• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this.
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this.
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Grazing crop stubbles makes more mineral N available to crops which increases grain N uptake and is perhaps an overlooked benefit of keeping livestock in stubble-retained farming systems.

Ultimately herbicide selection should be based on the suitability of that product to the sowing conditions, weed pressure and rotational fit while trying to completely control ARG in both single & consecutive years, managing for chemical groups.  Annual ryegrass populations can incre3ase rapidly if in any one year poor control occurs.  Therefore careful rotational planning to include crop types, vaqrieties and herbicide technologies is essential in an overarching control strategy.  From the results observed in this two year trial it is evident that effective weed control in year one results in a reduction in seed season are necessary to reduce weed seed bank numbers potentially making Roundup Ready canola systems more viable in a lower risk situation.  Herbicides with lo binding, moderate solubility and longer persistence such as Sakura tend to offer higher levels of weed control.  It is also clear that herbicide technology is not straight forward and attention to detail can mean the difference between a mediocre and first-rate result.  Chemical efficacy can be influenced by a number of factors, especially when using pre-emergent herbicides in a combined chemical IWM strategy.  Little things like stubble load, method of application, level of seedbed cultivation, incorporation timing and technique, rainfall after sowing and the suitability of that herbicide for the particular situation can add incremental gains for the overall result.  For RR canola and TT canola ensure to use every option available, don't settle for just 1 application of RR or rely solely on triazine chemicals for effective control of weeds.

Annual ryegrass control is a long term holistic proposition and no 1 or 2 control methods will solve your issues.  It must be tackled with multiple techniques.

The gravel content of a soil certainly affects soil physics and chemistry as well as crop growth processes.

In terms of nutrient management, currently increased gv% is assumed to reduce the amount of nutrients available to the crops, but not to concentrating the effect of fertiliser inputs. Adjustments for gv% are made in systems which use soil test calibration curves to produce recommendations when in fact those adjustments are probably not justified. All of the adjustments which are made, lead to higher fertiliser recommendations.  Even so, no attempt is made to better sample for or estimate gv%.

Whether it is worth investing further resources to confirm or refute the importance of the questions raised in this study is open to question. The complexity of the effects of gv% in real farming systems is such that there may well be no way to improve the predictive power of the models (both regression and mechanistic) to any great extent.

If resources are found to fund future work then it would be best to start with direct measures of whether gravel is inert or not – particularly with respect to water.  Experimental work used in parallel with ROOTMAP model runs to study the effect of gravel on nutrient uptake could also be worthwhile.

• Grazing perennial native shrubs are being trialled on Eyre Peninsula.
• Three sites established, Elbow Hill, Streaky Bay & Minnipa.
• Perennial native shrubs could potentially help fill the summer-autumn feed gap while providing other benefits such as drought management, nutritional value, reduced soil erosion, carbon sequestration and in some species fodder production in a saline environment.
• Increasing ground cover in low-medium rainfall farming systems.

Eradicating SLN using only herbicides appears to be very doubtful. It is therefore time to consider how to coexist
with the problem weed; at least for the next few years. It is necessary to identify options and implement
cost-effective strategies that prevent the spread of the weed and suppress the infestations. The options
should not be a drain on the farms cash reserves or a strain on one's mental health.

We are optimistic that the demonstration is making progress towards eradication; albeit slow. The drought has made progress difficult because I suspect we are not getting the same level of herbicide translocation into the rhizomes as we did in the early 1990s. We are prepared to push on with the demonstration for
another two years with the expectation of eradication.

Significant yield response to plant growth regulant application in barley, except where water logging occurred.

After six years of running the Systems Site comparing farming systems it has become clear that the critical issues are as follows.

Conserving soil water into dry seasons, which can be achieved using either mechanical in a conventional system or chemical means in a reduced till or no till system (assuming there is enough stubble to protect the soil surface from evaporation).

Since the introduction of Frame and Yitpi (CCN resistant wheats) CCN has not been a problem.

Take-all and Pratylenchus neglectus appear to more closely correlate to specific areas in a paddock rather than levels changing because of crop choice or the rotation (field peas did lower Pratylenchus levels). Certainly there did not appear to be any influence of farming system on these two soil borne diseases.

Weed levels have not changed markedly over the duration of the trial and there were no differences between systems after six years. Brome grass is now present at the site at very low levels whereas it was not recorded in 1999 and 2000.

Wind erosion susceptibility and risk is lowest in the No Till plots because of good stubble cover and aggregation of soil particles. The three other systems all had plots which were moderately susceptible to wind erosion, primarily as a result of low stubble cover.

Using current technology and sampling intensity it is not possible to pick up changes in soil available nitrogen levels between different farming systems.

Soil changes in soil biological characteristics are currently being assessed and will be reported by the BCG update in February 2006.

• Skip row seeding is a stragegy to target water conservation; however, if weeds establish in hte skip row they escape competition from the crop and can be difficult to control.
• The total growing season rainfall for the trial paddock was 330mm, meaning plant competition for water was not as intense as it would be in a drier year.

• The skip row treatments were visually much more susceptable to weed competition.
• Further analysis and trials are necessary to gain a better understanding of the implications of skip row seeding in lupins and the impace the environment ha son its effectiveness.

The trial as a result of cockatoo damage experienced patchy emergence and has contributed to a higher LSD from the trial. While there is a larger LSD some conclusion can be drawn from the trial. It must also be noted that the price of the SRN has been assumed to be 1.5x greater than the cost of urea at $608/t. This assumption is only for comparison reasons only and is only an estimate.

