the highest rate of nitrogen applied and the latest application date when the crop was at growth stage Z24/32-33; just prior to flag leaf emergence. The ‘Farmer Practice’ treatment was the next most profitable of those applied, the difference being $29/ha, followed by the ‘All Up Front’ treatment with a margin of $31/ha. The difference between the most profitable and least profitable treatment was $60/ha.

• The ‘farmer practice’ strategy ultimately ended up being the best nitrogen strategy for the 2019 season. The crop responded to the applied n up front after good rainfall and resulted in a 5.43 tonne yield and achieved a good return on investment.
• It is likely the crops in 2019 achieved its water limiting yield potential due to the dry finish; therefore, more nitrogen did not improve yield.
• Despite the treatments that received additional N achieving a higher wheat grade, the cost of applying the N in a season with decile 8 pricing, actually reduced profits.
• Growers remain interested in this research and would like to see further results from tactical N applications, especially in wet years and more waterlogged conditions.

• Fertilising above the optimum plant nitrogen (N) demand level reduced N-use efficiency and increased environmental impact.
• Despite receiving 8–9 irrigations as well as several intense rainfall events in a season, there were typically only 3–4 significant nitrous oxide (N2O) flux periods during the season, with most occurring early in the season, i.e. irrigations 1 and 2.
• Other significant N2O emissions events occurred mostly in response to adding in-crop N fertiliser followed by irrigation and/or intense rainfall.
• Initially, higher N2O emissions came from the beds where N fertiliser had been applied pre-sowing. Later in the season, emissions often peaked in the non-irrigated furrows after rainfall and irrigation events, particularly after additional N was added in the irrigation water.
• Farmers’ N rates were at least 25% higher than necessary to achieve the same lint yield in 2014–15, i.e. 50–100 kg N/ha. Less N fertiliser could have produced the same amount of cotton.
• Increasing N rates increased total N2O emissions, especially in prolonged wet conditions.
   

• Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions respond to large rainfall events.
• Most N2O emissions were generated after the crop was harvested.
• Tillage did not increase N2O emissions significantly in the first two years under wheat and canola.
• Including perennial grass into legume-based pastures would reduce N2O emissions.

• There is an opportunity to use locally available amendments in place of inorganic fertiliser.
• High rates of surface-applied chicken litter tend to have a better yield response than either surfaceapplied compost or inorganic N fertiliser.
• After three years there does not appear to be an advantage using 20 t/ha of amendment compared to 10 t/ha.
• Stability of these organic products may provide a long term benefit to the system that could mean less fertiliser is required in crop under an organic amendment regime.
   

• Early observations during the 2011 growing indicated the plots treated with chicken manure were severely impacted (negatively) by the burning associated with the high ammonia content.
• There was some indication of a small increase in crop biomass on Picken  treated plots.
• The high volumes of product applied do not flow through the banding unit and further work would need to be undertaken with the engineering design.
• Visual observations on this demonstration are to continue in 2012.  At this stage pastures is likely to be established on the site in 2012
• We expect further breakdown of the banded products, especially the treatments using highly volatile chicken manure
• If there are visual indications of biomass differences appearing, appropriate measurements will be made during the 2012 growing season.

The INSPIRE Summit was an overwhelming success. Registrations quickly sold out and were then extended. The atmosphere at the 2-day event was inspiring in itself. Growers were enthusiastic, ready to learn and relished the opportunity to network with like-minded women and industry representatives. Feedback from participants, speakers and sponsors was all extremely positive. The event received good publicity locally, state-wide and nationally. Participants left the event feeling confident and ready to implement changes in their businesses.

• Crop productivity on infertile sandy soils can be greatly improved by incorporating organic matter deep into the soil (>30 cm).
• In some cases, crop yields are further boosted with the incorporation of clay and/or fertiliser to depth.
• Two years of recent research show that the best soil modification treatments can increase crop yields by 70 to 200 %, even in challenging seasons.
• Treatments that address multiple constraints in these soils provide greater benefit than those addressing individual issues.
• Crop yields are reduced when clay is poorly incorporated into the soil.

