• Canola yields in 2003 were below average, mostly less than 0.5 t/ha.
• No yield response was reported with increased rates of P and N fertiliser.

• Time of sowing had a greater influence on oat grain and hay yield, and oat grain quality than variety selection or level of applied nitrogen in 2015.
• High screenings limited the ability of grain to meet Oat1 quality standards, this was due to the detrimental impact of delayed seeding and/or applied nitrogen in excess of that required in lower rainfall environments.
• Applying more than 20 kg N/ha did not improve the return per hectare ($/ha); rather, applying 80 kg N/ha consistently reduced return per hectare ($/ha).
• Screening of Williams and Carrolup were more sensitive to applied nitrogen than WA02Q302-9, Bannister and Yallara.
• WA02Q302-9 appears a suitable replacement for Yallara and Carrolup, and should achieve a better hectolitre weight than Bannister at similar or lower yields.

When making oat varietal decisions, it is important to consider various factors. These include the environmental suitability, end use (milling, feed grain, grain and graze or hay production) and likelihood that the required grade/quality will be achieved, potential disease issues (both root and foliar leaf diseases) and yield potential.

When making varietal decisions with oats, need to take into account various factors, including the environmental suitability, end use (milling, feed grain, grain and graze or hay production) and likelihood that the required grade/quality will be achieved, potential disease issues (both root disease and foliar leaf diseases) and yield potential.

In a year with an outlook of a dry finish and lack of grain fill due to limited moisture, high temperatures or frost, the ability to take advantage of early crop growth through oaten hay is a reasonable risk management tool to consider.

• Hay crops can be used for both risk management and as part of an integrated herbicide resistant grass management program.
• Paddock selection is important. It is best to select a paddock with a low weed burden; there are limits to the amount of ryegrass that is accepted for export oaten hay.
• For quality oaten hay it is important to minimize stem thickness; this can be achieved by the use of high seeding rates. Cross sowing may be necessary to ensure windrows are supported by stubble for bailing, especially if sowing using wide row spacings.

• For the fourth year running, on-row sowing proved it has potential as a brome management tool on non-wetting sands, reducing brome grass seed set by 55%.
• The use of trifluralin with metribuzin reduced the brome density in July but did not reduce seed set.
• On-row sowing resulted in more soil water and nitrogen supply potential near the crop,  improved crop establishment and higher crop biomass.
• On-row sowing did increase root disease incidence, but there were low levels of disease for both on- and inter-row sowing in 2017.

All tillage treatments had a little effect on the management of SWR and plant establishment in the severe water repellent gravel sand at Moora. Nevertheless, yield improvements were recorded, in particular with the “Large offsets” and the “Modified one-way with standard discs” treatments.

At this stage, it is not possible to clearly state what changes drove the yield increase. Given the little effect that the cultivations had on the SWR it is possible that improved soil structure, increased nutrient availability and nitrogen mineralisation may have played a role on the increased productivity.

The yield potential of the canola crop in 2015 was low given it was sown relatively late, plant numbers were low and there was a dry finish, this may have compromised the response to the tillage treatments. Observation of the trial in the following growing seasons and the response of a cereal crop in 2016 will help us to better understand the long term effect of the treatments on crop growth.

• Onion weed is a significant pest and competitor of medic pastures. In mixed farming systems, control in the pasture phase is often reliant on cultivation.
• None of the herbicides evaluated in this trial provided adequate onion weed control in the medic pasture phase without unacceptable reduction in medic biomass.
• The use of non-selective herbicides and their mixes, combined with strategic cultivation if required, is still the most effective short term strategy in reducing the impact of onion weed on crop/pasture systems on Eyre Peninsula (EP).

The response to nitrogen in these trials should encourge the application of urea for wheat crops in these regions when the deep soil N test shows that the soil is low in available N prior to sowing in relation to the target yield set for the crop.

Opportunistic summer cropping can make use of summer rainfall that may otherwise be lost to evaporation.

In this instance the opportunistic crop of canola in 2011 has proven the more successful rotation. At the beginning of the season, given the rainfall during harvest, the soil had comparable moisture at depth irrespective of the crop in 2011. The weed break given by the canola was significant, very few grass weeds coming through in old canola plots. The management of weeds proved telling in this trial. Much of the potential wheat yield was removed by the brome grass in the wheat on wheat plots.

Wheat on wheat this season achieved approximately 16kg/mm of rainfall. Wheat growing without the competition of weeds on the canola plots achieved in excess of 19kg/mm. Making crude assumptions that wheat on fallow grew at 19kg/mm, and the additional 400kg/ha yield was the result of additional moisture alone, then there was approximately 21mm of additional moisture in the fallow plots. Fallow had more moisture available closer to the surface than the other plots though not significantly more moisture throughout the remainder of the profile.