This trial has demonstrated that SRN in leaching sands can be used as a banded product to  improve N efficiency and improve yields. From graph 1 the N efficiency of the applied nitrogen N applications has been calculated. As expected the banded urea had the poorest N efficiency ranging from between 1.6-<14%. SRN and urea mixes banded had an N efficiency improvement over the banded urea, with top-dressed urea at Z25 ranging from between 42 and 50% nitrogen efficiency.

SRN and top-dressed nitrogen had the best N efficiency ranging between 47 and 50%. In the WMG area this year the dry June while not welcome did help to improve N efficiency, with N efficiency >50% rarely heard of on the gravel matrix sand and deep sands in medium/high rainfall years. So while the area experienced a relatively low N leaching year the SRN has still enabled a greater $ROI/Ha for each plot.

• The application of lime and gypsum to a sodic soil has improved soil structure (observations) and fertility (soil test results) in the top soil (0-10cm). However, despite the lime and gypsum being applied 5 years ago, soil tests indicate there has been no change in the sub soil (10-30cm).
• Gypsum produced a greater soil ameliorant effect in the early years, but after 5 years appears to have largely 'run out of puff. In contrast, lime produced smaller benefits in the early years, but it's effects have lasted longer and are still clearly visible after 6 years.

• The application of lime and gypsum to a sodic soil has produced improvements in soil structure observable to visitors of the trial site.
•  Improvement in soil structure have been associated with variable responses in grain yield and quality across years, apparently in response to varying available soil moisture over the last 5 crop years (2000 to 2004).
• Yield increases with soil amelioration are associated with years where crop growing conditions were conducive to high yield and/or reasonable levels of sub soil moisture were available to the crop (years 2001 and 2002).
• In contrast, barley yield declines of 40% - 80% and quality downgrades have occurred in the last two very dry years (2003 and 2004). This is thought to be due to the soil amelioration treatments promoting additional early season vegetative growth but being followed by severe spring conditions leading to the crop "haying off”.
• The trial has sown no economic benefit of soil amelioration in 5 years.

• Soil acidification is a natural process accelerated by high crop yields and fertilizer use. It is an unseen cost of doing business.
• To maintain a good soil pH profile, producers should aim for a pHCa above 5.0 in the 0-10cm of topsoil or 5.5 if subsoil acidity issues are present. The target in the 10-30cm zone is greater than
  pHCa 4.8.
• Correct pH is paramount when growing legumes, especially if the decision to grow them is to increase soil nitrogen levels.
• Liming needs to be thought of as a farm input, like checking and changing the oil in the tractor (maintaining capital), rather than buying urea (dollars returned per dollar invested).

• Soil acidification is a natural process accelerated by high crop yields, fertilizer use and potentially direct drilling and stubble retention. It is an unseen cost of doing business.
• To maintain a good soil pH profile producers should aim for a pH(CaCl) above 5.0 in the 0-10cm of topsoil or 5.5 if subsoil acidity issues are present. The target in the 10-30cm zone is greater than pH (CaCl) 4.8.
• Retesting during 2015 of historic soil pH datasets confirms soil profiles continue to acidify.
• Left unmanaged sub soil acidification is likely to occur in most Central West NSW soils.
• Liming needs to be thought of as a farm input, like checking and changing the oil in the tractor, (maintaining capital) rather than buying urea (dollars returned per dollar invested).
• Cost in managing soil pH are easier to quantify than returns.

• Soil acidification is a natural process accelerated by high crop yields, fertilizer use and potentially direct drilling and stubble retention. It is an unseen cost of doing business.
• To maintain a good soil pH profile producers should aim for a pH(CaCl) above 5.0 in the 0-10cm of topsoil or 5.5 if subsoil acidity issues are present. The target in the 10-30cm zone is greater than pH (CaCl) 4.8.
• Retesting during 2015 of historic soil pH datasets confirms soil profiles continue to acidify.
• Left unmanaged sub soil acidification is likely to occur in most Central West NSW soils.
• Liming needs to be thought of as a farm input, like checking and changing the oil in the tractor, (maintaining capital) rather than buying urea (dollars returned per dollar invested).
• Cost in managing soil pH are easier to quantify than returns.

• Over time applications of lime increase soil pH by an average of 0.45 unit.
• Many limed paddocks were still at critical pH levels, it’s important to retest paddocks about 2 to 3 years after liming and re-apply lime if required.
• Amelioration of soil acidity, through lime spreading, needs to be conducted to prevent soil acidification.

The results so far (after three dry seasons) indicate that:

- deep ripping has resulted in significantly lower yields, and

- gypsum has had no affect on yield.

• The purpose of 2010 was to establish this long-term trial and baseline soils analysis
• Due to limited funding no formal monitoring took place and all results and analysis was visual.
• The Spader caused the trial area to be soft and as such sowing depth was compromised. Some furrows were partially collapsed, burying the seed even deeper. This cause patchy germination on the spaded area.
• Perennials did not germinate due to lack of spring and summer rain- these may need to be re-seeded in 2011.
• Unfortunately some of the treatments were affected by aphids, eg Dalkeith and to a lesser extent Bartolo Bladder clover and Rose Clover.

 

• Good soil moisture conditions at sowing reduced the impact of repellence on establishment; all treatments established a healthy number of plants.
• Claying improved crop establishment, growth and grain yield in 2011; this appears to be driven by better seedbed moisture retention and reduced nutrient leaching, espeically nitrogen.
• Good soil moisture conditions during grain fill minimised any water shortage (haying off) effects from claying.
• Cultivation treatment had no impact on grain yield, possibly because seasonal conditions were not conductive to showing differences or because the cultivation impacts are reducing over time, ongoing assessment should clarify this.
• Drier conditions at seeding and harder finishes would be expected to result in greater impact from the repellence management treatments.

