• There has been a drop in surfact pH for all the lime treatments.
• It is anticipated that further works will be carried out at this site.

Light grazing was shown to leave most of the crop residue horizontal and detached but there were similar amounts of residue to the ungrazed plots. Grazing over summer and winter reduced crop yield at one site and further work on this may be required.

• There were no significant differences between cultivation treatments at the Martin site.  There was a significant effect from lime applied, as expected. There is an interesting trend of increasing pH over the 3 years in the limed treatments, suggesting that the lime applied in 2013 is still acting to reduce soil acidity after three years. 
• There were no significant differences between cultivation treatments at any depth in either year at the Brown site. 
• There were no significant differences between cultivation treatments at any depth at the McAlpine site. 

• Significant lime response in third year after application
   
• Sub soil acidity can be addressed with lime incorporation but may not be most cost-effective treatment – requires further seasons of testing

• Surface applied lime can take many years to ameliorate subsoil acidity.
• Ongoing acidification has resulted in lower subsoil pH’s and the depth of the acidic layer is increasing.
• This has generated renewed interest in one-off lime incorporation using strategic tillage to reduce the time required to ameliorate the subsoil acidity and to get a more rapid return on investment from applying lime.
• Effective amelioration of subsoil acidity requires the creation of continuous pathways of pH corrected soil from the soil surface through the acidic subsoil layer.

It is critically important to sample soil pH to depth prior to investing large sums in lime application and incorporation. Typically it has been found that on sandplain soils the yield benefit of one-off deep cultivation or deep ripping is large enough to cover the cost of the tillage in the first year so the subsequent productivity benefits associated with more rapidly fixing the soil pH by incorporating lime can be realised sooner. Other factors such as water repellence, herbicide resistant weeds, subsoil compaction, wind erosion risk and soil type will impact on the choice of incorporation implement used.

• No significant differences were obtained between any of the lime rates with the only differences being between varieties.
• This is the second year that this result has occurred at the site and it needs to be put into context.
• The soil pH is very low (4.7 in H20), but the aluminium levels are extremely low and this would probably have some bearing on the result.
• Further work needs to be done. 

• These initial results indicate that to change soil pH at depth ideally requires some form of incorporation and/or higher application rates
• In the second year of monitoring, there was a significant increase in yield with the high rates of lime application (either incorporated or surface application)

• The application of lime or dolomite increased soil pH significantly and increased exchangeable Ca and Mg, while the application of gypsum increased soil conductivity levels.
• The nodulation of lupins sown on the gypsum plots was impaired probably because of the high salt levels in the soil.
• Following a drier than average season, lupin yields were lowest where gypsum had been applied in the previous year but benefited from the application of lime or dolomite.

• Select a few key paddocks and soil test them every few years to monitor soil pH levels.
• Make lime a part of your annual farm budget.
• Lime will increase pasture growth and feed quality.

• pH soil trials take time to show true results.

• Changes in soil chemistry were found 14 years after application of high rates of lime and gypsum.
• The source of Ca (lime, gypsum or lime + gypsum) had no significant impact on the long term displacement of Na hy Ca.
• The practical message is that any source of Ca, applied at an equivalent Ca rate, gives equal long term benefits in Na displacement.
• Soil chemistry did not change below 30 cm depth.
• Plant yields have been low due to drought. In 2002 there was no significant difference in plant growth after different ameliorants. This result may not be true and may have occurred because of the low yields.

• Modest autumn grazing of no-till crop stubbles sometimes leads to small measurable increases in surface soil bulk density.
• In two seasons, on soils in the Mallee and Wimmera, modest autumn grazing of no-till crop stubbles had no measurable effect on crop yield, quality or weed seed burial.

• For the first time sheep grazing behaviour in a Mallee paddock was monitored and mapped using GPS tracking collars.
• Sheep grazed the entire stubble paddock as they sought out spilt grain during the summer fallow, but they preferred to graze on sandy soil types first.
• While grazing a vetch pasture in the same paddock, livestock spent 50% of the time grazing only 25% of the paddock and 25% of the paddock was not utilised. (iv) At least $4000 profit was foregone from the paddock through the under-utilisation of the vetch pasture.
• Within-paddock fencing technology in large Mallee paddocks has the potential to capture this potential profit by improving feed utilisation.

• For the first time sheep grazing behaviour in a Mallee paddock was monitored and mapped using GPS tracking collars.
• Sheep grazed the entire stubble paddock as they sought out spilt grain during the summer fallow, but they preferred to graze on sandy soil types first.
• While grazing a vetch pasture in the same paddock, livestock spent 50% of the time grazing only 25% of the paddock and 25% of the paddock was not utilised.

Light to moderate grazing of sheep on no-till stubbles in autumn is unlikely to have detrimental impacts on crop growth in the following season.

• Seeding systems did not affect wheat grain yield, averaging 5.3 t/ha.
• Good rainfall and cool temperatures during grain fill increased yield potential and the higher N rate resulted in a 1.2 t/ha yield advantage.
• Available soil N pre-seeding ranged from 80 – 190 kg N/ha with 75 kg N/ha more accumulated under the high N rate.

