• Break crops faced a range of tough environmental conditions in the Mallee in 2015 including multiple frost and heat shock events.
• Timely rainfall in April and hence early sowing resulted in excellent biomass production with most crop options producing on average more than 2 t DM/ha and several break crop options producing greater than 2.5 t DM/ha.
• The highest grain yields tended to be crops with the quickest maturity such as lentils (0.73 t/ha), vetch (0.64 t/ha) and field peas (0.63 t/ha).
• High value crops such as lentils and vetch were highly profitable due to both excellent prices and reasonable grain yields.

• Varieties with the longest coleoptiles on average were Cutlass and Yitpi with 81 mm and 80 mm, respectively.
• Varieties with the shortest coleoptiles on average were Cobra and Wedgetail with 61 mm and 62 mm, respectively.
• Increasing soil temperature had a negative impact on coleoptile length with an average length of 67 mm recorded at 21°C, compared to 72 mm at 16°C.

There were no significant differences in yield between the forms of nitrogen product used in the trial, however there was a trend towards a higher yield where nitrogen was used. There was a significant difference in grain protein between the different treatments.

• Double knock applications of group H containing herbicides followed by paraquat seven days later appear to be very effective in controlling early flowering common sowthistle.
• Paraquat and Velocity were also very effective as standalone treatments in controlling early flowering common sowthistle.

• Double knock applications of some group H containing herbicides followed by paraquat seven days later appear to be a viable alternative to double knocking with Tordon 75D followed by paraquat for the control of early flowering flaxleaf fleabane.
• The most effective group H containing herbicides in combination with paraquat as double knock treatments were Precept, Balance and Velocity in order of effectiveness of their control of early flowering flaxleaf fleabane.

• All of the double knock treatments were very effective in controlling mid-late tillering awnless barnyard grass (BYG).
• Herbicides, apart from haloxyfop or glyphosate, have the potential to be used as the first spray in double knock treatments to control mid-late tillering awnless BYG.
   

• Balance and haloxyfop, followed by a double knock application of paraquat seven days later produced excellent control of mid-late tillering feathertop Rhodes (FTR) grass.
• Atrazine and paraquat, followed by paraquat, was slightly less effective than the Balance and haloxyfop double knock treatments.
   

Yield increases were the result of stripe rust control and the associated green leaf retention achieved with fungicide treatment.

Mouldboarding was the driver of crop yield in the trial with 2012 mouldboard treatments producing, on average, 85% higher yielding than no mouldboard. The 2011 mouldboard treatments were on average 44% higher yielding than no mouldboard.

• Incorporation of the lower subsoil application rates (50 and 100 t/ha) with offset discs resulted in increased canola plant establishment compared with the offset disc control plots without subsoil. However, at the higher subsoil application rates (360 and 450 t/ha) establishment was reduced due to inadequate clay incorporation (Fig. 1). Visually it was clear that the high rates of subsoil application resulted in surface sealing due to the poor incorporation by offset discs and this sealing was sufficient to reduce canola establishment. Incorporation of 50t subsoil/ha using a spader appears to have resulted in a reduction in canola establishment (Fig. 1) but there is no apparent reason why this should the case. Apart from this anomaly there is a trend towards improved plant establishment when higher rates of applied subsoil are spaded (Fig. 1).
• Comparing grain yields between subsoil incorporation using offset disc and rotary spader is not valid on this trial as the offset disc treatments are situated on pale deep sand which has less water holding capacity and lower potential than the sandy gravel on which the spaded treatments are situated. Canola grain yields in 2010 showed trends not dissimilar to those obtained for wheat on this trial in 2009. For the offset disc treatment there was no impact of the lower subsoil application rates on yield but a trend towards lower yields at the high application rates (Fig. 1) again most likely due to inadequate subsoil incorporation. For the rotary spader there was a trend towards higher yields as the subsoil application rate increased (Fig. 1), indicative of the capacity for the spader to achieve good subsoil incorporation. Overall canola yields were increased by more than 300 kg/ha when either 360 or 450 t/ha spread subsoil was incorporated using a spader (Fig. 1).
•  In both the 2009 and 2010 seasons the trends in crop establishment and grain yield have demonstrated the principle that when claying the subsoil application rate needs to be ‘matched’ to incorporation method that will be used to incorporate the clay. The results suggest that offset discs are only likely to be successful at incorporating lower subsoil application rates, probably of the order of 150 t/ha or less while rotary spaders are more appropriate for incorporating higher subsoil application rates of 250 t/ha or more.

• All of the herbicides examined appear to work well when tank mixed with paraquat to control early flowering common sowthistle.
• However, paraquat alone also provided excellent control of early flowering common sowthistle which questions the value of tank mixes with other herbicides.

• Tank mixing group H and H/I herbicides with paraquat (Group L) for the control of early flowering fleabane generally only provided moderate efficacy in this experiment.
• Tordon 75-D (Group I) mixed with paraquat and Velocity (Group H/C) mixed with paraquat, however, provided reasonable control at 89% and 81%, respectively.
   