• Crop production on these deep infertile sands is often well below the water-limited potential, partly because they have little capacity to hold mobile nutrients such as nitrogen but also because they are often compacted.
• However, a major limitation on these soil types is the very infertile subsoils, which prevent efficient extraction of water by crop roots.
• Adding fertilisers into this area can produce spectacular benefits to crop performance but techniques to produce these benefits need to be further refined to make them more cost-effective.
• The addition of products, which will hold nutrients near the seed, showed some promise in this trial but further testing should be conducted to assess the reliability of this approach.
• Deep ripping is usually beneficial on these deep sands.

• Soil inversion with a mouldboard plough results in a layer of repellent topsoil being buried at depth with a layer of wettable subsoil brought to the surface. Water can readily enter subsoil brought to the surface but it can take some time for the buried water repellent topsoil to wet up.
• Soil moisture measurements made just after seeding and prior to emergence indicated that at both sites the top 10cm of soil in both the furrow and the ridge was wetter in the mouldboard plough treatment compared with the control treatment.
• For further results please see the attached trial report.

• Five representative commercial wheat farm sites with a history of no copper application were selected on each of five main soil types in the Hamilton district.
• Four treatments (replicated 4 times) were established; Nil and 75 q of foliar copper applied at Z (Zadox’s growth stage) 23 , 41 and 23 + 41.
• Composite Al and A2 horizon soil samples from each site were analysed for EDTA (0.75%,1:5 soil; extract, l hour) extractable copper. Youngest fully emerged leaf and Whole plant samples were taken at growth stages Z21, 23 and 41 and analysed for total copper.
• Yield response (pooled data) was significantly related to copper level in the Al and A2 horizon, however variance accounted for improved to 20% when mean A horizon copper was used.
• Three plant Cu measurements were significantly related to Yield Response.
• Variance accounted for improved for earlier YL samples and later WP samples.
• Low Variance accounted for % were possibly due to climatic and soil variation across sites.
• Soil variation influences extraction efficiency and climatic variation influences growth pattern and nutrient redistribution Z21 plant Cu levels were significantly related to Z23 and 41 levels. Z21 sampling could thus give farmers a timely indication of Cu levels during later, critical growth phases.
• This experiment has shown that while soil and plant copper levels are related to yield response, they alone give a limited indication of the presence of copper deficiency in wheat.
• Yield response is most closely related to whole Plant Z41 and mean copper level in the A horizon.
• Early sampling may give advanced warning of copper deficiency.

• There is still a lack of scientific research to validate results and their complete interpretation, nor does there appear to be any standardisation of tests.
• Testing may provide a ‘guide’ and some value as a comparison tool between paddocks.
• Significant differences in results between labs, possibly due to different analysis methods. This highlights the
• need to be cautious when comparing results from different labs.
• For a copy of the full report contact the PIRSA Office, Kingscote.

• Stubble retention and reduced stocking pressures increase soil microbial activity.
• Activity of soil microbes give soils natural suppression of root diseases.
• Disease suppression has been shown to be substantially increased through retention of stubbles over a 5-10 year period.
• Microbial activity has a strong influence on the availability of soil nutrients to crops, Nitrogen is the nutrient most influenced by microbial activity.
• There are many microbes that can break down chemicals and this break down is often enhanced with increased stubble retention.

The lupin phase is primarily a 'set up' rotation which continues evaluation of the soil resource. No yield results are obtained in the lupin rotation.

No significant differences have been found between treatments in relation to the soil resource.

• This trial was implemented in an effort to increase grain yield through improved soil water storage and biological functioning. Organic matter, whether as retained stubble or additional inputs, is a significatn source of crop nutrition, and improved moisture conditions allow for optimal breakdown by soil microbes.
• Further investigation and trial work into the effect of chaff and straw from different crop species would have on yield and soil health properties would be beneficial to evaluate.

It was expected that the imposed treatments to increase soil organic matter would take several years to become noticeable, especially in medium rainfall areas.  Even after three reasonable seasons at Temora with good crop production there were no differences in Soil C stock between the stubble and nutrient supply treatments.  The same result was found at the other seven trial sites located in SE Australia.  Thjis work shows that increasing soil C stocks is a long-term process, and three years was not long enough to measure significant changes with the practices selected.  The Temora Soil C trial will be remeasured again on the completion of the 2016 season after five years of trial work.

Given that carbon sequestration is not an overnight process it is not surprising that there have been few significant results or trends to report on in either an intensive plot or large paddock scale.  Nutrient addition to balance the ration of C;N;P;S has surprisingly had little impact on yield and this is possibly a desirable outcome as no difference between +/- nutrient treatments would indicate that the nutrients are available for sutbble breakdown, rather than crop vegetative mass. Cost associated on a whole farm scale of purchasing nutrients in addition to normal fertiliser requirements could prove prohibitive.

• Relatively low levels of stubble cover during January – March provide effective protection against soil erosion.
• Protection against soil erosion is not related to the tillage system employed in crop establishment or management provided stubble is retained over the summer period.
• Ripping techniques in which significant levels of clod are brought to the soil surface are effective in preventing significant soil losses on paddocks without vegetative cover.

• Sapding or delving in lime lifted the soil pH to a depth of 20cm within one year.
• All other results are inconclusive at this stage; this may be due to seasonal conditions and/or crop variety.

Soil moisture retention granules did not influence wheat grain yield at Hart in 2009.