Five management strategies were compared: stubble fully retained (SFR); cut and baled (SCB); incorporated with Lemkin discs (Lemkin); Burnt; and stubble digester applied with stubble incorporated. Increased ground cover resulted in large delays in establishment.The different stubble treatments had no significant effect on grain yield.Some long term benefits from full retention of stubble are already evident with significant increases in earthworms and a trend towards decreased resistance to root penetration.

• There was no significant difference between seeding systems or level of nutrition on grain yield or oil content.
• Soil available N was the same for all seeding systems pre-seeding however, the no till treat had released more available soil N.
• In-season more available N was measured in the high nutrition treatment compared to the medium.

• Disease suppression has not developed in this soil type after 8 years.
• Higher nutrition treatments allowed crops to cope better with high disease levels in both 2010 and 2011.
• Canola will reduce Rhizoctonia inoculum but only one year of wheat will result in high levels of Rhizoctonia inoculum again.
• In good seasons the high input treatments have shown that district practice performance is limited by poor nutrition.

• Changing rotation and nutrition have changed the microbial population activity and diversity but not developed disease suppression after seven years.
• One year of wheat in 2009 resulted in high Rhizoctonia inoculum regardless of previous rotation or fertiliser histories.
• Take-all has increased in the continuous cereal district practice treatment to severe levels; higher nutrition treatments give the plants the ability to cope better with these increased disease levels.
• The high input systems have continually yielded higher than the other systems, but inputs of N have not matched production levels completely so soil reserves of mineral N are now lower in these treatments.
• In good seasons the high input treatments have shown that district practice performance is severely limited by inadequate nutrition.

• The higher input brassica break system had higher cereal yields than the other systems in 2009.
• Rhizoctonia inoculum levels were higher under the continuous cropping systems compared to the medic pasture and brassica break crops.
• The different rotations and fertiliser systems have resulted in differences in the microbial community (number) and microbial diversity (their ability to use different sources of carbon).
• Disease suppression is still the same in all rotations.

• Liming decreases surface soil acidity.
• The incorporation of lime increased the movement of the lime to the 10-20cm layer neutralising subsoil acidity.
• Subsoil aluminium levels at this site fit WA relationships that toxic Al above 2 mg/kg occur when pH (CaCl2) is below 4.5

This first year study has shown that the adoption of a strategic tillage practice (one-way plough) provided a significant improvement in terms of crop establishment and grain yields on a moderately repellent sandy gravel. The adoption of other agronomic options, such as paired-row sowing or wetters, in this instance did not provide any noticeable improvement in comparison to the control treatments. In fact, in one case (wetter 1), the cost of the treatment was not covered by the yield increase.

Without doubt, the tillage proved to be the most effective treatment for reducing SWR but at this stage it is not possible to evaluate the extent to which this improvement alone contributed to the significant increase in yields.

With this long term experiment, we expect the following seasons to give us more information to better understand what changes drive the yield increase and possibly the potential longevity of these improvements.

• Five stubble management strategies were compared: fully retained, cut and baled, burnt and incorporated with Lemkin or offset discs. 
• Grain yield from the burnt plots was significantly higher compared with stubble retained (fully retained and cut and baled) and both incorporation treatments were significantly higher yielding than where stubble was fully retained. It is likely that this effect is a result of increased stubble from retained treatments leading to poorer plant establishment.
• Fully retained stubble resulted in significant soil improvements i.e. increased soil moisture (particularly early in the season), higher invertebrate and microbial populations and improved soil physical characteristics.
• Rain at the end of the season may have masked potential yield benefits from improved soil moisture with retained stubble treatments.   

• Five stubble managmenet strategies were compared: fully retained; fully retained with higher sowing rate; cut and baled; burnt and incorporated with Lemken discs.
• Fully retained stubble resulted in some soil improvements such as increased worm populations.
• Grain yield from plots where stubble was retained (fully retained ad cut and baled) tended to produce higher yields compared with plots where stubble was burnt. The wet season and irrigation may have masked any greater potential yield benefits from plots with retained stubble.

• Wheat grain yield was not significantly different between seeding systems or level of nitrogen, averaging 5 t/ha.
• The high nutrition treatment increased grain protein.
• The high nutrition treatments had accumulated 28 kg N/ha more soil available nitrogen compared to the medium treatments to a depth of 60 cm.

In the first growing season, the one-off tillage treatments showed to reduced significantly the water repellency of the soil. Significantly better plant establishment and grain yield were obtained in all the tillage treatments. In terms of grain yield, better results were achieved with the tillage treatments that mixed the soil more efficiently, such as the “Deep ripping + Spading” and the “Mouldboard plough” treatments. The “Deep ripping” treatment, which effectively targeted only subsoil compaction, provided the lowest improvements in terms SWR and the lowest grain yield.

