• Pod set in chickpeas was suppressed by the cool September and October in 2009. Dry spring conditions further suppressed grain yields and grain weights of late sown chickpea crops by terminating seed fill prematurely.
• The dry season favoured early sowing, and generally favoured the early maturing Genesis079. The desi’s Genesis509 and new release PBASlasher generally performed similarly, although PBASlasher has higher long term yields and improved seed quality over Genesis509 in NVT trials.
• Earlier sown chickpeas yielded higher than those sown later. However, when sowing was delayed, yield was maximised in some varieties by increasing the seeding rate above recommended, similarly to 2008. However current chickpea densities of 35 plants/m2 for kabuli’s (small and large) and 50 plants/m2 for desi’s remain best-practice when sown early.
• Higher grain weights in chickpeas were achieved in 2009 by sowing early, particularly in larger seeded kabuli’s. However this finding was opposite to that found in the past where later sowing dates have led to larger grain weights. Increasing plant density from current recommendations did not influence yield, but reducing density to 20 plants/m2 did show a reduction in grain weight.

No visual herbicide damage symptoms or yield effects were evident in 2008 wheat, barley, IT canola or lentil crops sown after the application of common herbicides to chickpeas in 2007.

Improved nutrition and inoculants improved biomass but not grain yields Desi chickpea, PBA Striker produced more biomass at flowering than kabuli varieties (Genesis 090 and Genesis 079).

Grain yields were generally disappointing for chickpeas in 2019, being unprofitable to harvest at Ouyen and relatively low yield at Horsham compared with other crops at the site. The season highlighted chickpeas poor adaptation to cool and frosty conditions during the reproductive phase. In these trials, consistent with previous work there is no clear link between flowering and maturity time and grain yield.

Foliar fungicide application on West Australian faba bean crops can be safely delayed until flowering begins, even if chocolate spot is present at low levels earlier in the season.

The choice of vigorous, leafy, nutritious forage crops available for low to medium rainfall environments to supply nutritious green feed to sheep during the winter and spring months continues to expand. Forage cereal crops provide feed during winter; vetch is useful from late winter into spring and forage brassicas provide from late spring into summer. To help decide which forage to grow from the broad range available, first plan the time of greatest need (time of year, duration), intention to harvest silage, hay or grain and the rotational requirements of the paddock in which forage is to be planted.

A summary of the main results from the first season at the Moora trial are presented in Figures 1 and 2.  Due to technical issues, the trial was not seeded at the same time as the rest of the paddock, which was supposed to be used as an untreated control. For this reason, a comparison of the treatments to a control treatment without tillage and clay spreading is not available.  A statistically significant effect of tillage on early plant establishment was found when analysing the plant counts measured about four weeks after sowing (Figure 1, left). All the treatments with the off-set disc (in combination or not with clay spreading) had more plants per linear meter in comparison to the one-way plough treatments. This is likely due to uneven seeding depth following tillage with the one-way plough (deep tillage) compared to the shallower tillage with the off-set disc. Surprisingly, incorporation of subsoil clay at any given rate did not show any significant effect on early plant establishment although this result could be explained by the wetter than usual weather in April-May reducing the severity of soil water repellence.

Again, when looking at the tiller counts recorded 8 weeks after sowing (Figure 1, right) the addition of clay at different rates did not affect the number of tillers. However, the wheat growing in the one-way plough treatments overcame the initial delay in germination giving higher tiller number than those recorded in the treatments with the off-set disc (except for the treatment with 250 t/ha of clay). This trend continued at harvest, with the one-way plough treatments producing higher yields (4.5-4.6 t/ha on average) than the off-set disc treatments (4.1-4.3 t/ha on average) at any given rate of subsoil clay.

Due to the low rates of clay spreading and the low cost of the incorporation methods, all treatments provided a positive return of investments in the first year (ROI= ($/ha gain – $/ha total direct costs) / $/ha total direct costs), based on mean values in Table 1. Not surprisingly, the best ROI in the first year was obtained by the one-way plough treatment without clay spreading (1.42 $/ha), followed by the off-set disc without clay spreading (1.22 $/ha) and the treatments clay spread at 50 t/ha incorporated with one-way plough (1.17 $/ha). These estimates are indicative only, as indirect costs and interests on the initial capital investment are not included in the calculations. For more accurate estimates of ROI, yield results from multiple seasons and crops will be collected in the next 3 years.

 

A summary of the main results from the first season at the Moora trial are presented in Figures 1 and 2.  Due to technical issues, the trial was not seeded at the same time as the rest of the paddock, which was supposed to be used as an untreated control. For this reason, a comparison of the treatments to a control treatment without tillage and clay spreading is not available.  A statistically significant effect of tillage on early plant establishment was found when analysing the plant counts measured about four weeks after sowing (Figure 1, left). All the treatments with the off-set disc (in combination or not with clay spreading) had more plants per linear meter in comparison to the one-way plough treatments. This is likely due to uneven seeding depth following tillage with the one-way plough (deep tillage) compared to the shallower tillage with the off-set disc. Surprisingly, incorporation of subsoil clay at any given rate did not show any significant effect on early plant establishment although this result could be explained by the wetter than usual weather in April-May reducing the severity of soil water repellence.

Again, when looking at the tiller counts recorded 8 weeks after sowing (Figure 1, right) the addition of clay at different rates did not affect the number of tillers. However, the wheat growing in the one-way plough treatments overcame the initial delay in germination giving higher tiller number than those recorded in the treatments with the off-set disc (except for the treatment with 250 t/ha of clay). This trend continued at harvest, with the one-way plough treatments producing higher yields (4.5-4.6 t/ha on average) than the off-set disc treatments (4.1-4.3 t/ha on average) at any given rate of subsoil clay.