• N2O emissions at the Gunnedah site were approximately 10 times higher than at the Emerald site, due to the wet soil conditions and high pre-season rainfall at Gunnedah which led to denitrification of N from pre-season anhydrous ammonia application.
• Two nitrification inhibitors, DMPS (“Big N-sure”, Incitec Pivot Fertilisers) and nitrapyrin (“N-serve”, Dow AgroSciences) directly injected into anhydrous ammonia during pre-plant N application delayed the conversion of applied ammonium in the soil to nitrate for a period of 2–3 months.
• At the Gunnedah site, cumulative N2O emitted was reduced by 86% (DMPS) and 65% (nitrapyrin), compared to untreated ammonia.

Conclusions: 

In a season such as that experienced at the Emerald 2016–17 site, there were only minor environmental benefits from using a nitrification inhibitor in conjunction with anhydrous ammonia. However, these experimental conditions may not be typical as pre-plant fertiliser is usually applied earlier in the year at Emerald than it was at this site. A longer period of time between pre-plant application and plant establishment would provide greater opportunity for N2 O losses to occur, although the potential for heavy winter rainfall tends to be low in the Emerald region. While both inhibitor products clearly reduced emissions during the first two measurement periods, it was apparent that the effectiveness of these products had dissipated by the time of the second irrigation. The additional inhibitor application with the side-dressed urea boosted the N2 O reduction period for the DMPP treatment, while the application of untreated urea to the other treatments allowed further losses matching those of the untreated control after the initial pre-plant N application. The 2016–17 Gunnedah experiment provided the perfect testing conditions for nitrification inhibitors as the soil was very wet at application, and received frequent heavy rainfall during the next 3 months. These inhibitors were designed to retain mineral N from applied N fertiliser in the soil during periods of excessive rainfall that may otherwise lead to large losses of nitrate N through denitrification and leaching. Leaching occurs through downward movement of nitrate with water in the soil, but we found no evidence of this having occurred in the soil core samples we took just prior to sowing. For heavy clay soils such as this one at Gunnedah, denitrification of soil nitrate during periods of anaerobic soil conditions is the most likely major N loss pathway. The results of the gas sampling campaigns highlighted the almost complete mitigation of N2 O emissions during this period by adding nitrification inhibitors. The Big N-sure® inhibitor appeared to remain active for longer in the soil than the N-serve®.

• Visually the impacts of Lime may not be seen, but the benefits of Lime are evident when comparing
  Limed areas plant biomass and yield with that of unLimed areas.
• Application of Lime is shown to halt subsoil acidification which is costly to address and will impact upon future sustainability and productivity of an agricultural enterprise.
• Appropriate rates of Lime are shown to increases yield

When comparing the soil pH map against the EM38 map we found that there were some similar trends, especially in the alkaline zone in the south east of the paddock which lines up partially to the high EM38 readings (clay soil). However, the difference between the two maps is significant in terms of creating lime The greatest lime savings through the soil pH mapping approach have occurred on paddocks which are considered to be in a maintenance phase. That is, paddocks which have had a reasonable lime history and only require strategic lime applications. Savings on these paddocks tends to range between 35 – 65%. Other farmers who have previously implemented variable rate lime are also using the grid soil pH mapping service to measure how effective the variable rate application was. The subsequent map is then used to apply a maintenance rate of lime.

• Monitor pH to depth by using a shoven and cheap pH test kit.
• Don't assume just because you once limed that the problem is solved - monitor, monitor, monitor.
• Consider options to get lime to depth by increasing the rate and/or frequency of limin or using strategic tilage.

• Precision mapping of soil provides a more accurte understanding of pH and nutrient status than traditional mapping.
• Soils are highly variable, so even replicate samples of the same transect will vary and there is no 'perfect result' so just be aware of htis in the interpretation of the maps.
• If your paddock varies in soil type ensure extra samples are analysed for PBI.

Soil testing prior to sowing revealed that chemical properties were highly variable between zones (see Table 1 in attached Trial report). For example, over a distance of 100 m between the midslope and the swale, soil organic carbon levels nearly doubled from 0.22 to 0.40. Topsoil phosphorus levels also increased from just above the marginal level of 20 (Colwell) on the midslope to nearly 30 (Colwell) on the swale. 

Averaged across all sampling locations, protein levels increased by 0.6% in the 50kg/ha of urea treatment and by 1% in the 100kg/ha of urea treatment relative to the nil in-crop fertiliser strip. This increase in protein was enough to improve grain quality from Australian Standard White (ASW) to Australian Premium White (APW) at four of the six sampling locations. On the day of harvest at the nearest grain receiver site (Yelta), the ASW silo cash price was $127/t and APW was $158/t. At a urea cost of $620/t, the application of 50 kg/ha of urea costs $31/ha (fertiliser cost only). Therefore, at the four sites where grain quality was improved, a small profit was made (15 – 55 $/ha) with the application of 50 kg/ha of fertiliser. However, at one third of the protein sampling sites, a loss of $31/ha was incurred as there was no difference in grain quality between the treatments.

• Soil water can be predicted from EM38 measurements made on the soil surface in southern dryland cropping soils.

• It is possible to estimate the amount of water and its distribution in the top 50 cm of soil.

• Rapid surveys of large areas and/or high numbers of experiment plots will be possible.
 

• The trial provides strong support for the use of soil-specific N management to improve profitability and risk management on Mallee dune-swale paddocks.
• Sandy soil types have consistently shown yield responses to increased inputs of N, while the heavy swale soils have not shown a yield benefit of increased N inputs.
• Nil fertiliser (N and P) has been the most profitable fertiliser treatment on the heaviest swale soil and the least profitable elsewhere.
• Upfront N at a higher rate still appears to generate the most consistent yield increase and profit outcome on the sandy soil types.