In 2012 wheat on fallow plots returned $100 more than wheat grown on either wheat or canola residue. This recouped the $40 loss from the 2011 fallow with additional profit. But fallow did not result in the greatest total profit over the two seasons of the trial. The extra production on the fallowed treatments was unable to make up the opportunity cost of not growing a crop in 2011. This is not unexpected given the high crop yields achieved in 2011.

In this instance the opportunistic crop of canola in 2011 has proven the more successful rotation. At the beginning of the season, given the rainfall during harvest, the soil had comparable moisture at depth irrespective of the crop in 2011. The weed break given by the canola was significant, very few grass weeds coming through in old canola plots. The management of weeds proved telling in this trial. Much of the potential wheat yield was removed by the brome grass in the wheat on wheat plots.

Wheat on wheat this season achieved approximately 16kg/mm of rainfall. Wheat growing without the competition of weeds on the canola plots achieved in excess of 19kg/mm. Making crude assumptions that wheat on fallow grew at 19kg/mm, and the additional 400kg/ha yield was the result of additional moisture alone, then there was approximately 21mm of additional moisture in the fallow plots. Fallow had more moisture available closer to the surface than the other plots though not significantly more moisture throughout the remainder of the profile.

In 2012 wheat on fallow plots returned $100 more than wheat grown on either wheat or canola residue. This recouped the $40 loss from the 2011 fallow with additional profit. But fallow did not result in the greatest total profit over the two seasons of the trial. The extra production on the fallowed treatments was unable to make up the opportunity cost of not growing a crop in 2011. This is not unexpected given the high crop yields achieved in 2011.

• Continuous cropping can be sustained for decades, but requires careful management.
• A larger proportion of N supply as fertiliser will be required over time even when grain legumes are included in crop sequences.
• Herbicide resistance develops faster under continuous cropping. Integrated management to keep key weed populations at very low levels is essential for long-term viability.
• Suitably diverse crop and end-use portfolios and flexible management help build resilience to climate and crop price shocks.

There was no response to fungicide in this trial and few significant effects on grain quality. Disease levels were extremely low and a stem green area score at senescence revealed no consistent preservation of green tissue with the use of fungicides.

Again the majority of individual treatment responses to fungicide are positive but not statistically significant, indicating that there is a
trend but it is small. Barley however, poses a dilemma in that the single spray options early and late do not optimise performance against early Scald and late leaf rust infection, as such it is difficult to avoid spraying twice if both diseases pose a threat. In addition, if the rate of both sprays are cut to a bare minimum the results are inferior in terms of disease control. Triazoles are generally not as effective against Scald and diseases such net blotch, by comparison to the rusts.

• Highest yields were obtained when flowering started in early to mid-August. Treatments that flowered in July were affected by frost and treatments that flowered in September were affected by heat and drought.

• The strongest yield response to nitrogen was on treatments that flowered in early to mid-August.

• Hybrids tended to recover better from frost damage than open-pollinated (OP) triazine tolerant (TT) varieties, but flowering date and nitrogen management were more important to maximise yield potential than variety type.

• The highest oil concentration was obtained from varieties that flowered in early to mid-August.
 

EGA Wedgetail can successfully be grown for grain only or dual purpose use and achieve yields competitive with recently released main season cultivars sown in May.  Growers wishing to graze EGA Wedgetail should use high plant densities (at least 100 plants/m2 on 305 mm row spacing, higher on narrower spacing) and some N fertiliser at sowing (particularly if soil mineral N is low) to maximise forage yield.  Gorwers who wish to grow EGA Wedgetail for grain only should defer N fertiliser application until after Z30 to reduce early vegetative growth.  Neither of these experiments or any others during the early sowing project have found a yield benefir from reducing plant populations, and target plant density should be kept at 100-150 plans/m2 (less on wide rows, more on narrow rows) in order to better compete with weeds.

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• At the Howlong site, applied nitrogen gave a yield and dry matter (DM) response, however there was no sulphur response.
• The Yarrawonga site showed a clear response to applied sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N), despite high soil sulphur levels. This suggests canola roots may not be effectively exploring the soil profile to access soil sulphur.
• The Yarrawonga site had an optimum sulphur application rate of 20kg S/ha, with yield penalties measured with sulphur rates above and below this optimal rate.
• The dry finish to the season caused significant challenges during 2017. This trial will be repeated at two sites during 2018 to understand how variable the responses to sulphur are likely to be during different seasonal conditions.