5 Experiments started in 1980's.

3 sources of Cu (sulfate (25%); oxychloride (52%)  & chelate (EDTA 15% Cu) at 7 levels of Cu

Applied at 2 growth stages of wheat grown at 5 sites

1 kg Cu/ha rsuilted in maximum yield of 2.5 t/ha (summarised over 5 experiemnts in each particular year.

1-2kg of Cu sulfate required for maximum yield on severely deficient soil (.5 tha nil Cu ; 2.5 t/ha adequate Cu)

Little foliage damage if sprayed under cool, cloudy conditions. Warm sunny conditions increased leaf damage and decreased response to foliar sprays.

Chelate Cu always resukted in the highest yield per quantity of Cu while oxychloride always rsulted in the lowest grain yield per quantity of Cu .For example 100 g Cu/ha of chelate , 200 g as sulfate and 4000g oxychloride Cu for maximumgrain yield.

Sprays at 6th leaf were higher than late boot.

Cool condition for leaf absorption.

Results replicated over several season and soil types.

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits.

5 Experiments started in 1980's reported in 1985-86.

Sources of Zn (sulfate (22%);  & chelate (EDTA 15% Zn) at 5-7 levels of Zn

Applied at 2 growth stages [4th leaf; mid-tillering] of wheat grown at 5 sites.

Wheat sprayed at 4th leaf yielded higher [ about 0.5 t/ha higher) than delaying until mid-tillering under severely Zn deficient plants.

0.45 kg Zn/ha for both times of spraying resuilted in maximum yield of 1.5 -2.5 t/ha (summarised over 5 experiemnts) in each particular year. About 50 -60% grain yield increases.

Zn chelate was more effective at the  4the leaf stage. About 200 g Zn/ha for maximum grain yield for chelate while 450 for the sulfate source.

At mid-tillering about 250-300 g Zn/ha required for maximum yield for both chelate and sulfate 

 Recommendation : 1 kg of Zn sulfate required for maximum yield on severely deficient soil; spray on onset of symptoms.

Little foliage damage if sprayed under cool, cloudy conditions. Warm sunny conditions increased leaf damage and decreased response to foliar sprays.

Sprays at 4th leaf were higher yielding than the mid-tillering stage.

Cool condition for leaf absorption.

Results replicated over several season and soil types.

• The 2016 trial results looking at cultural control techniques for barley grass largely confirmed the 2015 findings.
• Increasing barley seeding rate in the presence of barley grass can provide substantial benefits to both yield and reduced weed seed carry-over. This applies particularly to competitive varieties such as Fathom, but also to less competitive varieties such as Hindmarsh.
• In contrast, doubling the seeding rate of wheat had no beneficial effect on yield or weed carry-over.
• Doubling the district practice seeding rate in barley substantially reduced the competitive effect of barley grass to the stage where crop yields were similar to those plots where herbicide was applied.

• High soybean grain yields can be achieved on a flat layout under overhead irrigation.
• Djakal and N005A-80 varieties yielded the highest across all densities and row spacings.
• The 40 plants/m2 targeted plant density yielded the highest across all varieties and row spacings.
• At targeted plant densities of 40 plants/m2, the highest yields were achieved with 30 cm row spacing.

 

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits.

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits.

• The early crop vigour results in this trial demonstrates the need to apply fresh phosphorus to crops at seeding to ensure good plant shoot and root growth during the early stages of crop growth.
• There was no difference observed between potassium drilled with the seed or topdressed immediately after sowing.  Good rainfall conditions early in the season may have rapidly moved the topdressed potassium into the root zone of the crop therefore overcoming any differences due to placement.  Subsoil testing for potassium may be important to determine the size of the soil potassium pool.

There are two main forms of ‘precision agriculture’: guidance, to improve accuracy, decrease overlapping, improve efficiency etc (the benefits are well understood for guidance); and variable rate agriculture. Variable rate agriculture

• Seeding depth uniformity is influenced by both seed placement quality within the furrow and the consistency of added soil cover
• Many machinery design and operating parameters affect the uniformity of seeding depth across a paddock
• Deep sowing (eg. beyond 50-6omm) can significantly affect crop emergence and final grain yield
• Many paddock situations can soon suffer a 5-10% yield loss as a result of inadequate seeding depth, with more extreme situations suggesting possible yield penalties of 15-20% or more.