• The trial provides strong support for the use of soil-specific N management to improve profitability and risk management on Mallee dune-swale paddocks.
• Sandy soil types have consistently showing yield responses to increased inputs of N, while the heavy swale soils have not shown a yield benefit of increased N inputs.
• Nil fertiliser (N and P) has been the most profitable fertiliser treatment on the heaviest swale soil and the least profitable elsewhere.
• There was still a measurable response in 2013 to a pasture break in 2009.

• Chlorsulfuron (eg Glean) was found to reduce wheat yields at some sites.
• No zinc (Zn) responses were recorded at any of the sites.
• Phosphorus (P) response was closely correlated with soil P levels.
• Increasing Zn and P nutrition did not reduce the Chlorsulfuron effect.

• Neither varying row configuration or hybrid affected yield at this site, given average site yields of 2.14 t/ha.
• Slightly higher yields were obtained from the 30,000 plants/ha and 50,000 plants/ha target plant populations.
• Thousand grain weight increased as row spacing widened, and decreased as plant population increased.
• Screenings were low across all treatments.
   

• Neither varying row configuration or hybrid affected yield at this site, given average site yields of 2.14 t/ha.
• Slightly higher yields were obtained from the 30,000 plants/ha and 50,000 plants/ha target plant populations.
• Thousand grain weight increased as row spacing widened, and decreased as plant population increased.
• Screenings were low across all treatments.
   

• In a low-yielding season varying row configuration had no effect on sorghum yield.
• Yield declined as plant population and hybrid tillering ability increased and staygreen levels decreased.

• Row direction was the only factor that affected final grain yield at this site in this season.
• Sorghum sown in a north–south direction yielded 7% more than sowing east–west.
   

• Varying row direction (north–south vs east– west) had no effect in this trial in this season.
• Row configuration did influence final grain yield with the solid plant out yielding the superwide and single skip treatments by 0.93–1.29 t/ha respectively.

Key message:

• Varying row direction from north–south or east–west did not affect grain yield or quality.
• Row configuration did not affect grain yield, however, there were some effects on grain quality. The solid row configuration produced higher grain protein and screenings levels, but lower test weight than the superwide and single skip treatments.
• There were differences between the hybrids for grain yield and quality. MR Apollo and MR 43 produced higher yields than 84G22. Differences in grain quality were also found, with MR Apollo producing a higher grain protein level and 1000-grain weight than the other two hybrids.

Conclusions:

The effect from row direction on plant structures was minor, with only an increase in plant establishment detected from the north–south direction compared with the east–west direction. This difference did not translate into higher tiller or head production per hectare. There were slightly more tillers per plant and heads per plant from the east–west direction, but again this did not correlate with higher yields. Row configuration did not affect plant establishment or tillering, however, there were more heads produced per hectare from the solid configuration compared with the single skip. This did not translate into a difference in grain yield; however, there were some impacts on grain quality. The solid row configuration produced higher grain protein and screenings levels, but lower test weights than the superwide and single skip treatments. There were differences between the hybrids for grain yield, with MR Apollo and MR 43 producing higher yields than 84G22. There were also differences in grain quality, with MR Apollo producing a higher grain protein level and 1000-grain weight than the other two hybrids The results from this experiment suggest that there is no economic value in altering the sowing direction of rows to either north–south or east–west, or any yield benefit from altering row configuration between solid, single skip or superwide.

• The demonstration sites in 1999 received Decile 1 (lowest 10% of rainfall recordings).
• As a consequence waterloggin did not occur.
• Delayed time of sowing and inaccurate seed placement on the raised beds at a number of sites attributed to yield differenes between the treatments.

• Industrial hemp shows potential as a summer irrigated rotation crop
• Shallow sowing (10-20 mm depth) is key to successful emergence and establishment
• High plant density (>75 plants/m2) allows hemp plants to outcompete co-germinating weeds

• Water salinity above approximately 1500 ppm (2.7 dS/m) causes leaf burn and death of young plants

• Varieties still being evaluated for suitability to Riverland and Limestone Coast regions

Two NVT barley trials were sown in the South Eeast (SE) region of South Australia (SA) in 2018. The Keith trial was
sown on the 16th May and the Bordertown trial site was sown on the 6th June. Long term yield performance (2014
– 2018) from the trial sites are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Both sites experienced frost conditions and extreme heat
conditions throughout the flowering period. Interpret results with caution.

Full NVT data including individual site yields and grain quality can be accessed online at www.nvtonline.com.au.
All NVT data shown is sourced from this site and varietal information is sourced from the 2019 SARDI sowing guide

(https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/all-publications/publications/2019/south-australian-crop-sowing-
guide).

 

• As demonstrated by the results table (see attached trial report), yields of 5-6 t/ha where achieved in a year which included frost at the Streatham site. 
• A number of breeding lines and control varieties are included to enable comparison between yield and growing characteristics.

• Westminster was the barley variety that gave the top gross margin with an application rate of 120 kg N/ha at GS31, closely followed by GrangeR (90 kg N/ha at GS31).
• Oxford (45, 90 or 120 kg N/ha at GS31) yielded equal top with Westminster but the gross margin was hurt by the price difference between malt and feed barley varieties at the time of writing this report.
• Application of N at GS31 gave significantly higher yields compared to application at GS22, across all varieties and N application rates. 
• The most cost effective rate to consistently receive the highest yields was 90 kg N/ha.
• Oxford was consistently the highest performer and the best choice for those who rarely make malt grade on their soils.
   