• Tank mixing systemic herbicides and paraquat for mid-late tillering feathertop Rhodes (FTR) grass control resulted in one potentially useful treatment (paraquat + haloxyfop).
• Haloxyfop tank mixed with paraquat, provided excellent control at 35 days after treatment (DAT), which was the only treatment to reach 100% efficacy.
   

• In 2013 there was no evidence of changes in soil condition or organic carbon associated with the application of compost at up to 3 t/ha in 2012. Potential changes in soil organic carbon and other soil properties will be determined in February 2014.
• This trial will be continued in 2014 to assess changes in soil condition and future production.

• In 2013 there was no evidence of changes in soil condition or organic carbon associated with the application of compost at up to 3 t/ha in 2012.
• Potential changes in soil organic carbon and other soil properties will be determined in February 2014.

• Results from experimentation undertaken in southern NSW in 2011 and 2012, have demonstrated that crop sequences which include a brassica or legume break crops can be as profitable as, and in many instances more profitable than, continuous wheat.
• Canola was consistently the most profitable break crop option. However, the rotational benefits of canola were usually restricted to just the first subsequent wheat crop whereas additional wheat yields can occur for 2 years after a legume.
• Growing pulses for grain maximises profit, particularly in favourable seasons, but compromises grass weed control and (depending upon species) reduces N available to subsequent crops compared to brown manuring.
• Growing pulses for hay was found to be profitable across a range of season types, achieves excellent grass weed control and provides greater N inputs and higher carry-over of soil water than when the same crop is grown for grain.
• Growing pules for brown manure loses money in the year they are grown, but achieves excellent grass weed control, high N inputs, residual carry-over of soil water, provides more ground cover, and requires less labour than when grown for hay or grain.

The Gross Returns (Income less Input Costs) for this demonstration using 2016 wheat prices for APW1, APW2 and ASW1 indicate that farmer practice (control) had the highest return of $443.61/ha (Figure 7 and Table 3). The second highest return was the spaded treatment at $442.11/ha.

All the treatments made a profit during 2016 between $303.13/ha to $443.61/ha. For a season such as 2016 where there was sufficient rainfall for plant establishment and growth, wetters may not be required at seeding which would reduce input costs.

Results generated using an average wheat price of $250/t over all treatments indicates that farmer practice (control) would still have the highest return of $465.81/ha, whilst the ploughed treatment would have the second highest return of $462.52/ha (Figure 8 and Table 4). All treatments would make a profit over $353.11/ha.

Over both scenarios the Gross Return ranking trend remained similar, with the soil amelioration treatments bringing a greater return than the wetters and DBS knife point at depth.  There is a larger $/h return difference between the two wetter treatments when comparing the 2016 wheat prices due to the grade of the grain (Table 2); $52.55/ha for 2016 wheat price and $22.67/ha for average $250 price.

It would be interesting to see how all plots at this site perform under a range of seasonal conditions. A multi year Gross Returns analysis could indicate a change in the $/ha return ranking trend in seasons where wetters have a greater influence on plant establishment. This analysis may also present significant return on investment for the soil amelioration treatments in the second and third year crops.

The wheat following brown manure contained higher numbers of the listed weeds. However, numbers were not critically high in the wheat treatment.

Capstan, Fleet, Lockyer, Commander and Oxford were the highest yielding barley varieties at Hart in 2009, averaging 4.94 t/ha.

In 2007, wider row spacings (400mm vs 200mm) significantly (P<0.01) reduced yield (4.36t/ha vs 4.69t/ha) when averaged across five barley varieties and two nitrogen timings, suggesting that the benefits of wider row sowing for crop residue management practices are coming at a significant financial cost ($100/ha+, using current prices). However, the barley variety WI with nitrogen applied at
sowing (GS00) achieved the opposite result, as wider row spacings (400mm vs 200mm) significantly (P<0.05) increased yield (5.15t /ha vs 4.31t/ha).

• Some early flowering varieties developed significantly higher levels of sclerotinia stem rot infection.
• Variety response to infection and yield could be relative to other factors such as infection timing and plant
biomass.

Greater variation in dry matter production at the water ripe sampling time was observed compared to milky-soft dough. Dry matter production was highest at milky-soft dough and Moby barley consistently had the lowest. Majority of cereal forage varieties had NDF and NDFD levels to meet grade 1 and 2. Feed quality did not decline significantly with later cutting

Using the highest label rate of either Aviator Xpro or Prosaro in the first application for sclerotinia lowered the level of sclerotinia infection and recorded a higher $ROI/ha in this trial. Increasing the rate of fungicide increases early activity on active disease but will also increase the length of protection from reinfection. 