• At the Howlong site, applied nitrogen gave a yield and dry matter (DM) response, however there was no sulphur response.
• The Yarrawonga site showed a clear response to applied sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N), despite high soil sulphur levels. This suggests canola roots may not be effectively exploring the soil profile to access soil sulphur.
• The Yarrawonga site had an optimum sulphur application rate of 20kg S/ha, with yield penalties measured with sulphur rates above and below this optimal rate.
• The dry finish to the season caused significant challenges during 2017. This trial will be repeated at two sites during 2018 to understand how variable the responses to sulphur are likely to be during different seasonal conditions.

• Fertilising above the optimum plant nitrogen (N) demand level reduced N-use efficiency and increased environmental impact.
• Despite receiving 8–9 irrigations as well as several intense rainfall events in a season, there were typically only 3–4 significant nitrous oxide (N2O) flux periods during the season, with most occurring early in the season, i.e. irrigations 1 and 2.
• Other significant N2O emissions events occurred mostly in response to adding in-crop N fertiliser followed by irrigation and/or intense rainfall.
• Initially, higher N2O emissions came from the beds where N fertiliser had been applied pre-sowing. Later in the season, emissions often peaked in the non-irrigated furrows after rainfall and irrigation events, particularly after additional N was added in the irrigation water.
• Farmers’ N rates were at least 25% higher than necessary to achieve the same lint yield in 2014–15, i.e. 50–100 kg N/ha. Less N fertiliser could have produced the same amount of cotton.
• Increasing N rates increased total N2O emissions, especially in prolonged wet conditions.
   

• Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions respond to large rainfall events.
• Most N2O emissions were generated after the crop was harvested.
• Tillage did not increase N2O emissions significantly in the first two years under wheat and canola.
• Including perennial grass into legume-based pastures would reduce N2O emissions.

• There is an opportunity to use locally available amendments in place of inorganic fertiliser.
• High rates of surface-applied chicken litter tend to have a better yield response than either surfaceapplied compost or inorganic N fertiliser.
• After three years there does not appear to be an advantage using 20 t/ha of amendment compared to 10 t/ha.
• Stability of these organic products may provide a long term benefit to the system that could mean less fertiliser is required in crop under an organic amendment regime.
   

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits.

Nufarm are currently developing a new controlled release formulation of Triflualin.

• The 2016 trial results looking at cultural control techniques for barley grass largely confirmed the 2015 findings.
• Increasing barley seeding rate in the presence of barley grass can provide substantial benefits to both yield and reduced weed seed carry-over. This applies particularly to competitive varieties such as Fathom, but also to less competitive varieties such as Hindmarsh.
• In contrast, doubling the seeding rate of wheat had no beneficial effect on yield or weed carry-over.
• Doubling the district practice seeding rate in barley substantially reduced the competitive effect of barley grass to the stage where crop yields were similar to those plots where herbicide was applied.

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits.

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits.

There are two main forms of ‘precision agriculture’: guidance, to improve accuracy, decrease overlapping, improve efficiency etc (the benefits are well understood for guidance); and variable rate agriculture. Variable rate agriculture

• Crop seeding rate and perennial row spacing both influence grain yield of pasture crops.
• Lifting seeding rate of pasture crops might compensate for poorer establishment and, in turn, help to reduce any grain yield penalty.  For this experiment and assuming lupin seed is $300/t, lifting seeding rate by 50 kg/ha ($15) helped to avert a 26% yield penalty and proved to be $165/ha more profitable overall.
• Where growers do not own a disc machine but have invested in precision guidance technology, with forward planning, it is feasible to use a tined machine to sow crops into perennial pastures without damaging the perennial base.

Pasture cropping is an option for KI producers wishing to maximise grazing/cropping options.
The key principles are:

• Graze the paddocks down to 75-100 mm with livestock, or apply herbicides. Aim to suppress (but not kill) the pastures either with the judicious use of herbicides to burn the perennials or through appropriate grazing to take out the annual weeds.
• Zero till with a tyne or disc. Minimise soil disturbance as it kills pastures and encourages weeds. The aim is to open a slot and loosen the soil to create sufficient tilth for germination of the seed crop.

• Pasture cropping is an option for KI producers wishing to maximise grazing/cropping options.
• If you want to remove kikuyu from a paddock use roundup – if you want to pasture crop use other herbicides.
• Excellent lamb growth recorded 250g/hd/day.
• Producers now have a range of herbicide options toast will enable them to establish a crop without killing the kikuyu.