• Trace element investigations have revealed that pastures previously unresponsive to improvement can now be expected to respond after the application of molybdenum.
• Molybdenum should not be applied in excess.
• On coastal soils of southern Victoria and the far west copper is the most important trace element deficiency.
• In east Gippsland both copper and molybdenum deficiency occur together.
• In poorer dairying districts there is no response to molybdenum until potash is applied.

• Commercially acceptable grain yields can be achieved from pasture cropping systems in Southern Victoria.
• At this stage, traditional winter crops sown into a lucerne stand has the best fit for our environment..
• Lontrel can be successfully used to inhibit lucerne growth during the crop phase.
• Barley returned the best grain yield averaging 5.5 t/ha and topping at 6.3 t/ha.
• Wheat averaged 4.3 t/ha and canola averaged 1.7 t/ha.
• Lucerne on wide row spacings (30 cm) can help to improve yield and grain quality.
   

• Crop seeding rate and perennial row spacing both influence grain yield of pasture crops.
• Lifting seeding rate of pasture crops might compensate for poorer establishment and, in turn, help to reduce any grain yield penalty.  For this experiment and assuming lupin seed is $300/t, lifting seeding rate by 50 kg/ha ($15) helped to avert a 26% yield penalty and proved to be $165/ha more profitable overall.
• Where growers do not own a disc machine but have invested in precision guidance technology, with forward planning, it is feasible to use a tined machine to sow crops into perennial pastures without damaging the perennial base.

Pasture cropping is an option for KI producers wishing to maximise grazing/cropping options.
The key principles are:

• Graze the paddocks down to 75-100 mm with livestock, or apply herbicides. Aim to suppress (but not kill) the pastures either with the judicious use of herbicides to burn the perennials or through appropriate grazing to take out the annual weeds.
• Zero till with a tyne or disc. Minimise soil disturbance as it kills pastures and encourages weeds. The aim is to open a slot and loosen the soil to create sufficient tilth for germination of the seed crop.

• Pasture cropping is an option for KI producers wishing to maximise grazing/cropping options.
• If you want to remove kikuyu from a paddock use roundup – if you want to pasture crop use other herbicides.
• Excellent lamb growth recorded 250g/hd/day.
• Producers now have a range of herbicide options toast will enable them to establish a crop without killing the kikuyu.

• Wet seasonal conditions hindered establishment of some crop species
• Seasonal conditions were ideal for pasture re-growth
• 3 cuts were taken at Conmurra throughout the season

• August pasture termination may produce water and nitrogen benefits for the following crop, compared to leaving the pasture to grow, but these may be neutralised by dry summers and other limitations in an average growing season.
• Termination timing is only as important as you abiliy to capitalise on the benefits with either livestock (extra pasture growth) or crop (extra water and nitrogen).

• Plant tests at the end of July showed that crop N and P uptake were significantly increased where 300 kg/ha Super Phos had been previously applied.
• Super Phos applied to pasture increased crop yield from 3.0 t/ha to 3.9 t/ha but responses to more than 100 kg/ha Super Phos were not significant. There were no significant responses to potash, lime, manipulation or to Intake in Furrow.
• Grain proteins were about 11 %, hectare litre weights 78 kg/hl and screenings 2 % (data not presented).
• 100 kg/ha Super Phos increased protein yield by 77 kg/ha (or grain N recovery by about 14 kg N/ha). 
• This is the equivalent to about 40kg fertiliser N/ha (assuming a nitrogen use efficiency of 35%).
• The value of the crop response to pasture topdressing alone was big enough to more than offset the cost of 100 kg/ha Super Phos applied over the previous three years.