The greatest profit in the first growing year was achieved using the “Modified one-way plough” thanks to its low capital cost which reduces its operating cost. Nonetheless, further growing season will be necessary to establish its long term profitability in comparison to the “Deep ripping + Spading” and the “Mouldboard plough” treatments.

Changes in the soil pH profile were also observed after the tillage treatments, with increased acidity in the topsoil. That was particularly the case with the “Mouldboard plough” treatment and the management of soil pH with addition of lime after the tillage needs to be considered.

We expect the next four growing seasons to give us more information to better understand the long term effects of these soil modifications on soil productivity.

 

The value of starter P for early crop vigour was clearly demonstrated in 2014 by the decreased growth of wheat plants when P fertiliser was omitted. This effect continued through the grain development stages and was very evident in the final grain yield differences. If P application over the previous four years averaged 12 kg/ha or less, there is a good value return from applying P.  Although the highest yield was seen at 24 kg P applied in 2014, looking at historical trends shows that continual application of P at greater than 12kg/ha can provide yield gains but little or no margin and should not be considered unless low P application history, confirmed by soil P tests associated with P binding capacity, has resulted in low soil P levels. Results indicate a P recommendation of greater than 6 kg/ha to be appropriate for soils and conditions in the vicinity of the trial site, pushing up to 10-12 kg/ha if the input cost is affordable.

After 8 years of trial work on a Mallee clay loam with subsoil limitations:

• In only 2 years did yields increase after applying P fertiliser,
• the site has remained responsive at nil and 5P treatments, but maintaining rates >5kg P/ha did not produce any extra yield,
• in 2010 there as a 25% increase in wheat yield between nil P and where P had been applied (at rates 5kg P/ha or higher),
• the 5kg P/ha treatment provided the highest net income, and
• soil Colwell P together with PBI accurately estimated the response seen in 2010.

• After nine years, applying more than 5kg P/ha had no impact on grain yield in 2011.
• Consistently applying 5kg P/ha has been the most productive and profitable rate used.
• The DGT soil P test will undergo commercial testing at CSBP laboratories in 2012.

• In a Morgan pea hay crop, there were no dry matter differences between any of hte P fertiliser rates in 2009.
• The most profitable application of P on average between 2003 and 2009 has been zero P/ha on a site with a strong fertiliser history and initial soil P Colwell of 41mg/kg.
• A rate of 5kg P/ha per year produced the second highest net income with the least amount of risk.

• The application of P improved the yield (especially barley) and soil P content (Colwell P).
• Soil P balance doubled when high P rates were applied.
• Responses to P applications above 6kg P/ha are rare and extra expense would not be justified in the Mallee.

Phosphorus responses were undertaken in 2004 on a barley crop. This is a long-term trial to determine the effect of a range of fertiliser application rates of phosphorus (P) on long-term grain yields and soil phosphorus reserves. Results indicate that in paddocks with a good phosphorus history little response, in terms of grain yield and protein, will be gained from higher rates of P. However grain yields and protein were significantly higher where some P was applied compared to no P.

• There was no significant yield difference between any of the P rates in 2008
• The most profitable application rate of P on average between 2003 and 2008 has been zero on a site with a strong fertiliser history and initial soil P Colwell of 41ppm
• Maintenance rates of 5kg/ha, produced the second highest net income with the least amount of risk
• Avoid making fertiliser decisions on ‘gut feel’. Make use of tools such as soil tests and nutrient balances to determine P rates in 2009.

• Crop water use and soil analysis values were very similar between the sites comparing long term reduced tillage and stubble retention.
• Reduced tillage and stubble retention has significantly contributed to increasing organic carbon levels at these sites.
• The grain yields of wheat were greatest at the sites with higher water use efficiency for each location.

• Crop water use and soil analysis values were very similar between the sites comparing long term reduced tillage and stubble retention.
• Reduced tillage and stubble retention has significantly contributed to increasing organic carbon levels at these sites.
• The grain yields of wheat were greatest at the sites with higher water use efficiency for each location.

• Crop water use and soil analysis values were very similar between the sites comparing long term reduced tillage and stubble retention.
• Reduced tillage and stubble retention has significantly contributed to increasing organic carbon levels at these sites.
• The grain yields of wheat were greatest at the sites with higher water use efficiency for each location.

The results from this trial show the importance of ripping below the hard pan with deeper ripping. The hard pan at this site measured to a depth of 400mm prior to the ripping treatments going in. Ripping to 300mm, without spading, has not improved yield in either of the first two seasons as plant roots are slowed through the hard pan. For return on the dollars spent deep ripping it is important to understand where the hardpan is in your paddock before starting the program.

It is likely that the topsoil slotting plates are impacting the inter-row soil strength during the ripping process. Therefore the design needs investigation. It may be that additional shatter is required through winged points allowing the plates to pass through with less impact.

Monitoring of this trial continues during 2017 and 2018 seasons.

• Rip to below your compacted layer
• Ripping to 60cm reduced soil strength, and this effect continued into the second year after ripping
• Wheat yield response to the 60cm rip treatment paid for deep ripping in the first year
• It is important to understand potential yield benefits of ripping before you rip

• Pea vs cereal: field peas will not compete with the lucerne seedling for light and moisture as much as a cereal.
• Peas/cereal vs sowing alone: field peas and cereals provide the opportunity to generate income in the year of lucern establishment.