Due to the low rates of clay spreading and the low cost of the incorporation methods, all treatments provided a positive return of investments in the first year (ROI= ($/ha gain – $/ha total direct costs) / $/ha total direct costs), based on mean values in Table 1. Not surprisingly, the best ROI in the first year was obtained by the one-way plough treatment without clay spreading (1.42 $/ha), followed by the off-set disc without clay spreading (1.22 $/ha) and the treatments clay spread at 50 t/ha incorporated with one-way plough (1.17 $/ha). These estimates are indicative only, as indirect costs and interests on the initial capital investment are not included in the calculations. For more accurate estimates of ROI, yield results from multiple seasons and crops will be collected in the next 3 years.

The topsoil sand at Yanda was severely repellent (Figure 1, left), as measured by the molarity of ethanol droplet test (MED). Clay spreading and tillage (either combined or separated) significantly reduced the severity of water repellency. When the subsoil clay was not incorporated by tillage or was incorporated using an off-set disc, the soil water repellency generally decreased with an increasing amount of subsoil clay. However, low-repellency (MED<1) was obtained only at rates over 150 t/ha of subsoil.

In contrast, spading (either at standard speed of the tractor or at half speed) was the most effective method for the alleviation of soil water repellency. In these treatments, the MED values were completely reduced to zero (non-repellent soil) and, most importantly, this was achieved independently from the presence, or not, of clay-rich subsoil. The significant reduction of the soil water repellency however did not convert to better plant establishment measured five weeks after sowing (Figure 1, Right).  This result could be explained by the wetter than usual weather recorded during April-May 2016 that reduced the impact of the soil water repellency on plant establishment. Nevertheless, tiller counts collected five weeks after plant counts showed a significant effect of tillage on the number of tillers. In particular, the spader treatments (standard and ½ speed) had the most tillers while the control had the fewest.

This trend was repeated with the barley grain yields at harvest time (Figure 2). Both tillage and rate of clay spreading, significantly improved grain yield in comparison to the control treatments (no clay and no tillage). The lowest yield were recorded in the control treatments and in the off-set tillage only (no clay) with an average of 1.41 t/ha and 1.36 t/ha respectively. The shallow tillage (or incorporation) using off-set discs did not yield significantly differently from the treatments with no incorporation at any given rate of subsoil clay. Clay spreading at 250 t/ha followed by spading at standard speed produced the highest yield on average (2.93 t/ha). Nonetheless, all treatments with spading (standard and ½ speed) were able to yield over 2.5 t/ha, even without the addition of subsoil clay (Figure 2). 

Field observations showed that the trial was also affected by frost, which explained the lower than expected yields. Head samples were collected in early November 2016 from all the treatments (except spading at ½ speed) for the assessment of frost induced sterility (FIS= number of sterile florets / total number of florets) and the results are shown in Figure 3.

The results on FIS showed that frost damage might be one of the main reasons of low yields and responsible of the large yield differences between treatments. The control treatments and the off-set treatment (no clay) had over 60% frost induced sterility. Even though increasing amounts of subsoil clay significantly reduced FIS (Figure 3c), the treatments with no incorporation or with incorporation by off-set discs still recorded FIS values above 50%. Spading was the most effective treatment to significantly reduce frost damage to below 40%, regardless of the presence or not of subsoil clay (Figure 3a and b).

Spading was the most successful treatment in this first year of the trial at Yanda. Most importantly, spading was able to produce the highest yields and significantly reduce the frost damage regardless of the addition subsoil clay. This was particularly evident when estimating the simple return of investments on the first year of the trial (ROI= ($/ha gain – $/ha total direct costs) / $/ha total direct costs), based on the mean values presented in Table 3. Because of the high crop-specific costs with barley at Yanda (500 $/ha) and the yield reduction due to frost, spading alone at standard speed was the only treatment that gave a positive ROI on the first year (+0.4 $/ha) followed by negative ROI with spading at ½ speed (-0.18 $/ha) and the control (-0.35 $/ha). These estimates are indicative only, as indirect costs and interests on the initial capital investment are not included in the calculations. For more accurate estimates of ROI, yield results from multiple seasons and crops will be collected in the next 3 years.

 

Management of Ascochyta remains critical to growing successful chickpea crops, and application of an appropriate seed dressing, followed by a foliar fungicide 4-6 weeks later is an essential first step.

• Ascochyta did not progress at this site in 2021 due to low rainfall during the warmer part of the season when temperature better suits disease development.
• Management of Ascochyta remains critical to growing successful chickpea crops and application of an appropriate seed dressing, followed by a foliar fungicide 4-6 weeks later is an essential first step.
• Overall, yields were very good with a site average of 1.70t/ha.

• Management of Ascochyta remains critical to growing successful chickpea crops and application of an appropriate seed dressing followed by foliar fungicide 4-6 weeks later are essential first steps

Conventionaland TT canola and many pulse crops are very sensitive to traces of sulfonylurea (Glean, Logran or Ally) remaining in the boomspray (tank, hoses and filters). It is recommended to clean out the boomspray using the recommended procedures with bleach. However, if a sensitive crop (such as regular canola) is to be sprayed after using one of the SU herbicides then it is suggested to also clean the boomspray with an EC formulated herbicide or insecticide.

• Break crops faced a range of tough environmental conditions in the Mallee in 2015 including multiple frost and heat shock events.
• Timely rainfall in April and hence early sowing resulted in excellent biomass production with most crop options producing on average more than 2 t DM/ha and several break crop options producing greater than 2.5 t DM/ha.
• The highest grain yields tended to be crops with the quickest maturity such as lentils (0.73 t/ha), vetch (0.64 t/ha) and field peas (0.63 t/ha).
• High value crops such as lentils and vetch were highly profitable due to both excellent prices and reasonable grain yields. (v) Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types.

• Break crops faced a range of tough environmental conditions in the Mallee in 2015 including multiple frost and heat shock events.
• Timely rainfall in April and hence early sowing resulted in excellent biomass production with most crop options producing on average more than 2 t DM/ha and several break crop options producing greater than 2.5 t DM/ha.
• The highest grain yields tended to be crops with the quickest maturity such as lentils (0.73 t/ha), vetch (0.64 t/ha) and field peas (0.63 t/ha). 
• High value crops such as lentils and vetch were highly profitable due to both excellent prices and reasonable grain yields.
• Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types.