• Wet seasonal conditions hindered establishment of some crop species
• Seasonal conditions were ideal for pasture re-growth
• 3 cuts were taken at Conmurra throughout the season

• August pasture termination may produce water and nitrogen benefits for the following crop, compared to leaving the pasture to grow, but these may be neutralised by dry summers and other limitations in an average growing season.
• Termination timing is only as important as you abiliy to capitalise on the benefits with either livestock (extra pasture growth) or crop (extra water and nitrogen).

• Plant tests at the end of July showed that crop N and P uptake were significantly increased where 300 kg/ha Super Phos had been previously applied.
• Super Phos applied to pasture increased crop yield from 3.0 t/ha to 3.9 t/ha but responses to more than 100 kg/ha Super Phos were not significant. There were no significant responses to potash, lime, manipulation or to Intake in Furrow.
• Grain proteins were about 11 %, hectare litre weights 78 kg/hl and screenings 2 % (data not presented).
• 100 kg/ha Super Phos increased protein yield by 77 kg/ha (or grain N recovery by about 14 kg N/ha). 
• This is the equivalent to about 40kg fertiliser N/ha (assuming a nitrogen use efficiency of 35%).
• The value of the crop response to pasture topdressing alone was big enough to more than offset the cost of 100 kg/ha Super Phos applied over the previous three years.

• The MLA trials demonstrated that early summer seeding (January) of Serradella pod was a viable option. The summer sowing of Serradella pod has outperformed the twin sowing methods in the two trials conducted by SCF growers
• The current district practice of dry seeding pasture seed in Autumn on sandplain soils has severe limitations compared to summer pod sowing or seeding when soil is moist after full seasonal break. This was confirmed in the 2014 season in the MLA trial where the second time of sowing (into moist soil) outperformed the first time of sowing in total legume biomass production and this advantage has carried right through to seed set in Year 3 (in M1 trial Santorini and Margurita plots).
• The performance of a precision seeder for sowing Serradella in a 2015 trial demonstrated that modifications of conventional seeding systems could improve plant establishment efficiency by more that 35%.
• The hard seeded Serradellas are performing well in specific treatments in the MLA trials even on the lower fertility, acidic and non-wetting sandplain soils. Mixed maturity Serradellas like cv Margurita lose significant pod set with spraytopping ryegrass compared to Cadiz or Santorini.

• Further examination is necessary to determine to what degree winter cleaning in the final pasture year will improve the nitrogen status of the soil.
• These conclusions will need to be verified over several more seasons before reliable relationships can be confirmed.

• The most important results from this work, being those obtained from the wheat stage of the system, will need to be collected for several more years in order to develop substantial findings.

• Benefits from inoculating peas far outweigh cost.
• Higher rates of inoculants may be worth considering.
• Granular inoculant yielded better than peat but not statistically significant.
• Lime pellets must use seed coat grade lime.

• The yield of the trial was not collected by the weigh trailer, but I felt the wheat on the fallow trial was at least 20-30% higher yielding than the wheat on wheat.
• The wheat on the fallow trial was higher in stature, looked a lot healthier and larger grain size.
• Looking overall at yield wheat on wheat would have been 0.9 to 1 t/ha and the fallow would have been approx. 1.2 to 1.3 t/ha.

Although the results were inconclusive at the Tottington site, the group believes that use of the triple pack program in normal years is likely to improve perennial pasture establishment in this drier northern region. It could also be relevant in other areas, where run down low fertility paddocks have a low legume content and have become dominated by onion and silver grass.

Further cost benefit analysis is warranted for the Triple Pack system before it is widely promoted to producers. PPS were unable to conduct a cost benefit analysis at Tottington due to the extreme seasonal conditions affecting results.

• Atriplex and Rhagodia species fared best in these experiments, producing the hightest biomass on offer to sheep, plant survival rate and health scores.
• Four species showed poor adaptation to the environment at Walpeup and produced little edible biomass, namely Atriplex semibaccata, Convolvulus remotus, Cullen australasicum and Medicago strasseri.
• Results from this experiment and others across the nation have led to establishment of a new site a Manangatang that demonstrates the most promising spcies for the Mallee region's poorest soils.

• First wheat following canola yielded between 3.65 and 5.35t/ha depending on row spacing, plant population and nitrogen application.
• A narrow row spacing of 22.5cm produced higher dry matter (DM), grain yields and water use efficiency than a wider row spacing of 37.5cm.
• Higher grain yields were associated with plant populations of 150-165 plants/m2.
• Wide row spacing reduced grain yields by and average of 6.5% and DM by 15% compared with narrow row spacing. 

• Crusher TT canola yielded between 2.24–2.79 t/ha with 232mm of growing season rainfall (Apr–Oct) and an estimated 118mm of stored available soil moisture (total 350mm).
• All plant populations were high (150–200 plants/m2) due to an error in calibration, however results produced were similar to previous years, with no significant difference in yield between the narrowest (22.5cm — 2.67t/ha) and widest (37.5cm — 2.75t/ha) row spacings.
• The 30cm spacing yielded significantly lower than both the 22.5cm and the 37.5cm spacings in this trial. 