• The MLA trials demonstrated that early summer seeding (January) of Serradella pod was a viable option. The summer sowing of Serradella pod has outperformed the twin sowing methods in the two trials conducted by SCF growers
• The current district practice of dry seeding pasture seed in Autumn on sandplain soils has severe limitations compared to summer pod sowing or seeding when soil is moist after full seasonal break. This was confirmed in the 2014 season in the MLA trial where the second time of sowing (into moist soil) outperformed the first time of sowing in total legume biomass production and this advantage has carried right through to seed set in Year 3 (in M1 trial Santorini and Margurita plots).
• The performance of a precision seeder for sowing Serradella in a 2015 trial demonstrated that modifications of conventional seeding systems could improve plant establishment efficiency by more that 35%.
• The hard seeded Serradellas are performing well in specific treatments in the MLA trials even on the lower fertility, acidic and non-wetting sandplain soils. Mixed maturity Serradellas like cv Margurita lose significant pod set with spraytopping ryegrass compared to Cadiz or Santorini.

The Drummer ryegrass is a valuable source of early feed and can greatly improve stocking rates if managed in a rotational grazing system.

• The faba beans produced lower yield in 2011 than in the previous two years, but the overall trial yielded almost 3 t/ha indiates their potential as a crop in the Western Districts.
• Please see attached trial report for further findings.

• At present, there is inconsistent evidence to suggest that seed size at sowing can affect grain yield in the faba bean cultivar PBA Nasma, with a positive yield benefit associated with sowing larger seed at Trangie, but no significant yield effect at Tamworth in 2015.
• Seed size at sowing appears to be positively related to seed size at harvest.
• Further experimentation is required.
   

• Atriplex nummularia (Old man saltbush, 79.2% survival), Atriplex rhagodioides (Silver saltbush, 77.1% survival), and Rhagodia parabolica (Mealy saltbush, 76% survival) are the species with the highest survival rates.
• Weed control was poor with wild radish competing strongly with the perennials for moisture.
• The trial will continue next year with more results becoming available during this time, including palability, feed value and persistence.

Although the results were inconclusive at the Tottington site, the group believes that use of the triple pack program in normal years is likely to improve perennial pasture establishment in this drier northern region. It could also be relevant in other areas, where run down low fertility paddocks have a low legume content and have become dominated by onion and silver grass.

Further cost benefit analysis is warranted for the Triple Pack system before it is widely promoted to producers. PPS were unable to conduct a cost benefit analysis at Tottington due to the extreme seasonal conditions affecting results.

• Establishment of perennial pastures is relatively expensive and represents a high risk activity during years with very low spring rainfall. • Ideally Lucerne and pasture grasses should be established by sowing early in paddocks with low weed populations, such as may occur after several years of a well managed cropping program.
• Press wheels will improve establishment in some soil types.Establishment of perennial pastures is relatively expensive and represents a high risk activity during years with very low spring rainfall.
• Ideally Lucerne and pasture grasses should be established by sowing early in paddocks with low weed populations, such as may occur after several years of a well managed cropping program.
• Press wheels will improve establishment in some soil types.

• Atriplex and Rhagodia species fared best in these experiments, producing the hightest biomass on offer to sheep, plant survival rate and health scores.
• Four species showed poor adaptation to the environment at Walpeup and produced little edible biomass, namely Atriplex semibaccata, Convolvulus remotus, Cullen australasicum and Medicago strasseri.
• Results from this experiment and others across the nation have led to establishment of a new site a Manangatang that demonstrates the most promising spcies for the Mallee region's poorest soils.

• Start with paddock preparation and weed control in the year (or two) before establishment.
• Get the right machinery for incorporating lime. 
• Gain technical knowledge.

• First wheat following canola yielded between 3.65 and 5.35t/ha depending on row spacing, plant population and nitrogen application.
• A narrow row spacing of 22.5cm produced higher dry matter (DM), grain yields and water use efficiency than a wider row spacing of 37.5cm.
• Higher grain yields were associated with plant populations of 150-165 plants/m2.
• Wide row spacing reduced grain yields by and average of 6.5% and DM by 15% compared with narrow row spacing. 

• New late maturing non-commercial lines were amongst the highest yielding, with yields greater than 6 t/ha.
• The winter-spring crosses K50058 and K50058 and winter types AGF437 and AGF484 have performed consistently well across a number of seasons at Hamilton and Inverleigh.
• Optimising sowing times may provide additional yield increases.
• High yields were achieved from poor plant establishment numbers, showing that canola has the ability to compensate from low plant numbers if the seasonal conditions are favourable.