• Break crops faced a range of tough environmental conditions in the Mallee in 2015 including multiple frost and heat shock events.
• Timely rainfall in April and hence early sowing resulted in excellent biomass production with most crop options producing on average more than 2 t DM/ha and several break crop options producing greater than 2.5 t DM/ha.
• The highest grain yields tended to be crops with the quickest maturity such as lentils (0.73 t/ha), vetch (0.64 t/ha) and field peas (0.63 t/ha).
• High value crops such as lentils and vetch were highly profitable due to both excellent prices and reasonable grain yields.

• Double knock applications of some group H containing herbicides followed by paraquat seven days later appear to be a viable alternative to double knocking with Tordon 75D followed by paraquat for the control of early flowering flaxleaf fleabane.
• The most effective group H containing herbicides in combination with paraquat as double knock treatments were Precept, Balance and Velocity in order of effectiveness of their control of early flowering flaxleaf fleabane.

• Tank mixing systemic herbicides and paraquat appears to be an effective tactic to control mid to late tillering awnless barnyard grass (BYG).
• Tank mixes could be a viable alternative to double knocking for BYG control, although further investigation is needed.

• Results from experimentation undertaken in southern NSW in 2011 and 2012, have demonstrated that crop sequences which include a brassica or legume break crops can be as profitable as, and in many instances more profitable than, continuous wheat.
• Canola was consistently the most profitable break crop option. However, the rotational benefits of canola were usually restricted to just the first subsequent wheat crop whereas additional wheat yields can occur for 2 years after a legume.
• Growing pulses for grain maximises profit, particularly in favourable seasons, but compromises grass weed control and (depending upon species) reduces N available to subsequent crops compared to brown manuring.
• Growing pulses for hay was found to be profitable across a range of season types, achieves excellent grass weed control and provides greater N inputs and higher carry-over of soil water than when the same crop is grown for grain.
• Growing pules for brown manure loses money in the year they are grown, but achieves excellent grass weed control, high N inputs, residual carry-over of soil water, provides more ground cover, and requires less labour than when grown for hay or grain.

The Gross Returns (Income less Input Costs) for this demonstration using 2016 wheat prices for APW1, APW2 and ASW1 indicate that farmer practice (control) had the highest return of $443.61/ha (Figure 7 and Table 3). The second highest return was the spaded treatment at $442.11/ha.

All the treatments made a profit during 2016 between $303.13/ha to $443.61/ha. For a season such as 2016 where there was sufficient rainfall for plant establishment and growth, wetters may not be required at seeding which would reduce input costs.

Results generated using an average wheat price of $250/t over all treatments indicates that farmer practice (control) would still have the highest return of $465.81/ha, whilst the ploughed treatment would have the second highest return of $462.52/ha (Figure 8 and Table 4). All treatments would make a profit over $353.11/ha.

Over both scenarios the Gross Return ranking trend remained similar, with the soil amelioration treatments bringing a greater return than the wetters and DBS knife point at depth.  There is a larger $/h return difference between the two wetter treatments when comparing the 2016 wheat prices due to the grade of the grain (Table 2); $52.55/ha for 2016 wheat price and $22.67/ha for average $250 price.

It would be interesting to see how all plots at this site perform under a range of seasonal conditions. A multi year Gross Returns analysis could indicate a change in the $/ha return ranking trend in seasons where wetters have a greater influence on plant establishment. This analysis may also present significant return on investment for the soil amelioration treatments in the second and third year crops.

Study Conclusions

Potential nitrogen contributions are assumed to be 40% of the total nitrogen contribution, assessed from the dry weight and nitrogen content (N% tissue) of the green manure crops measured at anthesis. Legume crops provided the most potential nitrogen of all treatments, due to high tissue nitrogen and moderate to high biomass production. Oats had the highest biomass but were low in tissue nitrogen and potential nitrogen benefits were therefore negligible. Any benefits from this type of crop, would be largely associated with the contribution of organic carbon to the soil. Emergence of both canola and mustard was poor, whilst the lathyrus and vetch competed poorly with weeds due to slow initial growth.

The percentage of undecomposed material remaining on the soil surface at seeding in 1999, varied from approximately 35% for oats down to 10% for lathyrus. The general pattern was that the crops with higher tissue nitrogen content broke down quicker. This indicates the microbial degradation of legume crops is likely to be faster than for brassica or cereal crops.

Differences in water infiltration observed may indicate the potential for treatments to increase the initial sorptivity of soil (ability for more rapid entry of rainfall) and decrease the flow rate through the soil (effectively increasing moisture retention). This may allow earlier sowing after summer rains, increased moisture availability during the growing season and potentially longer availability under dry finishing conditions. These results are variable and subject to trial/operator error. Further evaluation of these attributes is required prior to evaluation of renovation techniques.

The high cost of seeding and maintenance of the green manure crop, can significantly influence the gains or losses experienced over this three year period. It may be most economic, to green manure legume crops in seasons with low potential returns (poor yield potential or price).  The cost of harvesting a lupin crop for example may prove less beneficial than using it as a green manure to improve wheat yield and quality, where prices are depressed or where disease/season has reduced yield potential. Strategic use of green manure crops as a tool in integrated weed management or potential productivity gains through addressing specific problems may result in little or no short term economic gain where employed in better performing paddocks and must be viewed as a long term strategy to overcome yield constraints. However, strategic use of these techniques for poor performing paddocks, or paddock that would have otherwise been ‘rested’, are likely to result in economic responses, particularly where using low cost crops or pasture has been employed as there is no requirement to recover the cost of foregone yield – only those associated with growing a crop and the implementation of techniques.

Data supports the hypothesis that a green manuring:wheat:wheat rotation, may be as profitable as a legume:wheat:wheat rotation using either a field pea or Lathyrus crop. Given this assessment does not include any additional benefits that may be gained from green or brown manuring in terms of additional weed control and potential improvement of soil characteristics such as the addition of organic material, improved soil structure and longer term productivity gains, these techniques are likely to prove both economical and sustainable by providing additional benefits that may be observed in lower herbicide costs through better weed management, improved soil health and a more flexible farming system.