The use of higher rates under high sclerotinia disease pressure is recommended not only in a single spray application to extend the window of protection but as recorded in this trial it can provide benefits to a two spray strategy. Improvements in length and strength of sclerotinia control from the use of a higher rate in the first application have been recorded across multiple commercial trials conducted by Bayer Crop Science across Australia in the 2016 season.

Study Conclusions

Potential nitrogen contributions are assumed to be 40% of the total nitrogen contribution, assessed from the dry weight and nitrogen content (N% tissue) of the green manure crops measured at anthesis. Legume crops provided the most potential nitrogen of all treatments, due to high tissue nitrogen and moderate to high biomass production. Oats had the highest biomass but were low in tissue nitrogen and potential nitrogen benefits were therefore negligible. Any benefits from this type of crop, would be largely associated with the contribution of organic carbon to the soil. Emergence of both canola and mustard was poor, whilst the lathyrus and vetch competed poorly with weeds due to slow initial growth.

The percentage of undecomposed material remaining on the soil surface at seeding in 1999, varied from approximately 35% for oats down to 10% for lathyrus. The general pattern was that the crops with higher tissue nitrogen content broke down quicker. This indicates the microbial degradation of legume crops is likely to be faster than for brassica or cereal crops.

Differences in water infiltration observed may indicate the potential for treatments to increase the initial sorptivity of soil (ability for more rapid entry of rainfall) and decrease the flow rate through the soil (effectively increasing moisture retention). This may allow earlier sowing after summer rains, increased moisture availability during the growing season and potentially longer availability under dry finishing conditions. These results are variable and subject to trial/operator error. Further evaluation of these attributes is required prior to evaluation of renovation techniques.

The high cost of seeding and maintenance of the green manure crop, can significantly influence the gains or losses experienced over this three year period. It may be most economic, to green manure legume crops in seasons with low potential returns (poor yield potential or price).  The cost of harvesting a lupin crop for example may prove less beneficial than using it as a green manure to improve wheat yield and quality, where prices are depressed or where disease/season has reduced yield potential. Strategic use of green manure crops as a tool in integrated weed management or potential productivity gains through addressing specific problems may result in little or no short term economic gain where employed in better performing paddocks and must be viewed as a long term strategy to overcome yield constraints. However, strategic use of these techniques for poor performing paddocks, or paddock that would have otherwise been ‘rested’, are likely to result in economic responses, particularly where using low cost crops or pasture has been employed as there is no requirement to recover the cost of foregone yield – only those associated with growing a crop and the implementation of techniques.

Data supports the hypothesis that a green manuring:wheat:wheat rotation, may be as profitable as a legume:wheat:wheat rotation using either a field pea or Lathyrus crop. Given this assessment does not include any additional benefits that may be gained from green or brown manuring in terms of additional weed control and potential improvement of soil characteristics such as the addition of organic material, improved soil structure and longer term productivity gains, these techniques are likely to prove both economical and sustainable by providing additional benefits that may be observed in lower herbicide costs through better weed management, improved soil health and a more flexible farming system.

• Revenue produced a significantly higher grain yield than Mackellar although this was not significantly different to H150.1 and Tennant. In addition Revenue tends to have higher dry matter prodution than Mackellar. In this trial the latter may have been more susceptible to the waterlogging.
• The white grained CSIRO line H150.2 continues to produce high grain yields in Tasmania and has now also demontrated potential as a dual pupose crop. It will be suitable for an earlier dual purpose sowing as it is later flowering than both Mackellar and Revenue.
• Preston showed good early vigour but it will flower too early for more typical dual purpose sowing times in Tasmansa, e.g. March.

You need to reduce the use of grass selective herbicides in pastures; however, if it is necessary to use grass selectives, make sure there is a 'mop-up' treatment later in the year to control resistant annual ryegrass and silvergrass.

• Average yield for the trial was 3.47 t/ha with a range from 3 – 4 t/ha.  Most of the lines since Tanjil, which was released in 1998 ranked in the top 10 with the exception of Jenabillup.  Jenabillup is only recommended for the southern and low rainfall areas due to its low tolerance of metribuzin and moderate susceptibility to anthracnose.  
• The best performing lines were those with superior anthracnose resistance with the new variety PBA Gunyidi, whose anthracnose resistance is between Mandelup and Tanjil, being 109 and 114% better than Mandelup and Tanjil. 
• The stand out for yield performance was WALAN2325 which yielded 113% and 118% of Mandelup and Tanjil. 
• In addition, the breeding program has been concentrating on producing an anthracnose resistant, metribuzin tolerant variety specifically to replace all varieties in the coastal West Midlands.  

• There are no significant differences in yields between east-west crop orientation and north-south crop orientation.
• As the paddock has good weed control, the results were primarily influenced by water availability and evaporation within the crop.

Over all four trials both Sakura treatments maintained a positive $ROI/ha with Sakura + trifluralin ($78.50) slightly ahead on average $ROI/ha to the standalone Sakura ($73.48)

Sakura 118 g/ha recorded a $55.08 increase in $ROI/ha over Boxer Gold across the four trials. Boxer Gold $ROI was generally in line with that of the prosulfocarb treatments in three of the sites, except from Waddy Forest where prosulfocarb 2.5 L/ha recorded a higher yield. Why this occurred is not clear as results were cross checked back with the contractor to ensure there was not a transcription error.