• Autumn removal of lucerne significantly decreased subsequent winter crop yields compared to spring removal of lucerne.
• Crops sown after spring removal of lucerne yielded the same as the crops grown in a continuous crop rotation.
• The crop yield penalty from autumn removal only lasts for one year.
• Apart from Grazon, all other herbicide treatments gave unacceptable lucerne control.
• Cultivation in combination with other herbicides will increase lucerne control by  20 to 30%. 
   

Lucerne (medicago sativa) is being utilised for a range of benefits in modern farming systems. This includes the incorporation of phase farming principles into dryland cropping systems within the Mallee and Wimmera. In the Mallee, recharge rates vary from 5 to 35mm per year under traditional cropping systems. The principle of phase farming involves the tactical insertion of a lucerne pasture in a crop rotation to retrieve deep soil moisture and create a dry band below the rootzone of annual crops.

• Given a very long and favourable season and 517 mm of growing season rainfall at this site, an above average site mean yield of 4.04 t/ha was obtained in this experiment.
• Averaged across species, angustifolius were 19% and 10% higher yielding than albus at 4 May and 20 May sowing date respectively.
• PBA Jurien and Mandelup were the only varieties to show a significant yield reduction as sowing was delayed to 20 May.

• Pasture cropping across subtropical grasses is viable in the West Midlands but success is dependent on effective weed control, adequate fertility and moisture, and winter dormancy (or suppression) of the perennial pasture.
• Pasture cropping can also provide out of season fodder, improve the feed value of stubbles, and reduce the likelihood of wind erosion and groundwater recharge on deep sandy soils.

All lupin varieties produced similar yields of around 1.6 t./ha. Grain yields 14 – 16% higher were obtained by harvesting early.

Grain yield: Desiccation treatments did not influence grain moisture content or grain yield.

There was no significant differences in grian yields resulting form the different lime sources, across any of the years within the trial, regardless of variety.

Soil pH data collected in 2019 show and increase in soil pH for all lime treatments in the topsoil (0-10CM) and 10-20cm, from the original data collection in 2015, at the beginning of the trial. 

Soil pH changes in 20-30cm layer have been negligible compared to the untreated control over six years. 

This trial shows that the addition of lime has improved soil pH to a depth of 20cm. The lack of improvement in grain yields over the nil control indicates that initial soil pH levels at this site were not low enough to be a constrain to grains yields.   

• The starting soil nitrogen (N) at this site was 73 kg N, which was sufficient to supply the average crop yield of 2.1 t/ha, which was achieved.
• Consequently, there was no response to any of the nitrogen treatments applied.
• Hybrid selection had a major impact on plant structures, grain yield and quality. Pioneer 1467 produced more tillers than the other two hybrid maize varieties.
• Pacific 606 produced the highest grain yield at 2.65 t/ha and also had the highest 1000 grain weight and lowest screenings of the three hybrid maize varieties examined.
   

• Malting barley needs to be sown early to optimise yield and minimise the risk of protein and screenings being too high.
• Applying fertiliser nitrogen to paddocks with high soil available nitrogen at sowing will lead to high protein and high screenings.
• Narrow row spacings wnd higher sowing rates increases yield and also minimises the risk of producing barley with high protein and screenings.

• Including legume crops and pastures in rotations increases soil nitrogen even two years after the legume break was grown.
• Brown manure vetch has proven to be the best break phase for increasing soil mineral nitrogen.
• Crop sequences have had small and variable effects on plant available soil water.
• Rhizoctonia inoculum levels are highest following cereal crops and high Rhizoctonia levels have corresponded with poor root health. Canola decreased inoculum levels to levels similar to a fallow.
• High brome grass numbers re-emerged two years after a one year break.

• Cultivation will often see improved yields in the first two seasons, particularly on lighter soils.
• The 2018 season saw 409 mm of growing season rainfall (GSR) resulting in a significant response to nitrogen (N) and a response to a residual high potassium (K) applied in 2017.
• In soils deficient in K (below 40-50mg/kg) at 0-10 cm, application of higher rates of top dressed K to take advantage of the residual benefits across seasons could be considered.
   

• A high application of potassium (K), 25 kg/ha and standard nitrogen (N) rates, 70 kg/ha improved wheat yield and grain quality up to 0.47 t/ha on mould boarded deep sand.
• In the presence of adequate potassium (> 40-50 mg/kg), in favourable seasons, wheat can respond to the application of N) fertiliser, resulting in high yield and protein. Where K is limited, returns from N are likely to be poor.
• The results indicate that a higher rate of K than banding 11 kg/ha K can lead to a significant increase in yield and profitability.
   

• Rhizoctonia sererity was low in 1993.
• Cultivation of dry soil did not reduce the impact of rhizoctonia.
• Shallow sowing (2.5cm) may predispose plant roots to rhizoctonia.