• Sowing barley varieties at the optimal time for each cultivar can significantly increase performance.
• Sowing barley on 21st May (TOS 1) increased yield when compared to later sowing on 26th June (TOS 2).
• Some malting varieties sown at TOS 1 had low test weights which failed the malting standard .
• Oxford had the highest yield of all varieties, at 9.0 t/ha, when sown at TOS 1.
   

• The frequency of winter cereals in the rotation have a large impact on crown rot inoculum build up.
• Monitoring paddocks over time is a powerful way to help crown rot management and the PreDictaB™ soil tests are an effective method for achieving this.
• The dominant wheat–canola rotation in southern NSW is increasing the region’s level of risk to losses caused by crown rot.
• Not all paddocks behave the same way and factors other than crop type are affecting crown rot behaviour.

• 55% of paddocks tested in 2014 and 80% of paddocks in 2015 had crown rot.
• 90% of paddocks tested in 2014 and 2015 had take all.
• The previous crop grown in the paddock can greatly influence the pre-sowing levels of crown rot and take all in the following year, particularly in a cereal on cereal rotation.
• Most paddocks with pre-sowing levels of crown rot and take all had increased inoculum levels throughout the growing season.
• Crop rotation and duration, and stubble management can reduce crown rot and take all infection risk.

• Maximise wheat yields by ensuring as much crop flowers during the optimal period as possible – sow on time or early!
• Early sown, slow maturing varieties (winter and spring) yield as well as or better than faster maturing varieties sown later.
• Including an early sown variety in a cropping program can greatly increase whole-farm yield.
• Extra management needs to be considered for disease and nutrition, particularly Septoria tritici.
   

Results from the Northern Agricultural Region have shown that crops can be sown over subtropical perennial grasses without jeopardizing persistence of the perennial base. However, perennial grasses vary in their tolerance to in-crop herbicides and crop yield is dependent on effective weed control, adequate fertility and moisture, and winter dormancy (or suppression) of the perennial pasture.

Pasture cropping systems can also lift overall biomass production, improve the feed value of stubbles, provide out of season fodder, and reduce the likelihood of wind erosion and groundwater recharge on deep sandy soils.

The application of additional nitrogen can lead to greater biomass in both the annual crop and perennial pasture. However, this is dependent on seasonal conditions and the economics of applying additional nitrogen needs to be considered carefully on low moisture holding, infertile, sandy soils in the Northern Agricultural Region.

• In a season characterised by low frost severity, Nuseed Diamond was the highest yielding variety for all three sowing dates.
• In a low frost severity season, earlier sowing on 27 March and 11 April achieved a higher grain yield compared with the later sowing on 30 April.
• Triazine tolerant varieties were generally lower yielding compared with other varieties with a similar phenology.
• Winter type canola yield and oil performance were comparable with spring types when sown before mid April and could be worth considering as a dual-purpose crop due to the additional value generated from grazing.

• Seasonal conditions, characterised by low frost incidence combined with heat stress and terminal drought conditions, significantly affected grain yield and quality responses.
• The highest yields were associated with earlier flowering; there was a significant yield penalty associated with later flowering of slower developing genotypes or when sowing was delayed.

• Seasonal conditions significantly affected phenology and yield responses to sowing date among barley varieties in 2019.
• Phenology significantly influenced yield and quality responses, whereby later flowering incurred severe yield and quality penalties, affecting overall profitability.

• Faba bean yields at Bool Lagoon were again high in 2011 despite below average growing
  season rainfall, being buoyed by high summer rainfall and minimal disease.
• Varieties performed similarly at Bool Lagoon in 2011, and plant density generally had a  greater influence on yield than variety choice.
• There was a general yield response to increasing sowing density from 16 to 32 plants/m2 in
  2011, particularly at the later sowing date, however previous research has shown a link to
  increased disease pressure which may negate any potential yield advantage from this higher seeding rate. The recommended seeding rate for beans (24 plants/m2) performed similarly to the high seeding density for all varieties

• Faba bean yields at Tarlee were again high in 2011 despite below average growing season rainfall, being buoyed by high summer rainfall and minimal disease.
• Disease levels were generally low in 2011, and there was very little disease pressure in this trial.
• Although rust outbreaks were observed across the state no rust was evident in this trial.
• The favourable season, together with minimal disease and minimal lower pod abortion, meant that yield was close to reaching maximum potential.

• Under quick dry spring finishing conditions, varieties may not always finish characteristic to their maturity rating. Differences between varieties in terms of early, mid and late maturity rating may not always be clearly defined. Instead, there is a trend of varieties to ‘hay off’ with selected mid-maturing varieties including PBA Jumbo 2 maturing similar to the early maturing varieties.

• Early sowing showed increased lodging across all varieties except for Genesis Kalkee, which remained consistent across the sowing dates, although only Genesis 079, Striker, Neelam and PBA Maiden were found to have levels which might be deemed to be commercially unacceptable.

• The recommended sowing density targeting 120 live plants/m2 maintained high yields for all varieties at both sowing timings across the two sites.
• Lower sowing densities of 100 plants/m2 may be considered for Boomer at Pinery where yields were found to decline as plant density increased.

Yields were increased by 0.4t/ha (15%) in barley and 0.2t/ha (10%) in wheat at Horsham in 2014 by sowing east/west. Sowing direction did not alter grain quality. 

Varietal characteristics (maturity, height and growth habit) were not found to influence the yield response.