Trifluralin, due to its poor weed control, especially at Cunderdin, returned a slight positive $ROI/ha ($7.20) across the four trials.

All four sites to some extent were affected by frost which may have affected yield outcomes.

Getting weed control right is the key to ensuring the longevity of any herbicide but it also allows the crop it’s best possible chance of achieving its yield potential. Using a program of effective knockdowns and a product with a long residual activity like Sakura can deliver higher yields and returns across a variety of soil types and locations as seen across the four trials conducted during the 2016 season.

• Utilising a pre-emergent herbicide of any kind significantly reduced broadleaf weed establishment overall .
• Terrain and Terrain + Avadex treatments resulted in highest control of fumitory and cleavers.
• No significant difference between pre-emergent herbicides on grass and radish control.
• There was no significant influence of pre-emergent herbicide on yield.
• Untreated and Sakura treated plots had significantly lower protein levels.

• All three seeders have resulted in successful establishment of sub-tropical grasses at the paddock scale.  This reinforces that successful establishment can be achieved with a range of seeding machinery providing the basic principles are followed: i.e. furrow sowing, press wheels, precise shallow seeding together with wide row spacing.
• The disc seeder appeared to have the least soil disturbance, with less loose soil on the soil surface after seeding, but had slightly more sand infill.  This may be due to steep side walls and a relatively narrow furrow, while the seeders with tynes created larger – wider furrows, so sand moving into the furrow was spread over a wider base.  The Case-International combine with a single point had the lowest sand infill.
• The disc seeder resulted in the highest establishment of panic grass, but in late October many of these plants were still small seedlings and subsequently many died over summer.  As number of plants, size and health of plants need to be taken into account, the disc machine may not provide an overall advantage as the proportion of healthy plants was much less. Visually, the Case-International combine appeared to produce a thicker stand; this was most likely due to the higher number of medium to large sized plants when compared to the other machines. 
• The knockdown did not completely kill the brome grass which subsequently recovered and competed with the emerging perennial grass seedlings in early spring.  Combined with dry conditions in October (5 mm) the perennial grass seedlings were struggling in late October.  More favorable seasonal conditions in November and December enabled the grasses to establish.  The scalping points on the John Shearer were able to reduce the impact of brome grass more successfully than the other seeders.
• Persistence will be measured over late summer until the break of the season.  This machinery demonstration trial will be the focus of an extension video which features the producers describing the modifications to their seeders.

• This trial demonstrates that a good establishment result is possible using a range of different seeding configurations, provided the key steps to establishment are followed.
• These factors include:
  • scalping of non-wetting sand and weeds away from drill runs;
  • row spacing of 50-60 cm;
  • sowing into furrows to harvest rainfall (especially important in dry springs); minimizing furrow collapse;
  • ensuring sowing depth is 5-10 mm; and - using press wheels for good soil contact with seed.

• Treatments were a single application of 10 kg/ha of Zn as zinc sulfate monohydrate (ZSM) (35% Zn) in 1996 or 4 applications of 1.25kg/ha or 2.5 kg/ha Zn as Incitec.
• Granulock ST-Z (10 %N, 19.5 % P, 2.5% Zn) between 1996 and 1999. Soil samples were collected at the commencement of the experiment, after the first application and post-harvest from the fourth crop.
• Samples were analysed for DTPA extractable Zn.
• The percentage of soil extractable Zn available from applied Zn after 4 cereal crops was about 12 % for the single application of 10 kg/ha Zn as ZSM, 22% for multiple applications of 1.25 kg/ha Zn and 20 % for 2.5 kg/ha Zn as STZ.
• It would appear that provided there is no compromise in crop productivity, a multiple low rate strategy of Zn fertiliser addition may be more effective in building available soil Zn concentration than a single higher rate.

Overall, early growth was a function of a number of constraints. In the fully retained stubble plots plant establishment was poor due to large straw windrows creating major problems at sowing and mice damage. In surface stubble treatments lower soil temperatures and higher populations of vulpia resulted in reduced plant vigour. Where stubble was fully retained this effect was less than when most stubble was removed through cutting and baling.

The use of trifluralin as part of an integrated herbicide management program for the control of Group A resistant annual ryegrass populations has increased dramatically over the past decade. The requirement of incorporating Triflur 480 within 4 hours of application has imposed management issues during the busy sowing period, however, the advent of Crew (a slow release trifluralin formulation) offers greater management flexibility with an incorporation period of 24–48 hours.