• The key to long term Rhizoctonia disease control is to keep inoculum in the soil low in the crop and pasture phases and increase the ability of crops to tolerate the infection (create environments where plant infection is reduced and plant tolerance to infection improved).
• The success of available disease control strategies, e.g. soil disturbance, fertilizer addition or fungicides is greatest at low to medium inoculum levels and their effectiveness declines as inoculum levels increase or where disease suppressive activity is low.
• Overall, effective control of rhizoctonia disease in cereal crops requires both the reduction of the pathogen inoculum in the soil prior to seeding and control of the infection process in the crop itself. This has to be achieved through management practices spread over more than one cropping season and through an integrated management strategy.

• Crown rot has become an important disease to manage in Victorian wheat crops.
• A soil test can be used to identify paddocks most at risk of crown rot.
• In the presence of medium crown rot levels crop losses can be reduced by chosing tolerant crops.

• Incorrect identification could be costly as with Take all and Crown rot require different management.
• Check the bases of plants for symptoms, don’t rely on whiteheads (which need not even be disease related).
• Even where whiteheads are not present, significant yield losses can occur.
• Know the risk of yield loss in your paddocks before sowing. For 2012 crops, this will mean sending summer/autumn soil samples to the Predicta B testing service for analysis.
• The most effective management tool for both diseases is host-free breaks.
• Where old cereal rows have medium to high inoculum levels, sowing between those old rows can reduce yield losses from these diseases, but only if the inter-row has low levels of inoculum.
• When Take-all inoculum levels are medium to high, the best option is a 12 month break from hosts. If susceptible cereals must be sown, keep the paddock(s) weed free and sow the atrisk paddock(s) last in the cereal cropping program.
• When crown rot inoculum levels are medium to high, the best option is a break from hosts (2-3 years may be needed). If cereals must be sown then barley is least likely to show yield loss, followed by oats and bread wheat. Do not apply excessive nitrogen early in the season.

Barley can be successfully grown on retained wheat stubble, but it is advisable to burn wheat stubble when growing wheat on wheat. If stubble is retained then Yellow Leaf Spot can be a devastating disease in a wet winter. The most important management practices when growing a cereal on cereal are as follows:

• Select paddocks with low numbers of grass weeds.
• Retain wheat stubble for barley, burn the stubble for wheat.
• Control summer weeds to ensure summer rainfall can be used by the crop.
• Use varieties with good disease resistance such as Silverstar or Krichauff.
• Disease - select paddocks with low disease pressure (monitor the previous crop) and DNA test the paddock prior to sowing.
•  Apply sufficient nitrogen for a good crop (soil test to know how much to apply).
• Barley on barley can lead to serious problems with leaf diseases such as net blotch.

• In furrow remediation could be useful in managing acidity generated by fertiliser placement.
• CalSap® is a liquid product which can be used to manage acidity generated by fertiliser in the furrow.

 

• There was no effect on barley yield from applying lime in this experiment, despite the low soil pHCa of 4.5, potentially due to the low levels of exchangeable aluminium in the soil.
• The highest yield came from planting either Compass or La Trobe on 8 May, applying 80 kg/ha of nitrogen (N) at sowing. Applying N did not increase grain yield in the 28 May sowing treatments.
• The acid tolerant barley variety Litmus yielded less than Compass or La Trobe from the 8 May sowing. Delayed sowing reduced the grain yield of Compass and La Trobe, but not of Litmus.
• Applying phosphorus (P) (20 P kg/ha) did not increase grain yield at either sowing time.

• The highest yielding treatments were the early high nitrogen rate (2.80t/ha) or the high nitrogen rate (2.91t/ha).
• Treatments imposed to manipulate crop growth were unable to save more soil moisture for grain fill

• Wheat dry matter production and total crop nitrogen was significantly lower in wider row spacing treatments.
• For the all the crops grain yield was significantly lower in the wider row spacing treatments.
• Treatments imposed to manipulate crop growth were unable to save more soil moisture for grain fill.

• Winter wheats sown early can match but not exceed yields of locally adapted spring wheats sown in their optimal window (eg. Scepter sown late April-early May).
• It is only advantageous to sow winter wheats early if they are replacing paddocks that would otherwise be sown too late, or used for dual purpose.
• In a very dry growing season sowing earlier than late April reduced yields when stored soil water was present after a long fallow.

• Know the risk of yield loss from eyespot before sowing a cereal - inspect stem bases (lodging does not always occur) in a previous cereal crop or take soil samples pre-sowing and submit them to PREDICTA B for analysis.
• When selecting varieties with some resistance to eyespot, check their susceptibility to leaf/stem diseases to ensure they are not very susceptible to diseases such as stem rust.
• Where eyespot pressure is low, varietal resistance alone will assist in reducing yield losses, but at medium to high level eyespot pressure, resistance alone may not be sufficient to provide good protection from eyespot.
• Varieties with weak straw strength are more likely to lodge if affected by eyespot.
• If applying fungicides for eyespot control - use the correct rate; apply before canopy closure (GS30-31); use high water rates; target the plant base (note that Aviator® Xpro® @ 500mL/ha is registered for eyespot control).