For a summary of key messages and results see the attached trial report.

• Canola following two years of wheat yielded 2.08t/ha despite establishing 50% fewer plants than canola grown during 2009, which yielded 1.59t/ha. The higher yield achieved during 2011 was attributed to more stored soil moisture at sowing. 
• The higher biomass produced with the narrower row spacing (22.5cm) did not translate into higher grain yield with the same yield achieved across the narrowest (22.5cm) and widest (37.5cm) row spacings.
• About 102-122kg nitrogen/ha was removed in aboveground biomass (straw and grain). There was no statistical difference in nitrogen off-take between the 22.5cm and 37.5cm row spacings.  

• Canola trials during 2012 had high plant populations, which may have created atypical crop canopy structures in relation to different row spacings.
• In four canola datasets generated from 2009 – 2012 at Coreen, New South Wales and Bungeet, Victoria the influence of row spacing on yield has been inconsistent.
• During 2012, the narrow row spacing (22.5cm) produced higher yields and a higher harvest index (HI) than wider row spacing, however this has not been the case in previous years. 

• With 537mm growing season rainfall (April- mid-November) wheat yields followig faba beans were 2.2t/ha higher than those experienced in 2009.
• The yield reduction moving from a narrow row spacing (22.5cm) to wide (37cm) was 12% (0.64t/ha), compared with 16% (0.49t/ha) in 2009.

For a summary of key messages and results see the attached trial report.

• With 570mm growing season rainfall (GSR) 2010 wheat yeilds were more than double those experiences during 2009 in the same rotation position (wheat after canola).
• Yield drop-off associated with the wide row spacing (37.5cm) was almost identical to 2009 results, with a 12% yield reduction compared with the narrow row spacing.

• In the 2012 wheat after canola trial, moving from a narrow row spacing (22.5cm) to a 30cm spacing reduced yield by 9%.  Moving from 22.5cm to the widest (37.5cm) row spacing reduced yield by 11%.
• In a season where yields averaged about 3t/ ha overall (based on a GSR of 196mm plus 85mm stored soil moisture), increasing row spacing beyond 22.5cm significantly reduced yield.
• During 2009, in the same rotation position on the same trial site, there was no difference in yield between the 22.5cm and 30cm row spacings (based on 2.5t/ha average yields), although the 37.5cm row spacing still yielded significantly less. 

For a summary of key messages and results see the attached trial report.

• In second wheat after faba beans, moving from a narrow row spacing of 22.5cm to 30cm and 37.5cm row spacings reduced yield by 4% and 10% respectively.  This compares with respective yield reductions of 12% and 14% in the fi rst wheat trial grown in the same paddock at the same time.
• The narrow row spacing (22.5cm) produced greater biomass than the wider row spacing but had a relatively poor harvest index (26%) compared with other row spacings in this trial.
• There was no difference in crop establishment or yield due to drill opener (tine versus disc), however plant establishment was superior with the narrow row compared with the wider spacings tested.
   

• Gauntlet wheat sown as the second wheat crop after canola yielded between 3.84–4.44t/ha with 232mm of growing season rainfall (Apr-Oct) and an estimated 118mm of stored water at sowing (total 350mm).
• Moving from a narrow row spacing (22.5cm) to 30cm and 37.5cm row spacings reduced yield by 13% and 11% respectively in the 2012 season.  In 2011, moving from a 22.5cm spacing to 30cm and 37.5cm spacings reduced yield by 4% and 10% respectively for the second wheat trial grown in the same paddock.
• It was estimated that the narrow row spacing (22.5cm) resulted in better water use efficiency (WUE) than the widest spacing (37.5cm), despite having a lower harvest index (44% vs 47%) than the widest rows.  

• Wheat on wheat (following canola) yielded 4.91t/ha, almost 1t/ha less than the neighbouring first wheat trial after canola, which yielded 5.84t/ha.
• There was no yield drop-off associated with wider row spacings (30cm and 337.5cm) in this wheat-on-wheat situation.

• Plant establishment at a 22.5cm row spacing was signifi cantly superior to 30cm, which in turn was signifi cantly higher than 37.5cm. The disc drill opener gave better establishment than the tine at the narrow (22.5cm) row spacing but not at the wider row spacing. 
• Advantages with the narrow row spacing were seen early in the season in terms of plant population, dry matter (DM) and tiller production. These advantages did not translate to signifi cantly higher yield in this rotation position. This result was identical to the results of the 2010 trial when wheat on wheat yields showed a similar, but not signifi cant, trend for narrow row spacing (22.5cm) to be better than wide row spacing (37.5cm). 