Similar findings have been found in NSW, in the presence of weeds, and WA, with or without weeds.

• Light interception at midday was significantly higher under east-west sowing compared with north-south.
• It is plausible that sowing direction may influence weed seed set.
• To establish a competitive crop against weeds and maximise yields, growers should aim for the narrowest row spacing to suit their system.

• Light interception at midday was significantly higher under east-west sowing compared with north-south.
• It is plausible that sowing direction may influence weed seed set.
• To establish a competitive crop against weeds and maximise yields, growers should aim for the
  narrowest row spacing to suit their system.

Early sowing is essential in order to maximise yield of wheat crops grown on long (18 month) fallow. Long fallowing and early sowing are complementary practices, as the fallow reduces weeds and diseases which can be difficult to control in early sown crops, and early sowing with slow developing cultivars allows the crop to better use soil water that is stored during the fallow. Stored soil water also helps to establish early sown crops when there is minimal autumn rainfall. This fact sheet outlines how farmers can maximise wheat yield on long fallow by sowing early with slow developing cultivars, and is based on two years of GRDC funded research conducted by AgGrow Agronomy, CWFS and CSIRO in western NSW.

Winter wheat can be sown as early as February, flower at the optimum time and yield as well as spring wheat sown in May. Winter wheat provides lots of feed for livestock if used as a dual purpose crop. The Mallee needs adapted winter wheat varieties bred for it!

The 1.6 t/ha pasture residue had no impact on sowing and plant establishment in drier seeding conditions in 2014. • In 2014 there were no differences in wheat establishment, yield or grain quality due to different pre-sowing treatments with pasture residues. • The wheat stubbles have been harvested at different heights and pasture establishment and will be monitored next season.

• Delaying post sowing applications of nitrogen (92 kg/ha N) to the flag leaf stage for both Kellalac and MacKellar at the Gnarwarre site, resulted in the best grain yield and grain quality.
• Application of nitrogen (35 kg/ha N) to barley at the early jointing stage (GS32), gave the best grain yield and quality at Gnarwarre.
• Late nitrogen applications appeared to result in more flower sites (florets) filling with grain for both wheat and barley. 
• For further conclusions please see the attached trial report.

In this trial both summer sowing and conventional seeding after the break of the season resulted in the successful establishment of serradella into perennial grass pastures. All treatments resulted in serradella seed yields greater than 600 kg/ha, which has set them up for good legume regeneration in subsequent years. The yellow serradella experimental line (87GEH72.1a) shows considerable promise as a companion legume for perennial grasses in this environment. It flowers earlier than Margurita French serradella and has a hard seed breakdown pattern more suitable for summer sowing than current yellow serradella varieties (Yelbini*, Charano* and Santorini*).  Both summer sowing and conventional sowing of annual legumes into perennial grasses after the break require good weed control. Herbicide options and the impact of perennial grass suppression require further investigation. Weed seed set control in the year prior to establishment is recommended.

• There were no measurable differences in 2014 wheat yield in response to two different sowing dates and sowing on-row vs. inter-row.
• On the sandy soil type, there was more plant available water (PAW) in the top 10cm when sowing on-row.
• Rhizoctonia inoculum was higher with on-row compared to inter-row sowing but this did not carry through to an effect on rhizoctonia infection in the crop. 
• In a season where the profile PAW was similar for the two sowing dates (April 30 and May 14) crop establishment was better with the earlier time of sowing but ryegrass pressure on the swale was also higher with the earlier time of sowing.

• In a non-wetting sand, sowing on-row allowed seedlings to germinate in a wetter soil, with increased competitiveness against weed and disease pressures resulting in significant advantages in crop establishment and biomass production.
• Sowing on-row in sands or loam that did not express non-wetting did not capture the same level of benefits.
• Sowing crops on or very near last year’s crop row greatly suppressed grass weed populations and reduced brome grass seed set by over 70% compared to inter-row seeding.
• Early sowing in the last week of April instead of the third week of May helped to overcome the dry spring conditions and resulted in yield benefits of 28% at Loxton and up to 13% at Karoonda.
• When sowing crops on last year’s row, the potential for higher stubble borne pathogen (Take-All and Fusarium) inoculum and a greater likelihood of N tie-up after opening rains needs to be considered. However, impacts on rhizoctonia disease depend upon inherent biological fertility of soil.

• In a non-wetting sand, sowing on-row allowed seedlings to germinate in a wetter soil, with increased competitiveness against weed and disease pressures resulting in significant advantages in crop establishment and biomass production.
• Sowing on-row in sands or loam that did not express non-wetting did not capture the same level of benefits.
• Sowing crops on or very near last year’s crop row greatly suppressed grass weed populations and reduced brome grass seed set by over 70% compared to inter-row seeding.
• Early sowing in the last week of April instead of the third week of May helped to overcome the dry spring conditions and resulted in yield benefits of 28% at Loxton and up to 13% at Karoonda.
• When sowing crops on last year’s row, the potential for higher stubble borne pathogen (Take-All and Fusarium) inoculum and a greater likelihood of N tie-up after opening rains needs to be considered. However, impacts on rhizoctonia disease depend upon inherent biological fertility of soil.

• In a non-wetting sand, sowing on-row allowed seedlings to germinate in a wetter soil, with increased competitiveness against weed and disease pressures resulting in significant advantages in crop establishment and biomass production.
• Sowing on-row in sands or loam that did not express non-wetting did not capture the same level of benefits.
• Sowing crops on or very near last year’s crop row greatly suppressed grass weed populations and reduced brome grass seed set by over 70% compared to inter-row seeding.
• Early sowing in the last week of April instead of the third week of May helped to overcome the dry spring conditions and resulted in yield benefits of 28% at Loxton and up to 13% at Karoonda.
• When sowing crops on last year’s row, the potential for higher stubble borne pathogen (Take-All and Fusarium) inoculum and a greater likelihood of N tie-up after opening rains needs to be considered. However, impacts on rhizoctonia disease depend upon inherent biological fertility of soil.