The occurrence of frost and subsequent frost damage to grain crops is a complex phenomenon. The factors affecting frost damage in wheat crop include seasonal conditions (temperature, humidity, and wind), soils characteristics (topography, soil type), variety (maturity and flowering window) and agronomic management (sowing date, row spacing, and seed and fertiliser inputs). In 2012, frost had significantly damaged and reduced the grain yield for all varieties at two different sowing dates at Wickepin. On average the later sowings (8 June) yielded 1 t/ha greater than the earlier sowings (18 May). Comparatively longer season varieties such as Magenta and Calingiri flowered late, avoided some of frost damage and yielded the highest at both sowings. Preliminary results indicate varieties differed in their relative performance and resilience (i.e. ability to yield) in response to stresses of radiant frosts in both time of sowings. More comprehensive results on variety performance and frost damage will be available after measuring grain quality and sterility estimates.

• Residual herbicides can restrict crop rotation options and is often more prominent following dry seasons.
• To minimise the potential impact on the following crop it is import to understand the product that has been used, the soil pH and the amount of rainfall received from application until the time of sowing the follow crop.
• It is also highly recommended to follow and adhere to the recommendations on the product label.

From this trial:

• Soil applications from 2015 were poorly effective at improving grain yield. Foliar applications of sulphate increased yield by about 1t/ha. Best yield increases of more than 2t/ha were achieved with a combination of soil and foliar applications. 

From the whole project:

• Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.
• Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.
• No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.
• Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.
• Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.

From this trial:

• The site was severely deficient in Cu for wheat. 
• Under these severely deficient conditions, soil applications of Cu were poorly effective compared to foliar sprays but fluid applications performed better than Cu enriched granular fertilisers.  However, soil applications of Cu can persist for decades.
• There was no evidence that a chelated source of Cu as a foliar spray was more effective than a sulphate source and less Cu seemed to end up in the grain with the chelated source.
• A single foliar spray of Cu prior to flowering is often sufficient to protect a cereal crop from Cu deficiency but under the severe deficiency encountered in 2015, two foliar sprays were necessary to overcome the problem completely (one at first node, the second prior to flowering).
• Cu deficiency can make a crop more sensitive to adverse conditions.  In this trial, the hot drying conditions of the early October weekend, severely scorched all plots with no or poorly effective Cu management strategies.
• The soil and leaf tests taken during this trial support that the current guidelines for Cu deficiency are still relevant to modern farming systems and varieties.  A DTPA Cu level in soil of less than 0.3 ppm in the top 10 cm is considered deficient, and 1.3 ppm Cu in YEBS is considered very deficient for wheat.

From the whole project:

Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.

Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.

No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.

Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.

Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.

From this trial: 

• No crop response to the addition of copper. Soil and plant tests not in the deficient range.

From the whole project: 

• Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.
• Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.
• No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.
• Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.
• Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.
•  

From this trial:

• No crop response to the addition of Manganese. Plant tests not in the deficient range.

From the whole project:

• Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.
• Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.
• No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.
• Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.
• Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.

From this trial:

• No change in crop performace with the addition of Manganese. As a foliar spray, sulphate was as effective as an EDTA chelate at increasing leaf manganese at Z30. Halving the recommended rate of sulphate decreased leaf manganese levels.

From the whole project:

• Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.
• Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.
• No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.
• Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.
• Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.

From this trial:

• No crop response to the addition of Manganese. Plant tests not in the deficient range.

From the whole project:

• Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.
• Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.
• No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.
• Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.
• Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.

From this trial:

• No crop response to the addition of Manganese. Plant tests not in the deficient range.

From the whole project:

• Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.
• Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.
• No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.
• Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.
• Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.

From this trial:

• No crop response to the addition of Manganese. Plant tests not in the deficient range.

From the whole project:

• Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.
• Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.
• No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.
• Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.
• Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.

From this trial:

• No crop response to the addition of Zinc. Soil and plant tests not in the deficient range.

From the whole project:

• Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.
• Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.
• No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.
• Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.
• Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.

From this trial:

• No crop response to the addition of Zinc. Soil and plant tests were in the deficient range. As a foliar spray, sulphate was as effective as two chelate sources for increasing leaf zinc at Z30.

From the whole project:

• Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.
• Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.
• No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.
• Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.
• Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.

From this trial:

• No crop response to the addition of zinc. Soil and plant tests not in the deficient range.

From the whole project:

• Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.
• Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.
• No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.
• Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.
• Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.

From this trial:

• No crop response to the addition of zinc. Soil and plant tests not in the deficient range.

From the whole project:

• Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.
• Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.
• No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.
• Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.
• Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.

From this trial:

• No crop response to the addition of Zinc. Soil and plant tests were not in the deficient range.

From the whole project:

• Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.
• Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.
• No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.
• Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.
• Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.

From this trial:

• Grain yield increased by 7% with the addition of zinc. Effectiveness of fertiliser strategies could not be assesed with such a small increase in yield. Soil and plant tests were in the deficient range. At Z14 zinc enriched fertilisers at sowing increased leaf zinc. At Z30 a sulphate as a foliar was as effective as an EDTA chelate. 