Ungarra Site: No different in yields (grain or dry matter) between any of the treatments (ie seeder had no effect)

• There were a number of high yielding (3.82 – 4.24 t/ha) AH varieties at Hart in 2017 including, Beckom, Scepter, Arrow, Cobra, Mace and Scout.
• Trojan and Cutlass were the highest yielding APW varieties at 4.32 and 4.00 t/ha, respectively.
• Test weight and screening levels across the trial were good, averaging 80.2 kg/hL and 0.8%.

Overall the results returned from this trial were confounded by low growing season rainfall and high temperatures during spring. This was reflected in the poor seed yields and significant variation across the treatment replicates reducing the confidence with which results can be drawn from the data.

Note: This trial was an unreplicated demonstration with observations/assesments based on one plot per treatment only, and as such results may not be definitive.

• High sowing rates (120kg/ha) and narrow row spacing (17cm) had the highest yield in all wheat varieties tested.
• The results were repeatable over two dry seasons (1997 and 1998).

Increased use of grass selective herbicides in many farming systems has caused increased selection pressure for herbicide resistance in grass weed populations such as annual ryegrass and brome grass. Work conducted by Bill Roy (Agricultural Consulting & Research Services Pty Ltd, York) with GRDC support demonstrates that managing herbicide resistance requires a diversified approach using a number of different tools. Manipulating canopy through seeding rates and row spacing is one of the options being explored by the BCG.

Increased use of grass selective herbicides in many farming systems has caused increased selection pressure for herbicide resistance in grass weed populations such as annual ryegrass and brome grass. Work conducted by Bill Roy (Agricultural Consulting & Research Services Pty Ltd, York) with GRDC support demonstrates that managing herbicide resistance requires a diversified approach using a number of different tools. Manipulating canopy through seeding rates and row spacing is one of the options being explored by the BCG.

Barley was more competitive than wheat in reducing ryegrass numbers.

• Variety: there was no difference between the yield of Digger and Northfield (0.56 vs 0.57 t/ha respectively)
• Row spacing: there was no significant difference in the yield of lentils sown at 18 cm (7") or 36 cm (14") (0.59 vs 0.54 t/ha respectively). However, the crop sown at 18cm (7") was much easier to harvest and stood up better.
• Sowing rate: there was a significant negative effect of sowing rate on yield - the 50kg sowing rate had the higher yield compared to the 100kg/ha sowing rate (0.62 vs 0.51 t/ha respectively).

• The extremely late break to the season highlighted maturity differences very clearly. 
• The long season trial was sown on the same day as the main season trial, favouring heavily the short season varieties.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Weeds have the biggest impact on summer water storage.
• Over the last two summers, the method of weed control had little effect on moisture storage
• Even under adequate growing season rainfall, weed control is necessary because weeds tie up and/or prevent significant amounts of nitrogen mineralizing, which cost 0.5t/ha of the canola yield.

Controlling summer weeds conserved both water and nitrogen and doubled wheat yields in 2011 on both sand and clay soil types. Retaining or removing stubble has only minor effects on wheat yield. Complete control of summer weeds pays, and there is no excuse for weedy paddocks during summer in the Wimmera and Mallee!

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Overall imposing a fallow allowed for a small amount of extra water to be stored in the soil and a small amount of extra nitrogen. As a result there was a small yield gain of 0.2 t/ha in 2012. 
• In this trial the fallow treatment was planted then sprayed out in August to replicate what is known as an ‘opportunistic’ fallow compared to a ‘strategic’ fallow where no crop is planted for 18 months. 18 month fallows would have different results to the ones reported here.
• Other benefits of fallow that were not recorded in this trial but could have contributed to the yield gain are improved weed control, disease breaks and opportunity for early sowing. 

• This is the second season in which this trial has been run and the fallow has yielded higher than continuous cropping in both 2011 (0.4 t/ha) and 2012 (0.2 t/ha). Other research indicates that fallows produce yield benefits in dry seasons which are not the case in the crop in 2011, which received 231mm for the growing season. The yield difference in 2011 was therefore more likely to have been the result of extra nitrogen in the soil, or weed or disease control rather than soil water benefits, however, these were not measured.
• Farm economics need to be carefully considered before implementing a fallow, the opportunity cost of not producing a crop needs to be weighed up, and benefits of yield, extra N, weed control and disease breaks carefully factored into the decision. 
• In 2012 the yield benefit from fallow was 0.2 t/ha and likely to be due to extra nitrogen and water being present in the soil. However, this is an unreplicated demonstration and thus it is hard to tell whether yield differences are the result of fallow or random variation in the paddock. 

• Historically, Australian farmers own the land they farm. Given that a large capital cost is associated with land purchase, businesses may seek non-ownership options.
• Alternatives to buying or selling agricultural land do exist.
• Leasing and share farming agreements are the most commonly utilised alternatives in Australia but still play a relatively minor role.