• Banding low rates of biochar can reduce cropping input costs and improve profi tability.  
• Biochar can improve the effi cacy of fertiliser but should not be regarded as a fertiliser in its own right.
• More is not better. A rate of around 35kg/ha of biochar plus a modest rate of DAP produced the best economic outcome for all rates of DAP used in the trial (0, 50 and 100kg/ha). 

• Different crop types displayed varying phosphorus (P) use efficiencies (soil and fertiliser demand) under P deficient conditions.
• Crop types that have previously shown to be P efficient did not display the same traits in neutral to slightly alkaline soils.
• Soil testing can have significant economic benefits if the right test is used.

• Early observations of crop vigour (11th July) found that the 0P plots at all rates of nitrogen were significantly less vigorous than the plots that had phosphorus applied, with the plants in the highest rates of P applied showing the highest vigour.
• This response to applied P was still evident at the later observations of crop vigour on 8th August. This demonstrates the need to apply fresh phosphorus to crops at seeding to ensure good plant shoot and root growth during the early stages of crop growth.
• For further results please see the attaached trial report.

• Hi-analysis granular fertiliser required the smallest yield to breakeven in 2009 .
• Hi-analysis granular P and liquid P had a similar response curve and both types of products performed well.
• Rock Phosphate product had a very flat response which slightly improved when 30% DAP was added.

The Rand site was sown on the 12th May 2010 with 8 treatments of various amounts of seed and P fertilizer. The variety was Lincoln and the sowing fertilizer was MAP. The site had grown canola in 2009 and had been summer sprayed for weeds. It was direct drilled into the canola stubble. The site had an N rich strip of 50hg/.ha of N applied about 5 weeks prior to the assessment in July 2010.

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits.

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits. The grower mentioned the importance of correctly identifying the GPS coordinate locations to get reliable soil type information. Yield maps provided showing areas of the paddock with high and low potential assisted this process. Soil analysis verified the trends produced by the yield map.

The apparent better performance of MAP T3 is noted but when looking at the other MAP based products they don't follow the same trend. There was no significant response to applied phosphorus, sulphur or zinc. The CV of the trial is quite high, meaning that a 0.48 Tonnes/ha yield response was needed for anything to be significant. There was no negative effect of applying starter nitrogen in this trial, however there was no positive effect. At current pricing the MAP based products are a very cost effective source of phosphorus and sulphur regardless of the starter nitrogen. Tissue tests indicated all nutrients were adequate see Table 99.
 

• Soil test results indicated that the P levels on the trial site were not particularly low.
• Despite the dry conditions in September, grain yields ranged from 1.59 to 2.16 t/ha.
• Results demonstrate that application of P up to 40 kg P/ha can increase field pea yields. To maximise grain yield, P rates above 40 kg/ha may be needed.

• On light soils, nitrogen is generally the most important nutrient in achieveing optimum cereal yields and maximising return.
• It is important to maintain a balanced approach to crop nutrition.
• In deficient sandy soils, nitrogen can be confidently applied to malting barley, particularly if applied early and to crops free of disease and weed competition.

Previous trials and demonstrations have highlighted zinc deficiencies in both cereals and pulses, which could provide farmers substantial profits over the cost of zinc. A trial conducted on wheat at Sea Lake in 2000, on a highly responsive soil type with a poor zinc history clearly defined responses to zinc and demonstrated that responses to phosphorus or nitrogen cannot be achieved if zinc is deficient. This trial also endorsed the conclusions of trials conducted in 1999 that adequate zinc enriched granular fertiliser should be regularly applied

In 2014 – a dry season with limited growth and yield at the trial site – Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) were not economically viable or worthwhile.

PGR use in a tough season may pose more risk than benefit to cereal crops; their use should be gauged on seasonal outlooks.

In 2014, reduction in plant height was greatest with a PGR applied either as a single late, or a split application, not an early application.

The combination of a fungicide such as Amistar Xtra with a PGR such as Moddus Evo, appears to increase the effect of the PGR on plant growth.

• Plant growth regulators had no significant impact on wheat grain yield.
• The only grain quality parameter to be influenced by PGR or nitrogen application was grain protein.

• Plant growth regulators had no significant impact on wheat grain yield in 2012, at four different sites.
• Plant growth regulators can reduce grain yield and quality with incorrect application timing, especially to crops under stress i.e dry, nutrient deficient, frost, waterlogging.