• Treatments were a single application of 10 kg/ha of Zn as zinc sulfate monohydrate (ZSM) (35% Zn) in 1996 or 4 applications of 1.25kg/ha or 2.5 kg/ha Zn as Incitec.
• Granulock ST-Z (10 %N, 19.5 % P, 2.5% Zn) between 1996 and 1999. Soil samples were collected at the commencement of the experiment, after the first application and post-harvest from the fourth crop.
• Samples were analysed for DTPA extractable Zn.
• The percentage of soil extractable Zn available from applied Zn after 4 cereal crops was about 12 % for the single application of 10 kg/ha Zn as ZSM, 22% for multiple applications of 1.25 kg/ha Zn and 20 % for 2.5 kg/ha Zn as STZ.
• It would appear that provided there is no compromise in crop productivity, a multiple low rate strategy of Zn fertiliser addition may be more effective in building available soil Zn concentration than a single higher rate.

Ungarra Site: No different in yields (grain or dry matter) between any of the treatments (ie seeder had no effect)

• High sowing rates (120kg/ha) and narrow row spacing (17cm) had the highest yield in all wheat varieties tested.
• The results were repeatable over two dry seasons (1997 and 1998).

Increased use of grass selective herbicides in many farming systems has caused increased selection pressure for herbicide resistance in grass weed populations such as annual ryegrass and brome grass. Work conducted by Bill Roy (Agricultural Consulting & Research Services Pty Ltd, York) with GRDC support demonstrates that managing herbicide resistance requires a diversified approach using a number of different tools. Manipulating canopy through seeding rates and row spacing is one of the options being explored by the BCG.

Increased use of grass selective herbicides in many farming systems has caused increased selection pressure for herbicide resistance in grass weed populations such as annual ryegrass and brome grass. Work conducted by Bill Roy (Agricultural Consulting & Research Services Pty Ltd, York) with GRDC support demonstrates that managing herbicide resistance requires a diversified approach using a number of different tools. Manipulating canopy through seeding rates and row spacing is one of the options being explored by the BCG.

Barley was more competitive than wheat in reducing ryegrass numbers.

• The overall performance of Frame and Silverstar was much better than for Ouyen.
• In this very dry year, higher sowing rates at narrow row spacing gave the highest yields for Frame and Silverstar.
• Ouyen performed better at higher sowing rates at wider spacings.

No significant result and more testing required.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Historically, Australian farmers own the land they farm. Given that a large capital cost is associated with land purchase, businesses may seek non-ownership options.
• Alternatives to buying or selling agricultural land do exist.
• Leasing and share farming agreements are the most commonly utilised alternatives in Australia but still play a relatively minor role.

• Many views exist as to whether continous cropping is sustainable.
• Results from a long term tillage trial at Condobolin indicate direct drilled crops are outperforming crops using tillage.
• Stubble retention compared to burning gives mixed results for yield, although more weed build up is evident with retained stubble.
• Wheat yields are higher when grown after peas than after wheat in succession.

• Western Flat (Ramseys) soil modification work. Site was established in 2009. After 2 seasons, the area that organic matter was spaded into is performing well.
• Wolseley (Matthews’); alternative fertiliser demonstration; no differences were found between soil biology after a 12 month period.
• Lochaber Ag Bureau (Clothiers); Peries Wightman subsoil manuring project
• Dairy sites with Dairy SA based around the Mt Gambier region
• Coonalpyn Ag Bureau Soil pit days
• Coonawarra Grape Growers – historical composting trial sites revisited
• Sherwood – soil modifications in conjunction with additional carbon project

• Sunflower grain yield averaged 1.07 t/ha at this site with the highest yields obtained from the control and the treatments where only the bottom one third (1/3) of leaves were removed.
• The total leaf removal treatments had the largest effect on yield, at worst yielding only 0.16 t/ha.
• Removing all leaves at budding or at the start of the flowering growth stages had the largest effect on plant structures.
• Total leaf removal at the end of flowering had the largest effect on 1000 grain weight and test weight.

• Sunflower yields were greatly affected by the various defoliation treatments, ranging from 0.12 t/ha to 0.97 t/ha.
• Reductions in yield, of between 55% and 82% compared with the control resulted from total leaf removal at all three of the targeted growth stages (budding, start of flowering and flowering completion) as well as removing two-thirds of the leaves at budding.
• There was no negative effect on grain yield from removing the bottom third of leaves at budding or the start of flowering. Removing the bottom third of leaves at the start of flowering actually provided a slight yield advantage over the control treatment. The largest effect on plant height, head diameter and head arc length were caused by removing all leaves at the budding stage.

Early application of selective herbicide (Group 1, A) gave excellent control of barley grass. While fewer barley grass plants meant less pasture biomass, it’s important to remember that the seeds on the mature barley grass would injure livestock. Further, these barley grass plants could host cereal crop disease.

Spray topping prevented viable seed set of barley grass while leaving the greatest pasture biomass.

Good barley grass control in the 2019 pasture was still evident in the 2020 and 2021 crops.

Late sowing of barley in 2020 (delayed 4 weeks) was relatively ineffective in controlling barley grass and crop yield was slightly reduced.

Late sowing of oats in 2021 (delayed 7 weeks) gave excellent weed control, but the crop yield was severely reduced.

Three years of control reduced barley grass density from over 1000 plants/m2 to 2-14 plants/m2 across the whole site.

The diverse rotation, including pasture and canola break crops, allowed a range of herbicides from different mode of actions and control of late emerging barley grass cohorts.

Two years of seed set prevention was not sufficient to remove the barley grass. Barley grass has a seedbank that lasts at least 3-4 years.