• Early sowing has maximised yields of field peas over the last three years at field sites in SA
  representing low, medium and high rainfall pea growing areas.
• Early sowing has been paramount for economical field pea production in low and medium rainfall areas over this period and continues to be the best management strategy providing consideration for black spot, weeds and frost risk occurs.

• Safe application of PSPE herbicides in lentils (metribuzin in this situation) is very reliant on seasonal conditions around the time of sowing. Whilst yield potential is maximised by earlier
  sowing there is increased risk of crop injury from herbicides.
• Winter and spring seasonal conditions were favourable for lentil production in 2010, and lentil
  yield averaged 3.9t/ha across all varieties.
• There was no sowing date response for grain yield at this site in 2010. There was only low to
  moderate levels of disease and so earlier sown lentils were not penalised by disease, and later
  sown lentils were able to capitalise on the late rain.
• Grain weight was equal or higher at the later sowing date for all varieties except Boomer.

• The 2011 season was well suited field pea at Wagga, resulting in high yields and little
  disease at either sowing.
• Field pea is less sensitive to delays in sowing compared to chickpea, faba bean & lupin.
• Yield declined by only around 11% when sowing was delayed from late May to early July.
• PBA Oura, PBA Percy and OZP819 were consistently in the top ranking group for both
  yield and seed size.

• This was a very dry but favourable field pea season at “Hillview”, resulting in erect growth, very little disease, blemish-free golden brown foliage, high DMs and grain yield.
• Varieties were only different at the earliest sowing date, where Pearl was the top yielder
• Yield dropped by around 20% as sowing was delayed from 20 May to 22 June
• Seed size increased by around 10% as sowing was delayed from 20 May to 22 June
• Seed size was greatest in Percy & Oura

• PBA Slasher is consistent the highest & most stable yielding variety across different sowing
  dates on acidic red brown soils in southern NSW.
• Target early May sowing in southern NSW to maximise grain yield.
• Low plant populations (<30plant/m2) decrease grain yields. Excessively high populations,
  particularly in favourable seasons, increase lodging and disease risks.

• Large yield reductions occurred from delaying sowing from 7 May to 10 June (34 days).
• There was no significant yield difference between varieties.
• There was little disease pressure.
•  The merit of protecting faba seedlings with in furrow fungicide appli

• Early sowing maximised yield potential resulting in a gain of 20%-120% dependant on the genotype grown. Wider row spacing (>=30cm) resulted higher grain yields for all genotypes.

• Similar to lentils it is important to interpret the grain yield results with caution as it was
  demonstrated that yield loss due to extreme rainfall events was between 0% and 55%.

• It is important to interpret the grain yield results with caution as it was demonstrated that yield loss due to extreme rainfall events was between 27% and 65%.

• No major agronomic interactions were observed in this trial.

• Potential grain yields were likely to be in excess of 3.5t/ha, however due to extreme rainfall events throughout harvest grain yield losses where likely to be greater than 50%.
• The new lentil genotypes, in particular CIPAL0801 continue to show potential in a season
  considerably different from that which we have had for the last decade, which is promising from
  a yield stability perspective.

• This was a very favourable field pea season at “Hillview”, resulting in high DM and grain
  production.
• There were only small differences between varieties
• Yield and seed size dropped by around 10% as sowing was delayed from 20 May to 22 June

• Grain yields - The effects of variety, time of sowing, and plant population as single factors were found to be significant (P<0.005).
• There also was a significant interaction of variety x time of sowing, and sowing time x plant population detected.
• All other interactions were found not significant.

• Yield of all varieties peaked when sown between mid May and late June during the highly
  favourable season of 2010.
• Performance at the later sowings was unusually good, again due to the favourable finish.
• Early sowings suffered from excessive dry matter production, disease and the classic “selfdestruct syndrome” of peas that are too well grown.
• Yarrum was the best variety, followed by OZP0805.
• Seed size varied mainly with variety and was generally not affected by sowing date or seeding rate.

• Early sowing, concurrent with previous research, was highest yielding in 2011. There appear to be several promising new varieties available for southern Victoria, offering a range of grain types and forage options, associated with excellent yield potential. Crop topping results highlights the importance for growers and advisors to be aware of both weed and crop growth stages, otherwise significant grain yield loss could occur.

• Early sowing, concurrent with previous research, was significantly higher yielding in 2011.
• Varietal differences in this trial were minimal. Yield loss from disease, primarily black spot, was significant and economically viable control measures are important to develop.

• Lentils grew well on acidic red brown soils of southern NSW
• PBA Ace (CIPAL0803) and CIPAL0901 were the highest yielding varieties.
• Sowing from 10 May to 7 June had no significant affect on yield in 2011 growing season.
• These yields (> 2 t/ha) support a viable and profitable lentil industry in southern NSW
• Lentils are more sensitive to commonly used herbicides and considerable care must be taken.

• The results again highlighted that earlier sowing in field peas is generally beneficial in the Mallee.
• The new varieties, OZP0805, OZP0819, OZP0902 had the highest average grain yields in this trial.
• Results for the forage type indicate that it has significant potential as a dual purpose crop that can produce high biomass and good yields given appropriate seasonal conditions.