• Western Flat (Ramseys) soil modification work. Site was established in 2009. After 2 seasons, the area that organic matter was spaded into is performing well.
• Wolseley (Matthews’); alternative fertiliser demonstration; no differences were found between soil biology after a 12 month period.
• Lochaber Ag Bureau (Clothiers); Peries Wightman subsoil manuring project
• Dairy sites with Dairy SA based around the Mt Gambier region
• Coonalpyn Ag Bureau Soil pit days
• Coonawarra Grape Growers – historical composting trial sites revisited
• Sherwood – soil modifications in conjunction with additional carbon project

• 10 new soil demonstration and trials to be established in the south east over the next 2 years.
• Opportunities for farmers to access expert soil advice and information through a series of community meetings, workshops and field days. 

• Continuous wheat can be successfully grown.
• Stubble has been burnt to reduce the incidence of yellow leaf spot in the following crop.
• In most years the crop has been direct drilled.
• Disease levels are still low and the crop is checked at flowering every year for root diseases.
• Continuous wheat has been relativley low risk - after 7 years it has not failed (except for the drought year in 2002).
• Thus far there is no problem with grass weeds or soil borne diseases.

• Soil and solution culture studies were conducted to examine the relative contribution of different mechanisms of zinc efficiency at the whole plant level in bread and durum wheat during early vegetative stage.
• While there are a number of mechanisms of zinc efficiency, zinc uptake appears to be the most important mechanism • Seed zinc remobilisation and root to shoot translocation do not appear to be important to zinc efficiency.
• Visual scores of zinc deficiency were significantly correlated with zinc efficiency, and they provide a useful criterion for an initial screen of zinc efficiency.
• This study was based on vegetative growth and the conclusions need to be verified under field conditions.
• The percentage deviation technique provided a straight forward means of comparing the relative effects of different components of zinc efficiency and the method could be extended to studies that use grain yield as the measure of zinc efficiency.

• Sunflower yields were very low at this site in 2015–16, averaging 0.24 t/ha, and overall variability was very high.
• The total removal of leaves at the budding stage had the largest impact on plant structures; plant height, head diameter and arc length.

• Sunflower grain yield averaged 1.07 t/ha at this site with the highest yields obtained from the control and the treatments where only the bottom one third (1/3) of leaves were removed.
• The total leaf removal treatments had the largest effect on yield, at worst yielding only 0.16 t/ha.
• Removing all leaves at budding or at the start of the flowering growth stages had the largest effect on plant structures.
• Total leaf removal at the end of flowering had the largest effect on 1000 grain weight and test weight.

• Sunflower yields were greatly affected by the various defoliation treatments, ranging from 0.12 t/ha to 0.97 t/ha.
• Reductions in yield, of between 55% and 82% compared with the control resulted from total leaf removal at all three of the targeted growth stages (budding, start of flowering and flowering completion) as well as removing two-thirds of the leaves at budding.
• There was no negative effect on grain yield from removing the bottom third of leaves at budding or the start of flowering. Removing the bottom third of leaves at the start of flowering actually provided a slight yield advantage over the control treatment. The largest effect on plant height, head diameter and head arc length were caused by removing all leaves at the budding stage.

• Grazing stubble with sheep speeds up N cycling and reduces N tie-up by the stubble. When yield is N limited, this can increase grain yield and quality.
• Over the seven year experiment, grazing and retaining stubble has been the most profitable treatment, with an annual Gross Income 172 higher than un-grazed, stubble retain (assuming a grazing value of the stubble) or $55 higher if no grazing value assumed.
• Over the seven years, there was on average a 0.5 t/ha reduction in wheat grain yield in the 2nd wheat crop where stubble was retained and not burnt – mostly related to N tie-up.

• All pre-emergent herbicides provided excellent early control of ryegrass (≥86%) & good crop safety under the knife-point press wheel system.
• Combination of trifluralin & Avadex Xtra followed by PSPE Boxer Gold provided greatest residual control, controlling more than 98% of ryegrass 12 weeks after sowing.
• Boxer Gold applied PSPE has been shown to provide some additional in-row controlof ryegrass.

• Boxer Gold alone or in combination with trifluralin and / or Avadex Xtra provided consistent pre-emergence control of ryegrass, as did trifluralin & Avadex Xtra.
• Although ryegrass control with new pre-emergent herbicide Sakura was lower than in previous years, its tank mixture with Avadex Xtra provided excellent control (86%).
• Boxer Gold & Dual Gold applied PSPE appeared to provide some additional in-row control of ryegrass.

Early application of selective herbicide (Group 1, A) gave excellent control of barley grass. While fewer barley grass plants meant less pasture biomass, it’s important to remember that the seeds on the mature barley grass would injure livestock. Further, these barley grass plants could host cereal crop disease.

Spray topping prevented viable seed set of barley grass while leaving the greatest pasture biomass.

Good barley grass control in the 2019 pasture was still evident in the 2020 and 2021 crops.

Late sowing of barley in 2020 (delayed 4 weeks) was relatively ineffective in controlling barley grass and crop yield was slightly reduced.

Late sowing of oats in 2021 (delayed 7 weeks) gave excellent weed control, but the crop yield was severely reduced.