• Excellent annual ryegrass control (>85%) with propyzamide either as split application (IBS followed by PSPE) or as a mixture with tri-allate.
• Atrazine also gave effective control this season with rainfall assisting activity (>79%).
• Early crop vigour was suppressed with Outlook & the higher split rate (1 kg/ha IBS followed by 1 kg/ha PSPE) of propyzamide.
• UAN at 20 kg/ha caused some leaf burning, however the crop recovered.

Controlled traffic farming leaves permanent wheel tracks when growing crops. There are large savings in
costs, especially due to lower horsepower requirements, and also minimisation of compaction layer effects
on the crop. Machinery with different configurations and widths of wheel tracks presents one problem for
controlled traffic.

• Observations in N.S.W., Victoria and Western Australia clearly show that tap rooted crops have excellent straight tap roots when grown on beds when compared to flat paddocks. 
• These initial considerations suggest narrow raised beds may offer a better overall soil water exploration throughout different depths of the profile and a better depth of rooting by crops. 
   

• Vetch production in a very tough season was little affected by trafficking imposed in 2015.
• After three years of crop production, low levels of trafficking have had little impact on grain yield on a Minnipa soil, multiple trafficking on wet soil (in 2015) increased grain yields in the second and third crops.
• Ripping conducted in 2015 lifted the soil substantially but has not benefited production in any of the following three crops.

This work has demonstrated that N2O emissions from trafficked soil were consistently and significantly greater (by an average factor of 2.2) than those from non-trafficked soil. At the same time, soil CH4 consumption was significantly increased in the CTF beds compared to random-trafficked or permanent traffic lanes, although overall CH4 fluxes were small. Permanent traffic lanes normally represent only 10%–15% of field area on controlled traffic farms, compared with ∼50% or more trafficked area on non-controlled traffic farms. Thus, the results indicate that adoption of controlled traffic should reduce soil emissions of C2O-e by 30%–50%, and this effect would be greater if N fertiliser could be excluded from permanent traffic lanes.  The reduction in emissions also indicates that less N has been lost by denitrification, an effect which might be in the range of 3 – 20 kg/ha.

The work has demonstrated that CTF will reduce the GHG emissions from grain production, in addition to providing economic and other environmental benefits.
 

• In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops.
• The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached.
• In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops. The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached. In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops. The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached. In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

• Trifluralin was more effective at reducing ryegrass numbers in the cereal phase than in break crops.
• There are more benefits from good rotation than improved weed control alone, but benefits (in this case additional nitrogen) may not be apparent until several years after the non-cereal break crop or pasture phase.

This trial looked at protecting the crop from excessive sun and wind during the spring when crops are flowering and setting seed by covering it in shade cloth in early September. It was expected that this would improve yield and grain size but in fact it had the opposite effect with reduced yields and poor grain quality.

Crop was sown as part of a rotational trial, examining the effects of Group B residues on the following maize crop.

• In poorer seasons there is no positive economic reward for high nitrogen fertiliser inputs.
• Oats and vetch for either grazing or hay consistently provided positive gross margins.
• Wheat crops which followed a chemical fallow provided the best gross margin in both trials.
• Aim to maximise profits, not necessarily yields.

• Cover cropping did not improve cotton yields in this experiment.
• High stubble loads from spraying out the cover crop after the cereals reached growth stage Z39 negatively affected established cotton plant numbers and consequently lint yield.
• Cover crops terminated at growth stage Z39 had no yield penalty, but stored more soil water than the fallow treatment.

Hundreds of crops have been domesticated and cultivated by humankind during the history of agriculture, utilised for food, forage, fibre and medicine. However, only a small number provide the bulk of the raw material necessary for human survival. The limited diversity has increased the vulnerability of crops to adverse climatic conditions and fluctuating markets.

• As far as we can reliably ascertain, all the other 8 essential elements required for normal wheat growth are supplied by EP soils in adequate amounts under most circumstances.

• Initial barley growth was increased 40-50% and final yield by 10% when using seed with greater nutrients, even on soils not associated with manganese deficiency.
• Crops can drop into manganese deficiency late in the season with symptoms being pale, floppy leaves.
• Sufficient concentraiotns are Copper 2-3 ppm in grain and 5ppm in leaf, and for zinc 15ppm in grain and 23-25 ppm in leaf.
• Zinc is so cheap thatbit is worthwhile treating than taking any risk, at Wudinna this year a headland area not receiving zinc died while the remainder of the crop which received zinc survived the water stress.
• Trace element deficiencies seem to beexacerbated in dry years.

• This was a large scale demonstration using Impact applied to the sowing fertilizer at the two label rates of 400m/ha and 200mL/ha. The two other areas were sown with no Impact on the fertilizer but one was sprayed with Impact at 250mL/ha at stem elongation. 
• There were no obvious signs of leaf diseases or other symptoms in the plots but the two Impact in furrow' treatments delivered economic yield benefits. The previous two crops grown in the area were wheat, which may mean Take-all was a factor. 

• Wheat on wheat following canola is an alternative that will enable more cereal crop to be grown in a rotation.
• Raising inputs on cereals to increase yield returns well in $/ha.
• Alternative crops such as canola and lupins are not high income earners compared to cereals with optimum (higher than average) inputs.

• Wheat on wheat following canola is an alternative that will enable more cereal crop to be grown in a rotation.
• Under dry conditions there was no response to additional nitrogen or fungicide treatments.  
• Alternative crops such as canola and lupins yield very poorly in drought seasons.

• Wheat on wheat following canola is an alternative that will enable more cereal crop to be grown in a rotation.
• Barley yields best under dry conditions.
• There were responses to additional nitrogen (N) or fungicide treatments in all cereal crops.
• Alternative crops such as canola and lupins yield very poorly in drought seasons.

• Wheat on wheat following canola is an alternative that will enable moer cereal crop to be grown in a rotation.
• Wheat or cereal after wheat has given a better return than more canola for the trial period 2004 - 2008.
• Barley yields and returns better profits than wheat or triticale under dry conditions.
• There were ersponsees to fungicide treatments and added nitrogen in barley during 2008 and in all cereals during the long term.

• Decreasing row spacing and increasing plant density improved chickpea and faba bean competitive abilities.