• Crusher TT canola yielded between 2.24–2.79 t/ha with 232mm of growing season rainfall (Apr–Oct) and an estimated 118mm of stored available soil moisture (total 350mm).
• All plant populations were high (150–200 plants/m2) due to an error in calibration, however results produced were similar to previous years, with no significant difference in yield between the narrowest (22.5cm — 2.67t/ha) and widest (37.5cm — 2.75t/ha) row spacings.
• The 30cm spacing yielded significantly lower than both the 22.5cm and the 37.5cm spacings in this trial. 

For a summary of key messages and results see the attached trial report.

• Canola following two years of wheat yielded 2.08t/ha despite establishing 50% fewer plants than canola grown during 2009, which yielded 1.59t/ha. The higher yield achieved during 2011 was attributed to more stored soil moisture at sowing. 
• The higher biomass produced with the narrower row spacing (22.5cm) did not translate into higher grain yield with the same yield achieved across the narrowest (22.5cm) and widest (37.5cm) row spacings.
• About 102-122kg nitrogen/ha was removed in aboveground biomass (straw and grain). There was no statistical difference in nitrogen off-take between the 22.5cm and 37.5cm row spacings.  

• Canola trials during 2012 had high plant populations, which may have created atypical crop canopy structures in relation to different row spacings.
• In four canola datasets generated from 2009 – 2012 at Coreen, New South Wales and Bungeet, Victoria the influence of row spacing on yield has been inconsistent.
• During 2012, the narrow row spacing (22.5cm) produced higher yields and a higher harvest index (HI) than wider row spacing, however this has not been the case in previous years. 

• Of the conventional varieties: Outback (1.2t/ha), Emblem (1.1t/ha) and Rivette (1.3t/ha) performed the best at Berriwillock in 2003.
• The triazine tolerant (TT) lines that yielded highest in this trial were Surpass501TT (1.1t/ha) and Beacon (1.0t/ha). Eyre, a TT variety performed poorly at 0.7t/ha.
• The Clearfield line that performed very well in the trial was Pioneer 45C75 (1.3t/ha).
• In the Wimmera, monola is worth keeping an eye on as a niche crop as it performed similar to, if not slightly better, than some canola varieties and receives a premium of $40/t on delivery.

• Starter application of P was important in maximising yields at GS30.
• Grain yield responses (< 90 percent relative yield) to P were obtained for 35 percent of the paddocks surveyed.
• DGT accurately predicted wheat responses to P accounting for 64 percent and 79 percent of the variation in early dry matter and grain respectively.
• Colwell P could only explain 36 percent of the variation in early dry matter and no significant relationship could be obtained with grain.
• Colwell P plus the Phosphorus Buffering Index (PBI) correctly predicted wheat response in 60 percent of the sites.

• With 537mm growing season rainfall (April- mid-November) wheat yields followig faba beans were 2.2t/ha higher than those experienced in 2009.
• The yield reduction moving from a narrow row spacing (22.5cm) to wide (37cm) was 12% (0.64t/ha), compared with 16% (0.49t/ha) in 2009.

For a summary of key messages and results see the attached trial report.

• With 570mm growing season rainfall (GSR) 2010 wheat yeilds were more than double those experiences during 2009 in the same rotation position (wheat after canola).
• Yield drop-off associated with the wide row spacing (37.5cm) was almost identical to 2009 results, with a 12% yield reduction compared with the narrow row spacing.

• In the 2012 wheat after canola trial, moving from a narrow row spacing (22.5cm) to a 30cm spacing reduced yield by 9%.  Moving from 22.5cm to the widest (37.5cm) row spacing reduced yield by 11%.
• In a season where yields averaged about 3t/ ha overall (based on a GSR of 196mm plus 85mm stored soil moisture), increasing row spacing beyond 22.5cm significantly reduced yield.
• During 2009, in the same rotation position on the same trial site, there was no difference in yield between the 22.5cm and 30cm row spacings (based on 2.5t/ha average yields), although the 37.5cm row spacing still yielded significantly less. 