Three years of control reduced barley grass density from over 1000 plants/m2 to 2-14 plants/m2 across the whole site.

The diverse rotation, including pasture and canola break crops, allowed a range of herbicides from different mode of actions and control of late emerging barley grass cohorts.

Two years of seed set prevention was not sufficient to remove the barley grass. Barley grass has a seedbank that lasts at least 3-4 years.

The trial establishment was variable early due to some non-wetting soil and the crop was sown too deeply due to furrow fill from significant rain after sowing. Early crop vigour as a result was low with blackleg further reducing plant establishment; this coupled with high levels of Vegetable beetle damage also reduced the evenness of the plots.

According to the DAFWA sporacle model spore maturity occurred on approximately the 22nd May which meant this trial was at very high risk of significant disease risk as emergence coincided with high spore levels being released from last year’s stubble.

• Excellent annual ryegrass control (>85%) with propyzamide either as split application (IBS followed by PSPE) or as a mixture with tri-allate.
• Atrazine also gave effective control this season with rainfall assisting activity (>79%).
• Early crop vigour was suppressed with Outlook & the higher split rate (1 kg/ha IBS followed by 1 kg/ha PSPE) of propyzamide.
• UAN at 20 kg/ha caused some leaf burning, however the crop recovered.

• A Predicta B sample taken from the site indicated a medium risk of rhizoctonia although patches did not express during the season.
• Early establishment across the site was severely impacted by non-wetting affected all plots across the trial with the worst of it commencing around plot 215 and increasing in severity throughout replicate 3.  Early dry conditions further staggered the crop emergence.
• Good rains through late July and into early August ensured the crop was growing well albeit patchy across the trial with high levels of disease present at both the Z31 and Z39 applications. Only 48.9 mm of rain fell from the second Z39 application to the end of October reducing the benefits to yield of the different fungicide treatments.
•  Increasing variability in the trial due to the sub-soil issues from plot 215 into replicate 3 was a significant factor. Yield data should be treated with caution due to the variability of the site with disease control is the most accurate assessment of treatment efficacy.

• Control of net form net blotch using effective fungicides resulted in yield increases of up to 1.0 t/ha compared to nil treatments.
• Two strategic fungicide applications during early-mid growth stages (before end of August) – suppressed disease development and provided control comparable to four applications made every 2-4 weeks from early August.
• Tilt, Amistar Xtra, Opera and Prosaro were effective for control of net form of net blotch.

• Control of net form net blotch using effective fungicides resulted in yield increases of up to 1.0 t/ha compared to nil treatments.
• Two strategic fungicide applications during early-mid growth stages (before end of August) – suppressed disease development and provided control comparable to four applications made every 2-4 weeks from early August.
• Tilt, Amistar Xtra, Opera and Prosaro were effective for control of net form of net blotch.

• Powdery mildew infection was observed during the 2015–16 season, although less severe than in previous seasons.
• Powdery mildew infection was found on all soybean varieties except Djakal, demonstrating its known resistance.
• Fungicide applications had no effect on the grain yield of Djakal, N005A-80 or P176-2 varieties, however, the SnowyA variety had a significant increase in grain yield when treated with tebuconazole in a split application regime.

• Boxer Gold IBS + PSPE or Trifluralin IBS + Avadex Xtra IBS + Dual Gold PSPE gave the best pre-emergent annual ryegrass control in 2009.
• Boxer Gold or Dual Gold applied PSPE significantly improved ryegrass control in the crop row.

Controlled traffic farming leaves permanent wheel tracks when growing crops. There are large savings in
costs, especially due to lower horsepower requirements, and also minimisation of compaction layer effects
on the crop. Machinery with different configurations and widths of wheel tracks presents one problem for
controlled traffic.

• Observations in N.S.W., Victoria and Western Australia clearly show that tap rooted crops have excellent straight tap roots when grown on beds when compared to flat paddocks. 
• These initial considerations suggest narrow raised beds may offer a better overall soil water exploration throughout different depths of the profile and a better depth of rooting by crops. 
   

• Vetch production in a very tough season was little affected by trafficking imposed in 2015.
• After three years of crop production, low levels of trafficking have had little impact on grain yield on a Minnipa soil, multiple trafficking on wet soil (in 2015) increased grain yields in the second and third crops.
• Ripping conducted in 2015 lifted the soil substantially but has not benefited production in any of the following three crops.

• Multiple machinery pass trafficking decreased crop yields for at least four years on a Loxton deep sand.
• Single pass machinery trafficking did not result in yield decreases at Loxton and rarely at any of the other trafficking soil types in this project.
• Most soils in the south-eastern Australian Low rainfall zone are not likely to remediate from compaction naturally.