• The improved competitive abilities improved yields and reduced sowthistle biomass and seed production, which will improve weed control in subsequent crops.
 

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

Harvest results for this trial show a yield and quality improvement for areas where the TM21 was applied. One of the replications was adversely impacted by mechanical damage incurred during either spraying or fertilizer application in the later stages of crop development.

• All 4 rotations produced good gross margins for 2014.
• KI rotation plus broad beans’ best gross margin based on 2 year average.
• Need to compare data over 3 years of crop rotation.

Crop selection in 2003 is complicated by the conditions in 2002. The main issues that can affect your crops this year are:

Cereal Root Disease levels in 2002 were very low and disease levels from 2001 will be carried over - 2002 was NOT a disease break year. The last time we saw CCN in the southern Mallee was after the 1994 dry year when eelworm did not hatch but was carried over from 1993 and affected wheat crops in 1995.

Foliar Disease levels were low in 2002 and stubbles from 2001 will be the main source of inoculum outbreak for diseases in 2003.

Residual Herbicides used in 2001 and 2002 can have a large impact on susceptible crops in 2003.

• Legume crops consistently increased pre-sowing soil nitrogen in the year following the break.
• Two-year break phases that included a brown manure vetch phase have generally resulted in the highest pre sowing soil nitrogen levels in the subsequent wheat crops.
• One and two-year break phases reduce Rhizoctonia soil inoculum, however levels increase significantly following the first cereal crop.
• Two-year break treatments generally reduced brome grass populations in the cereal phase, however all rotations relied on Clearfield herbicides for brome grass control by the second wheat crop following the break.
• The benefits from extra soil water following some break phases in this trial have been variable and small.

When sub-soil water is present, growing high value canola and legume break crops can be profitable in the Mallee.

Where brome grass seed bank populations are high, break crop sequences of longer than two years are necessary to decrease numbers, and keep them down.

The application of CLF herbicide chemistry is effective in reducing brome grass populations, but herbicide resistance will develop quickly if they are used repeatedly in the same paddock.

• The choice of legume species and management were found to influence the amount of nitrogen fixed by both crop and pasture legumes byaffecting either legume reliance upon N2 fixation for growth or changes in dry matter accumulation.
• Medium to high soil mineral N concentrations at sowing appeared to suppress N2 fixation by field pea more than lupins or faba beans.
• Pulse legumes grown for grain generally result in lower net inputs of fixed N.
• Available soil N following either legume crops or pastures can represent an additional 40 to 90kg N/ha in the 1st year.
• The increased N uptake by the 1st wheat crop grown after legumes was equivalent to 27-40% of N in the previous year's legum residues.

• Wheat sown after break crops produced up to 1 t/ha more than wheat after wheat
• The greatest benefit of the break crop was produced at the earliest sowing
• Safflower produced the break crop effect but produced low wheat yields, small grain but high protein due to drying out the soil profile.

More reliable management strategies for the production of broad leaved phases.

Identification of more reliable break phase options.

Guidelines to identify trigger points for when, for how long and which break phases to use for improved farming systems outcomes.

Reliable estimation of risks with break phases as well as their total impacts on following cereal crops.

• Break crops can be just as profitable as wheat crops.
• Antas sub-clover (for hay production) as the break crop was the most profitable option.
• Beans were the most effective at fixing nitrogen, averaging 13 kgN/tDM produced.

• Break crops can be just as profitable as wheat crops
• Antas sub-clover (for hay production) as the break crop was the most profitable option
• Beans were the most effective at fixing nitrogen, averaging 13 kgN/tDM produced

• Time of Sowing; get it right after the break crop.
• Effects of the break crops are often realised for at least 2 seasons after being planted.
• Beans consistently fixed the most nitrogen over the 3 year period; averaging 15Kg N/ha per tonne of dry matter produced (above the ground).
• Financial benefit of a break crop needs to be worked out over life of rotation.

• Crop topping provides an excellent strategy to control escapee or resistant weeds in field pea
  crops.
• Yield can be severely penalised if crop topping occurs too early.
• Correct variety choice and careful timing of crop topping is essential
• Varieties should be selected to achieve maximum yield simultaneously with maximum weed
  control.
• Ontime spraying achieved excellent weed control as annual ryegrass and wild oats were at
  the flowering stage.

• Dry and hot spring conditions reduced grain yields and led to early senescence of pulse
  varieties in 2008 particularly in late flowering and/or maturing types. Many of the grain
  yield reductions expected at the mid and late crop topping timings were ‘masked’ due to
  premature senescence in many varieties brought on by these dry spring conditions.
• The early crop topping treatment reduced grain yields of field peas, lentils and chickpeas
  compared with the nil treatment, however there were field pea and lentil lines identified
  which did not incur a yield loss at this timing, indicating suitability to this agronomic
  practice.
• Some lines in all crops were found to incur yield loss and grain weight reductions at the
  appropriate timing for crop topping indicating poor suitability to this agronomic practice.
  jb66 Page 75 30/04/2009
• Not all early flowering and maturing lines were able to be safely crop topped in the 2008
  experiments nor did all late lines always incur a yield loss. Further evaluation is required to
  confirm findings in a year where varieties are not prematurely senesced by drought
  conditions.
• Detailed grain quality measurements (seed size distribution, colour, hydration percentage)
  are currently occurring on some treatments and varieties to assess the effects of crop topping and desiccation on seed quality.

• Similarly to previous (2013) trials, there was no interaction between crop-top timing and variety. This means that the varieties evaluated in these trials had the same grain yield response at the different crop-top timings; therefore no variety was better suited to crop-topping than another. This finding has been consistent in faba beans over time but different to all other crops (lentil, field pea, chickpea).

• Chickpea are generally considered to be unsuited to crop-topping due to their high yield losses, and are the least suited of the four pulse crops commonly grown in South Australia.