From the whole project:

• Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.
• Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.
• No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.
• Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.
• Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.

From this trial:

• No crop response to the addition of Zinc. Soil and plant tests were in the deficient range. Zinc applied at seeding either as a granular fertiliser or as a fluid fertiliser increased leaf zinc Z14.

From the whole project:

• Current guidelines are still relevant and effective for TE management.
• Some current interpretations of soil tests are causing issues - the suggested levels to avoid deficiencies are much higher in some lab reports than is our experience from field trials. These are creating false impressions of the extent and severity of Zn and Cu deficiencies.
• No evidence of a major increase in the incidence or severity of TE deficiencies in the cropping zones.
• Fluid delivery of TEs at seeding is a valid management strategy but rates of the target TE need to be the same as used with compounded fertilisers.
• Generally, all sources of foliar TE were equally effective.

• 40 kg N/ha applied upfront was the best yielding treatment for 2015, with the best protein results where the 40 Kg of N was applied as Urea.
• We found that 20 kg N/ha applied as a Zn enriched Urea product achieved a yield close to 40 kg N/ha as straight urea and we plan to test this treatment again in 2016.
• The timing and form of S application did not have any effect in 2015.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-
coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by over 20%.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increase yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N, S and Zn to the sand.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by more than 20%.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increased yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N,S and Zn to the sand.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-
coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by over 20%.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increase yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N, S and Zn to the sand.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-
coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by over 20%.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increase yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N, S and Zn to the sand.

• Yield losses caused by Pratylenchus are still being defined, in the meantime growers should focus on implementing management strategies to reduce impact of Rhizoctonia; most of these also reduce impact of Pratylenchus.
• Cereal cyst nematode (CCN) is a potential risk this year, particularly in continuous cereal paddocks with high frequency of susceptible varieties e.g. Wyalkatchem.
• Take-all risk is also increasing in continuous cereal and cereal/grassy pasture rotations; this is driven by above average growing seasons on Eyre Peninsula for the past few seasons.
• Field trials are underway to assess the yield losses caused by Pratylenchus in current varieties. Results of the first trials indicate yield losses caused by Pratylenchus in 2011 were relatively small; this program is continuing to determine if losses are higher in different seasons.
• Pratylenchus multiplication varies between varieties, check the 2012 Cereal Variety Disease Guide for the latest resistance ratings. Note; some barley varieties are better hosts for P. neglectus than previously thought.

The greatest threat to the ecological function of remnants is uncontrolled livestock access. Livestock prevent regeneration of native plants, damage the biological soil crust and increase nutrient levels in a remnant.

• The Yield Prophet uses the APSIM model to estimate wheat yields based on seasonal growing conditions and inputs.
• The outcomes of the Yield Prophet allow farmers to make better pre-sowing and in-crop management decisions which reduce risk and optimise returns.
• The Yield Prophet reports on crop growth during the season; availability of soil water and soil N; likely responses to N fertiliser; and calculates probabilities for yield and protein.
• The Yield Prophet is a web based service and accessible to subscribers and visitors on www.yieldprophet.com.au/yieldprophet.

• The APSIM wheat model was adapted and tested for southern Mallee conditions and demonstrated to be a powerful tool to evaluate risk exposure of farmers to climate variability.
• The model was tested and found to be reasonably accurate in estimating soil water based on rainfall events and also in relation to being able to simulate historical wheat yields.
• From the analysis of historical climate, using data in years after an El Nino event, the model predicts that the chance of a good yields during 2003 is about 50% (this is higher than the 33% that would be expected from the long term average), while the chance for a poor season is about a 20% (this is lower than the 33% that would be expected from the long term average).
• Our results also highlight the importance of taking into account soil water at sowing to analyse climate risk exposure in the Birchip area.

• With high grain prices, small increases in productivity can significantly improve farm profitability.
• At Goolagong, NSW, wheat yields were significantly increased by the use of a balanced fertiliser regime including N, P, K, S, Mg and Zn.
• An analysis of gross margins showed that the application of secondary and trace elements would have significantly improved farm profitability.
• Zinc-efficient (Excalibur) and inefficient (Gatcher) wheat cultivars grown in calcareous subsoil with low micronutrient levels, high pH and B. Treatments were +/- basal nutrients (exc Zn) and +/-Zn.
• Gatcher produced 47% more DM tops and double the root length density of Excalibur by maturity.
• Excalibur was far more efficient in Zn uptake and 7 times more efficient than Gatcher in partitioning zinc to grain.
• Simulated dry sowing was not shown to have any detrimental effect on Zn fertiliser use efficiency.

Result: Fertiliser incubated in dry soil tended to have greater lability but diffusion was limited, although this did not have any effect on availability to subsequent wheat.

The results have clearly shown that effective soil residual herbicides used in combination with timely applications of POST glyphosate in RT-canola can provide acceptable control of Group A resistant ryegrass. Ability to reduce seed set and seedbank replenishment in this initial phase of 2-year break is crucial to long-term management of ryegrass, particularly given that wheat is to follow and weed
control will rely on the few effective pre-emergent herbicides available.