• Moddus Evo reduces lodging and can increase yields
• Application timing and concentration of Moddus Evo is critical
• Moddus Evo should not be applied to plants under stress
• Moddus Evo has improved formulation stability and plant uptake

The key message that came out of these trials is that despite the lack of lodging, a Moddus application at 400ml/ha applied at GS31, with or without a second application of Moddus at 200ml/ha at GS37, had a beneficial effect on yield and reduced crop height. These results are supported by previous research on PGR use in cereals.

Late application and/or higher rates of clethodim pose a high risk to canola yields. Split applications at lower rates do not appear to cause as much damage as a single higher rate. Varieties appear to differ in their tolerance of high rates, but further investigation is required.

• Plant numbers were variable and it is difficult to draw any conclusion from the final grain yields.
• The untreated strip yielded 1.8t/Ha. Both the PAM treatments were assessed as 1.9t/Ha, and the Irrigator soil wetter yield was 2.0t/Ha.
• This was what the remainder of the paddock yielded, and it was treated with Irrigator.

• Preliminary results have shown that post sowing use of some pre-emergence herbicides can improve control of late emerging ryegrass and could be beneficial as a late salvage exercise where ryegrass has escaped earlier control.
• Although no damage to the wheat crop was observed, these treatments present a higher risk to crop safety, depending on soil type and rainfall after application.
• Post sowing use of these herbicides is currently off label & requires further investigation before registration can be granted.

Standard farmer practice of 'pasture topping' in the previous year, followed by a knock down around the seasons break, remain the best practice before sowing saltbush or bluebush by seed.

• This trial produced a 0.9 t/ha yield response to potassium (K) fertiliser (trt 1 v 6).
• Early rains and a wetter than average season contributed to waterlogged growing conditions through June/July and most likely to significant leaching losses of nitrogen (N).
• Topdressed MoP treatments lacked the early vigour of plots sown with potassium (K) banded with K-Till Plus. This was despite about 50mm of rain falling between the date of topdressing (12 April) and sowing (16 May).
• As the season progressed, crop growth improved up to the highest rate of MoP (144 kg/ha) applied.
• There were no significant yield differences between strategies supplying between 9 and 24 kg K/ha (trt 2, 3, 4, 5).
• There was no response to magnesium (Mg) supplied by kieserite (trt 7).

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• There was no response to topdressed muriate of potash but a 0.3 t/ha response to K banded in K-Till Extra.
• Nitrogen (N) use efficiency was maximised with K-Till Extra.
• Potassium (K) was a more limiting nutrient than N.
• Dry conditions frequently experienced in the Wheatbelt limit the effectiveness of topdressed K.

• Plant analysis indicated marginal potassium (K) status in July. Although there were visual responses to K during the season, there were no yield or grain quality responses.
• Grain protein was low which suggests that Nitrogen (N) supply may have limited responses to K.

Crop vigour: the low input treatments showed the least amount of vigour; a direct result of minimal nitrogen and a low seeding rate.

Trifluralin use has increased in the last decade and the threat of ryegrass developing resistance to group D herbicides (including trifluralin) is real, already occurring on some farms. In this trial a number of herbicides with activity on ryegrass were tested as mixes with trifluralin on their efficacy in controlling ryegrass as well as on grain yield.

• Group A resistant ryegrass populations are becoming more prevalent across south Australia, increasing the reliance on the use of Group D (trifluralin) for ryegrass control.
• Group D resistance will develop if trifluralin is consistently used without other control practices.
• Trifluralin used in combination with other herbicides such as Avadex Xtra (Group E) and Dual Gold (Group K), may enhance ryegrass control and could prolong the onset of Group D resistant ryegrass populations.

Standard farmer practice of 'pasture topping' in the previous year, followed by a knock down around the seasons break, remain the best practice before sowing saltbush or bluebush by seed.

Standard farmer practice of 'pasture topping' in the previous year, followed by a knock down around the seasons break, remain the best practice before sowing saltbush or bluebush by seed.

• Variable rate nitrogen management has great potential; particularly in the higher rainfall areas of the region with good responses being received in years where rainfall hasn’t been limiting.
• EM38 technology is useful in detecting depth to limestone; the benefits of this however will depend on if the yield is being constrained by rock or not (and in a lot of cases this isn’t occurring)
• In most cases, NDVI biomass readings have been highly correlated with yield.

• Knowing the amount of moisture that is available in the soil profile is invaluable when making nitrogen management decisions.
• Previous crop history (particularly hat of pulses) can have a very large impact on the levels of nitrogen required in following seasons. 