• All the legumes sown - peas, lupins, sub clover and faba beans - were equal in terms of their nitrogen-fixing capabilities, reflecting the importance of having well nodulated legumes.
• The average amount of N fixed by the legumes was calculated at approx. 86kg/ha.
• In year 2, this residual N gave rise to a approx. 1 t/ha canola yield advantage.
• In yera 3, no differences in residual nitrogen from legumes were measured.
• Linseed extracted more moisture, from a greater depth, than the faba beans in the same year and all subsequent crops - canola and oats.
• The linseed was able to dry the soil profile in a decile 10 year (812mm rainfall). This is a potential solution for farmers wanting to dry out their soil profile.
• Two years after growing linseed, soil moisture levels were even.

Key findings:

• Nitrogen (N) decision making requires a good understanding of background soil and plant science, and soil test interpretation.
• Training for new agronomists needs to be a priority issue.
• Senior NSW agronomists identified crop yield expectation as guided by soil moisture at sowing (or at the time of N decision making) as the most important determinant of N fertiliser requirement.
• Further research is needed to increase the understanding of how management practices affect potentially large gaseous N losses. 
• Changing from legume pasture-crop sequences to continuous cropping in many central and southern areas of New South Wales is posing new questions for managing N supply. The absence of N-fixation by pasture legumes is seen as a substantial loss of N-buffering capacity.
• Despite most advisers choosing soil testing as a key approach for determining N fertiliser required, many of their clients had a lower confidence in soil testing, citing ‘high perceived variability in soil nitrate results in the lead up to sowing’.
• Conclusions and Recommendations Senior advisers highlighted the importance of quality training in N decision-making, understanding the background soil and plant science involved, and soil test interpretation for the next generation of agronomists, with training courses including representation from highly experienced local agronomists.
• The understanding of gaseous N losses requires further research, development and extension to the grains industry. Recent field research in the north was limited in scope and produced challenging outcomes that can potentially lead to large practice changes in when and how N fertiliser is applied. Further research and development work is warranted to answer more of the practical questions growers and advisers are asking in regards to losses associated with various alternative practices.

• The northern results on N loss pathways are less relevant to advisers in the central and southern regions where N application timing, soil type and climatic differences are generally quite different from the dominant medium-heavy clays of the north. New N loss research is recommended for the lighter textured soils in regards to the potential for N volatilization losses from surface N application of various products. Economic outcomes from the various strategies being practiced are also needed. Nitrogen loss research should focus less on expensive slow-release products and more on optimising results from urea, the cheapest N source.

• Research into better soil water measurement was seen as a priority area, especially given the importance all advisers place on knowing this when making expensive N-fertiliser decisions for a coming cropping season. Zonal management within paddocks is not possible with single site characterisations, so atypical areas of paddocks are over or under-fertilised.

• The very early application of N fertiliser ahead of a winter cropping season is well established, but what is not known is how well the subsoil N may be protected or at risk from denitrification in flooding events. Also, better knowledge on specific N use within the profile during the cropping season will help growers to know when late-applied N is likely to be inaccessible to crop use.

• Nitrogen mineralisation was highlighted by agronomists from all three regions as an area for greater understanding with regards to the differences caused by climatic conditions, especially rainfall. They also require better understanding of the N produced from both native organic matter and recent legume pasture residues.

• There are a number of good decision support tools available currently, with several advisers suggesting that combining the best points of each into one package, even one available as an app, would be highly useful, particularly one with good grower-friendly reports.

• Many farmers have low confidence in soil testing.  This may be related to a range of factors from poor sampling strategies, to poor sample handling, to poor service from laboratory analysts, to insufficient sample numbers or poor interpretation of the results. It is seen as an expensive option for many, with some advisers looking for quicker and cheaper means of estimating soil mineral N.

• Variety-specific N management packages were seen by some senior advisers as key areas for continued research funding, as results from some new varieties have been quite different in terms of N uptake and protein outcomes.

• The trial area was seeded in June 2015 to wheat by Peter Negus, while he was seeding the surrounding paddock.  Unfortunately, the seeder ran out of seed as the trial was being sown.  The result was that there were large unseeded strips running through the trial. 
• Rainfall at the site was very poor in September and October 2015; approximately 70% below average for that period.  As a result, cereal crops on soils with low water holding capacity were badly affected, with yields well below average.
• Analysis of the harvest results (excluding plots affected at seeding) showed no significant differences, leading us to conclude that either (a) the tillage and lime treatment effects have ‘worn out’ at the site, or that (b) poor rainfall in September and October severely reduced yields, obscuring any other effects.  We believe that (b) is more likely.
• This trial will be sown to lupins in 2016.

The pH results from this trial show some interesting trends. 

The treatments with greater disturbance at depth (spade, deep rip + spade, mouldboard) tend to decrease surface pH.  This is of concern if the ‘new’ topsoil pH is acidic enough to inhibit root development. 

The treatments with greater disturbance at depth (spade, deep rip + spade, mouldboard) tend to increase midsoil pH most rapidly.  This is the effect hoped for.  The differences between treatments are generally not significant, but more intensive sampling may tease out differences.

The treatments with greater disturbance at depth (spade, deep rip + spade, mouldboard) tend to increase subsoil pH most rapidly.  This is the effect hoped for.  The differences between treatments are generally not significant, but more intensive sampling may tease out differences.

Deep cultivation strips on growers’ properties did not show much in the way of early responses and so did not excite much grower interest as a direct diagnostic of the hardpan conditions in their paddocks. However, at responsive sites, there was a lot of grower interest to the level where it might be worth funding another year of this direct diagnostic approach in the hope that early season conditions are conducive to major nitrogen growth responses.

• In 2019 the IMI system had the lowest barley grass plant numbers.
• The Cultural Control strategy did not achieve the desired outcome of having a more even seed spread and increased competition in the inter row for barley grass weed control.
• The medic pasture produced low dry matter compared to the cereal systems, had the highest barley grass population and the lowest competitive ability with the barley grass.
• The loss of Group A herbicides to control barley grass within local pasture systems has the potential to change rotations and decrease farm profitability.