This work has demonstrated that N2O emissions from trafficked soil were consistently and significantly greater (by an average factor of 2.2) than those from non-trafficked soil. At the same time, soil CH4 consumption was significantly increased in the CTF beds compared to random-trafficked or permanent traffic lanes, although overall CH4 fluxes were small. Permanent traffic lanes normally represent only 10%–15% of field area on controlled traffic farms, compared with ∼50% or more trafficked area on non-controlled traffic farms. Thus, the results indicate that adoption of controlled traffic should reduce soil emissions of C2O-e by 30%–50%, and this effect would be greater if N fertiliser could be excluded from permanent traffic lanes.  The reduction in emissions also indicates that less N has been lost by denitrification, an effect which might be in the range of 3 – 20 kg/ha.

The work has demonstrated that CTF will reduce the GHG emissions from grain production, in addition to providing economic and other environmental benefits.
 

• A single application of Uragan (bromacil) plus paraquat in May gave complete control of all weeds at all sites over both rates. However, the additional expense, soil erosion risk and irsk to remnant vegetation need to be considered.

• A two spray or double knock strategy (including cultivation or another non-herbicide treatment) is often required for complete control in fencelines with the first application early in the season followed by another one later in the season (after the seeding and post-harvest operations are over).
• Tank mixes of residual herbicides plus a knockdown give the best control for the first application.
• A single application of a mixture of Uragan® (bromacil) and paraquat early in the season gives excellent weed control on fencelines.
• The addition of Alliance® (mixture of amitrole and paraquat) as the knockdown gives good broadleaf control.
• Glyphosate can still be used but intensive monitoring and complete seed set control is required to prevent resistance from developing.

 

• In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops.
• The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached.
• In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops. The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached. In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops. The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached. In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

• Roundup alone will not control Flaxleaf fleabane. 
• Addition of Surpass and Ally to Roundup provided the most effective control.
• To avoid the need to use more expensive chemicals and spray more than twice, control fleabane before it begins to elongate (>40cm in height).

• Metribuzin added to Precept® gave good control of all weeds.
• Affinity Force® did not perform to the standard expected.

Medic must be controlled prior to sowing lentils because there are no in-crop herbicide options available.

The best pre-sowing options coming out of this trial were:

• cultivation prior to sowing
• SpraySeed®
• Roundup Power Max® plus Lexone®
• Roundup Power Max® plus Hammer®

Roundup Power Max® alone was not very effective, and Roundup Power Max® plus Dicamba® resulted in extensive lentil damage which resulted in low yields.

Summer rain over the past 3 months has been substantial in some areas; therefore summer weed growth has been vigorous. Rosinweed is a particularly strong summer weed which is very difficult to control. This trial showed that Group B (IMI) herbicides had good control of rosinweed, while Ally® having less control, offered good suppression.

• Group D resistance will develop if trifluralin is consistently used without other control practices.
• Trifluralin used in combination with other herbicides such as Avadex Xtra (Group E) and Dual Gold (Group K), may enhance ryegrass control and could prolong the onset of Group D resistant ryegrass populations.
• BoxerGold was very effective on both sites with added crop safety. This herbicide is expected to be released in 2008 and likely to be expensive but should be included in the crop rotation to reduce the likelihood of developing resistance.

• Group D resistance will develop if trifluralin is consistently used without other control practices.
• Trifluralin used in combination with other herbicides such as Avadex Xtra (Group E) and Dual Gold (Group K), may enhance ryegrass control and could prolong the onset of Group D resistant ryegrass populations.
• BoxerGold was very effective on both sites with added crop safety. This herbicide is expected to be released in 2008 and likely to be expensive but should be included in the crop rotation to reduce the likelihood of developing resistance.

• Trifluralin was more effective at reducing ryegrass numbers in the cereal phase than in break crops.
• There are more benefits from good rotation than improved weed control alone, but benefits (in this case additional nitrogen) may not be apparent until several years after the non-cereal break crop or pasture phase.

This trial looked at protecting the crop from excessive sun and wind during the spring when crops are flowering and setting seed by covering it in shade cloth in early September. It was expected that this would improve yield and grain size but in fact it had the opposite effect with reduced yields and poor grain quality.

• Two years of full wild oat control did not exhaust the seedbank to a manageable level.
• A selective post emergent herbicide or an early hay cut were the most effective strategies for reducing the wild oat seedbank.

Results 4 & 5 years after the initial Cu application on a gravelly soil near Wandering indicate responses to copper but clover persisted without Cu applied.

Zinc applied as a basal.

The Cu concentration in October 1967 was low [possbily due to sampling time].

Design is a incomplete factorial and Cu residual measured as a run down rather than comparisons to new or current applicationa of Cu

• Copper concentrations in tissue on sandy soils declined with the age of the plant, with indications of copper deficiency for older plants.
• Patches of crop with partially empty heads were observed while the rest of the head was still green.
• Suggested that EDTA extractable copper might give indication of likely copper deficiency in sandy soils.
• Deficiency can be overcome by applying copper fertilisers to soil (long term solution) or a foliar copper spray (short term solution).