For a summary of key messages and results see the attached trial report.

• In second wheat after faba beans, moving from a narrow row spacing of 22.5cm to 30cm and 37.5cm row spacings reduced yield by 4% and 10% respectively.  This compares with respective yield reductions of 12% and 14% in the fi rst wheat trial grown in the same paddock at the same time.
• The narrow row spacing (22.5cm) produced greater biomass than the wider row spacing but had a relatively poor harvest index (26%) compared with other row spacings in this trial.
• There was no difference in crop establishment or yield due to drill opener (tine versus disc), however plant establishment was superior with the narrow row compared with the wider spacings tested.
   

• Gauntlet wheat sown as the second wheat crop after canola yielded between 3.84–4.44t/ha with 232mm of growing season rainfall (Apr-Oct) and an estimated 118mm of stored water at sowing (total 350mm).
• Moving from a narrow row spacing (22.5cm) to 30cm and 37.5cm row spacings reduced yield by 13% and 11% respectively in the 2012 season.  In 2011, moving from a 22.5cm spacing to 30cm and 37.5cm spacings reduced yield by 4% and 10% respectively for the second wheat trial grown in the same paddock.
• It was estimated that the narrow row spacing (22.5cm) resulted in better water use efficiency (WUE) than the widest spacing (37.5cm), despite having a lower harvest index (44% vs 47%) than the widest rows.  

• Plant establishment at a 22.5cm row spacing was signifi cantly superior to 30cm, which in turn was signifi cantly higher than 37.5cm. The disc drill opener gave better establishment than the tine at the narrow (22.5cm) row spacing but not at the wider row spacing. 
• Advantages with the narrow row spacing were seen early in the season in terms of plant population, dry matter (DM) and tiller production. These advantages did not translate to signifi cantly higher yield in this rotation position. This result was identical to the results of the 2010 trial when wheat on wheat yields showed a similar, but not signifi cant, trend for narrow row spacing (22.5cm) to be better than wide row spacing (37.5cm). 

• Trial sown at Lameroo on a zinc deficient soil, very dry season.
• Untreated crop was severely zinc deficient.
• Zinc seed dressings (Teprosyn and Broadacre products) were effective at alleviating zinc deficiency but not as effective as the dressings plus mid season foliar spray.
• The soil sprays were not very effective, even at double the recommended rate, perhaps because the soil was so dry.
• Although laboratory experiments had shown that MAP was more effective than DAP fertiliser in terms of zinc availability, no differences were observed in the field experiment.

• Wet conditions from June to September resulted in high levels of petal infestation.
• High-disease-risk districts were identified as having high intensity canola production, reliable spring rainfall (particularly during flowering) and long flowering periods.
• Petal infestation levels were similar to that of 2015, but above average rainfall in August and September in southern NSW and northern Victoria favoured sclerotinia stem rot development.

• Canola varieties differ in their flowering times depending on when they are sown. Sowing a variety too early can lead to flowering when the risks of frost and disease are high; sowing a variety too late can lead to heat or moisture stress.
• Matching a variety’s phenology to its sowing time is critical for flowering to start during the optimum flowering period for that region, which is when environmental and disease risks are balanced for the highest yield potential. More information on sowing windows to suit variety phenology can be found in the DPI’s Winter crop variety sowing guide 2020.
• Previous research has shown that the time from sowing to the start of flowering could be different in any one year in response to temperature and solar radiation.
• This phenology experiment will be repeated in 2020 with a slightly different variety set, including a number of unreleased lines that are also in the National Variety Trials (NVT).

Phenoxy herbicide rates and application times are generally based on crop leaf number. This however, does not take into account the fact that varieties with different maturity lengths will differ in leaf number ie. shorter season wheats generally produce less leaves than long season wheats.

SANTFA’s 2010 field trial in calcareous cropping country near Streaky Bay demonstrated the strongest evidence  yet for biochar’s capacity to influence fertiliser efficacy and crop yield in SA’s cropping system.