• In 2019 the IMI system had the lowest barley grass plant numbers.
• The Cultural Control strategy did not achieve the desired outcome of having a more even seed spread and increased competition in interrow row for barley grass weed control.
• The medic pasture produced low dry matter compared to the cereal systems, had the highest barley grass population, and the lowest competitive ability with the barley grass. 
• The loss of Group A herbicides to control barley grass within local pasture systems has the potential to change rotations and decrease farm profitability.

 

• Broadleaved break crops increased pre sowing soil nitrogen by up to 40 kg/ha in 2014 while Rhizoctonia inoculum was also significantly reduced following these crops.
• Growing a legume break crop in 2014 increased the grain yield of the subsequent wheat crop by 0.6–0.7 t/ha.
• Wheat crops following legumes were twice as profitable than following another cereal crop in 2015.
• The profitability of paddock rotations that included legume break crops in 2014 were similar to or exceeded the profitability of the cereal intensive rotation in the same paddock.

• Broadleaved break crops increased pre sowing soil nitrogen by up to 40 kg/ha in 2014 while Rhizoctonia inoculum was also significantly reduced following these crops.
• Growing a legume break crop in 2014 increased the grain yield of the subsequent wheat crop by 0.6 – 0.7 t/ha.
• Wheat crops following legumes were twice as profitable than following another cereal crop in 2015.
• The profitability of paddock rotations that included legume break crops in 2014 were similar to or exceeded the profitability of the cereal intensive rotation in the same paddock.

• Broadleaved break crops increased pre sowing soil nitrogen by up to 40 kg/ha in 2014 while Rhizoctonia inoculum was also significantly reduced following these crops.
• Growing a legume break crop in 2014 increased the grain yield of the subsequent wheat crop by 0.6–0.7 t/ha.
• Wheat crops following legumes were twice as profitable than following another cereal crop in 2015.
• The profitability of paddock rotations that included legume break crops in 2014 were similar to or exceeded the profitability of the cereal intensive rotation in the same paddock.

• Broadleaved break crops increased pre sowing soil nitrogen by up to 40 kg/ha in 2014 while Rhizoctonia inoculum was also significantly reduced following these crops.
• Growing a legume break crop in 2014 increased the grain yield of the subsequent wheat crop by 0.6–0.7 t/ha.
• Wheat crops following legumes were twice as profitable than following another cereal crop in 2015.
• The profitability of paddock rotations that included legume break crops in 2014 were similar to or exceeded the profitability of the cereal intensive rotation in the same paddock.

• Broadleaved break crops increased pre sowing soil nitrogen by up to 40 kg/ha in 2014 while Rhizoctonia inoculum was also significantly reduced following these crops.
• Growing a legume break crop in 2014 increased the grain yield of the subsequent wheat crop by 0.6–0.7 t/ha.
• Wheat crops following legumes were twice as profitable than following another cereal crop in 2015.
• The profitability of paddock rotations that included legume break crops in 2014 were similar to or exceeded the profitability of the cereal intensive rotation in the same paddock.

• Adequate control of weeds and sufficient plant densities resulted in a clean, competitive crop at the Carnamah site. Canola remains a high earning crop that commonly forms part of a crop rotation in many farming enterprises. Robust agronomy packages and prices of the legume types demonstrated by this project, means crops such as field peas and lentils have potential suitability in the Carnamah region.
• The need to harvest chickpeas early to match the logistics of harvest of the trial compromised the results for the chickpea treatments. Use of established management practices for the harvesting of chickpeas is required to reduce the incidence of yield loss at harvest time.
• The ranking of each species on profitability should be viewed in light of the highly variable price of pulses from year to year.
   

• Adequate pre and post emergent weed control is critical for maintaining yield potential and quality of grain legume crops.
• Canola remains the most profitable non-cereal crop type demonstrated at this site in 2018.
• Where vetch grain is not harvested and sold as feed, consideration of this legume crop type for its grazing value may be advantageous for a mixed farming system.
   

• Preparation of paddocks is key to the success of legume crops such as chickpeas and field peas. Control of weeds prior to sowing is crucial and, rolling to level the seed bed post seeding improves the ability to harvest such crop types.
• Field peas and chickpeas are more susceptible to frost damage compared to canola or lupins.
• Canola remains a highly profitable non-cereal crop in Kalannie in 2018.
   

• Significant weed burdens can impact yield of legume crops considerably if not controlled well with rotation or pre and post emergent herbicide options.
• Without control of weeds, soil borne diseases can be carried from legume phase into the cereal phase. 

• Three direct drill seeders were compared (Gason, Jenke, Daybreak) to sow wheat into a canola stubble.
• The season was very dry (decile 2) with an average wheat yield of 1.4t/ha in the demonstration.
• There were no differences in crop yield between the three seeders.

• Yipti wheat is highly adapted to the Mallee environment. It is consistently one of the highest yielding varieties and has excellent quality characteristics.
• Yeipti is not hte best variety for direct drilling into wheat stubble as it is very susceptible to yellow leaf spot.

There was no visual response to applying N or yield. The N rich strips were also not obvious at the time of applying the N to the plots. This may have been a result of the moderate level of N in all zones, the dry spring and the time of application. From the DSN results, 20-60 kg/ha of N would have commended in August in the various zones to achieve the yield targets that were considered achievable at that time. The quality of the wheat produced was low (ASW due to low protein) indicating that insufficient N was applied. The economic analysis showed that the addition of N, lost money. The N rich strips were a useful guide to assessing that there would be no response to applying additional of N but not for assessing differing responses in different zones. It has not been possible to assess if satellite map were a useful guide to possible N response.

• Trial showed legumes to be more susceptible to frosts and high temperatures during flowering than cereals and canola.
• When legumes grain prices are high, the revenues derived are competitive with conventional crops such as wheat, barley and canola.
• Growers can improve the agronomic skills required to successfully grow legume crops on their farms very quickly.
• Ongoing research and demonstration work are required to continue driving grower adoption of legume crops in Western Australia. Increased cropping diversity is an ongoing ambition for the entire grains industry.