• This set of trials indicates that SACOA ‘Irrigator’ banded wetting agent can improve crop establishment and grain yield but that responses can be highly variable. The 27-32% yield increase seen in 3 of the trials is very encouraging. Based on these and other trials it can be suggested that banded wetting agents are most likely to be effective when:
• Soils are moderate to strongly repellent and there are few residual roots form the previous year’s crop; and points and tines are used for seeding.
• Banded wetter is applied in a consistent stream to the base of relatively stable furrows. Collapsing furrows, furrow infill and a disrupted band of wetting agent can reduce efficacy. Presswheels with a more rectangular cross section tend to rip up furrow walls and the disturbed soil buries and mixes banded wetting agent. ‘V’ section or round section presswheels with no deep flange reduce such problems.
• The banded wetting agent kit needs to be robust and reliable and needs to accurately apply the wetting agent in a continuous stream into the base of the furrow
• Crops sown early into dry or partially dry soil before opening rains derive more benefit from banded wetter. Banded wetting agents are typically less beneficial when used later in the sowing program when there has already been rain and the soil has started to wet up.
• Growers already using wetting agents are tending to modify their usage of banded wetter to better match the likelihood of significant benefits. Some growers only use banded wetter for the dry seeding or early part of the program and don’t use it later in the program after there has been more rain.  Other growers are planning to use higher rates of banded wetter early in the program but then aim to reduce the rates when sowing later in the season. Both of these strategies will reduce cost while maximising the opportunity for benefits to crop establishment and yield. Current research in the state is showing that different banded wetting agent products can have a wide range of effects of crop establishment and especially on yield. DAFWA is continuing to research a range of products to help growers evaluate which types of banded wetting agent are more suitable for their farming system.

• This set of trials indicates that SACOA ‘Irrigator’ banded wetting agent can improve crop establishment and grain yield but that responses can be highly variable. The 27-32% yield increase seen in 3 of the trials is very encouraging. Based on these and other trials it can be suggested that banded wetting agents are most likely to be effective when:
• Soils are moderate to strongly repellent and there are few residual roots form the previous year’s crop; and points and tines are used for seeding.
• Banded wetter is applied in a consistent stream to the base of relatively stable furrows. Collapsing furrows, furrow infill and a disrupted band of wetting agent can reduce efficacy. Presswheels with a more rectangular cross section tend to rip up furrow walls and the disturbed soil buries and mixes banded wetting agent. ‘V’ section or round section presswheels with no deep flange reduce such problems.
• The banded wetting agent kit needs to be robust and reliable and needs to accurately apply the wetting agent in a continuous stream into the base of the furrow
• Crops sown early into dry or partially dry soil before opening rains derive more benefit from banded wetter. Banded wetting agents are typically less beneficial when used later in the sowing program when there has already been rain and the soil has started to wet up.
• Growers already using wetting agents are tending to modify their usage of banded wetter to better match the likelihood of significant benefits. Some growers only use banded wetter for the dry seeding or early part of the program and don’t use it later in the program after there has been more rain.  Other growers are planning to use higher rates of banded wetter early in the program but then aim to reduce the rates when sowing later in the season. Both of these strategies will reduce cost while maximising the opportunity for benefits to crop establishment and yield. Current research in the state is showing that different banded wetting agent products can have a wide range of effects of crop establishment and especially on yield. DAFWA is continuing to research a range of products to help growers evaluate which types of banded wetting agent are more suitable for their farming system.

• The addition of extra nutrients and stubble management (removed, incorporated or intact) did not affect grain yield or soil carbon stocks after three years of trial work.

• The addition of extra nutrients did not increase yield, therefore it is expected that more nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur remained in soil to breakdown stubble.
• Tillage practices (removed, worked or standing) also have no effect on grain yield or quality in both years of trials.

• The addition of extra nutrients did not increase yield, therefore it is expected that more nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur remained in soil to breakdown stubble.
• Tillage practices (removed, worked or standing) also have no effect on grain yield or quality in both years of trials.

• Significant crop biomass responses were observed on wheat, barley and canola crops at anthesis.
• The large crop biomass responses under organic amendment treatments were largely due to extra nutrients from lucerne pellets.
• The dramatic crop biomass responses observed at anthesis on canola and barley crops did not translate into grain yield under treatments with lucerne pellets applied, due to severe lodging.
• Soil chemical, physical and biological properties will be monitored to understand the soil-plant interactions, the factors driving the differences in crop response to the various treatments and the residual value of the amendments.

• Subsoil acidity is a major constraint to crop productivity in the high rainfall zone (500–800 mm) of southeastern Australia.
• More aggressive methods, such as deep ripping in conjunction with lime or other amendments, are being tested to achieve rapid changes to pH at depth.
• A long-term field experiment was established to study changes in the chemical, physical and biological properties of soil under vigorous soil amelioration techniques.