The biochar data collected from the 2010 trials is analogous in many ways to what we would expect from spreading clay on non-wetting sands: little response at very low rates, an excellent response at the appropriate rate and a potential problem if the soil is over-clayed or the wrong clay (such as a limey clay) is applied. 

Low rates of bandxed biochar have some influence on DAP efficacy however biochar spread, or banded without DAP reduced yield.

Biochar is not a fertilser in it's own right.
At low rates, the banding of biochar may improve DAP efficacy in wheat.

• Banding low rates of biochar can reduce cropping input costs and improve profi tability.  
• Biochar can improve the effi cacy of fertiliser but should not be regarded as a fertiliser in its own right.
• More is not better. A rate of around 35kg/ha of biochar plus a modest rate of DAP produced the best economic outcome for all rates of DAP used in the trial (0, 50 and 100kg/ha). 

• Different crop types displayed varying phosphorus (P) use efficiencies (soil and fertiliser demand) under P deficient conditions.
• Crop types that have previously shown to be P efficient did not display the same traits in neutral to slightly alkaline soils.
• Soil testing can have significant economic benefits if the right test is used.

• Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plant development which cannot be effectively applied post sowing. Because of this it is imperative that decisions on its application are made now.
• P should be applied at rates necessary achieve the yields being targeted in a given paddock for a given year.
• Information to assist you in determining how much P is in your soil includes fertiliser history, removal through production previous yields, soil tests and paddock history.

For results please see the attached trial report.

For results please see the attached trial report.

• Early observations of crop vigour (11th July) found that the 0P plots at all rates of nitrogen were significantly less vigorous than the plots that had phosphorus applied, with the plants in the highest rates of P applied showing the highest vigour.
• This response to applied P was still evident at the later observations of crop vigour on 8th August. This demonstrates the need to apply fresh phosphorus to crops at seeding to ensure good plant shoot and root growth during the early stages of crop growth.
• For further results please see the attaached trial report.

• Hi-analysis granular fertiliser required the smallest yield to breakeven in 2009 .
• Hi-analysis granular P and liquid P had a similar response curve and both types of products performed well.
• Rock Phosphate product had a very flat response which slightly improved when 30% DAP was added.

The Rand site was sown on the 12th May 2010 with 8 treatments of various amounts of seed and P fertilizer. The variety was Lincoln and the sowing fertilizer was MAP. The site had grown canola in 2009 and had been summer sprayed for weeds. It was direct drilled into the canola stubble. The site had an N rich strip of 50hg/.ha of N applied about 5 weeks prior to the assessment in July 2010.

• In this district and in reference to the soils that are low in exchangeable aluminium – that is to say the soils where barley, canola and lucerne can realise their water limited yield potentials without the need for the application of lime, that negligible quantities of phosphorus are lost to the soil pool. The
• It is stressed that after 2007 you should apply at least the usual recommended phosphate rate to your 2008 wheat crops to achieve their water-limited yield potential

• In 2003, a three week delay in sowing after mid/late May resulted in a 0.3t/ha (Murtoa) and 0.5t/ha (Birchip) yield penalty.
• Further delay in sowing (to July) caused similar decreases in yield.

 

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits.

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits. The grower mentioned the importance of correctly identifying the GPS coordinate locations to get reliable soil type information. Yield maps provided showing areas of the paddock with high and low potential assisted this process. Soil analysis verified the trends produced by the yield map.

The apparent better performance of MAP T3 is noted but when looking at the other MAP based products they don't follow the same trend. There was no significant response to applied phosphorus, sulphur or zinc. The CV of the trial is quite high, meaning that a 0.48 Tonnes/ha yield response was needed for anything to be significant. There was no negative effect of applying starter nitrogen in this trial, however there was no positive effect. At current pricing the MAP based products are a very cost effective source of phosphorus and sulphur regardless of the starter nitrogen. Tissue tests indicated all nutrients were adequate see Table 99.
 

• Soil test results indicated that the P levels on the trial site were not particularly low.
• Despite the dry conditions in September, grain yields ranged from 1.59 to 2.16 t/ha.
• Results demonstrate that application of P up to 40 kg P/ha can increase field pea yields. To maximise grain yield, P rates above 40 kg/ha may be needed.