The data received from the 2007 trial year proved similar results to 2006. Although we received an extra 50mm more growing season rainfall than 2006, it was still 50mm short of the Corrigin average rainfall. With yields over 3t/ha, no-one can complain though, especially with barley prices around $480/t cash, at harvest in 2007. In terms of the trials’ aim – to find which stubble treatment better suits downhill tramlinning, the jury is still out as for the two years that the trial was run; 2006 & 2007, with limited rainfall we can only draw conclusions on the results that have been found; and for both years it was found that the burnt stubbles had higher yields over all. The burnt plots [having barer ground to seed into] collected more runoff than the other treatments in 2007. Removing the stubble can allow for light falls of rain to be more useful for a crop in such years, hence the better yield whereas having high levels of stubble in such cases can often intercept this moisture making it not available to the crop; rainfall that ponded on the stubbles evaporated before the plant could acess it [Jeff Russell pers.comm]. Subsoil moisture could have played a part in the earlier establishment of the burnt stubbles too as these plots would have got away sooner having no surface restrictions [stubble or organic matter] and therefore these plots would have had a chance to tap into the summer rainfall earlier than the other treatments [Glen Reithmuller pers.comm]. According to Dan Carter [DAFWA], burning stubbles removes valuable nitrogen, soil carbon and other nutrients and leaves the ground vulnerable to damage from wind erosion. In most cases, retaining stubbles will contribute to long-term soil fertility, through both preservation of nutrients and better moisture-holding capacity.

 

In saying this however, we found in 2007 [as we did in 2006] that the burnt [bare] stubble treatments yielded higher than any of the other stubble treatments as seen in trials. To compare against the control treatment, which has the least runoff, we use the 5%LSD = 2.14*3.94 = 8.4, which suggests that the burnt/bare and raked are significantly higher than the control since the difference between the means is higher than the LSD.

 

Key achievements were getting the trial in the ground, harvesting and collection of results. Also successful application for 2nd & 3rd years of funding Project 053042 – Precision Agriculture Systems – Impact on zone management, soil health and surface water management (Years 2 & 3).

Key findings from the trial in 2006 were that the most run off was collected from burnt stubble tramline which suggests that bare ground with tracks, can potentially aid the channelling of water more than with stubbles where water can ‘dam’ with the interference of stubble and foreign matter. As this was the first year of the trial at Corrigin it raised many more questions which will hopefully be answered in the next two years.

Late notification of project approval combined with difficulty in employing a suitable coordinator resulted in the project starting 6 months late (February 2006).

Farmer with tramlining capability easily identified.

Paul Blackwell’s (DAFWA) assistance proved beneficial, were able to combine two trial sites into one paddock to better utilise the farmers controlled traffic system. Minor issue occurred when fire from burning chaff heap destroyed original stubble trial site. New site established.

The biggest issue for the trial in 2006 was lack of heavy rainfall events, while a crop was taken off, there were very few rainfall events greater than 10mm.

Several issues occurred with the design, construction and collection of water from the water traps. After consultation with Paul Blackwell on trap design and a visit to his Pindar site (Liebe project) to visually assess the traps, we had a better understanding of how to construct the Corrigin traps. To bury 20 chemical containers into hard soil it was decided to hire local contractor to use his backhoe/digger to dig them out.

Collection of water from the water traps was a major issue too. A range of equipment and methods was trialled and found to be inadequate. After consultation with the local businesses in town, a powerful suction pump that could be screwed to a battery pack for power and ease of moving was order. The pump proved to be the right combination for the job required. A further issue arose over the 2006 trial year with water traps chemical drums becoming

slimy and animals getting trapped resulting in  blocking and clogging of the pump. To overcome this problem in 2007 we decided to a) place gauze over the hole from the trap to the pipe leading to the drum, so large matter cannot enter the drum. This has worked well so far, however it has restricted some trap’s water from entering the pipe. We are currently working on rectifying this problem. and b) a second filter was put on the water pump so now it has a main filter and a hose filter to sort though the ‘gunk’ before allowing it to enter the water pump.

 

Using precision agriculture (PA) to apply variable rate of fertilise is an easy way to test new idea on farm. Precision agriculture can be used to apply different rates of fertiliser to different areas of a paddock. Wheat responded to applied phophorus, even though soil tests indicated it had a high level of Colwell P (56mg/ka).

Reducing sowing rates to 50 kg/ha did not impact on yield, which is consistant with 2009 trial results. Yield at the site did not respond to applied phosphorus or nitrogen fertiliser even following early plant growth responses.

Precision agriculture can be used to apply variable rates of nitrogen fertiliser; generating fertiliser savings and optimising yields throughout the paddock. Optimising applied nitrogen fertilser results in optimum yields and gross margin.

• Yield Prophet provided good background information to apply nitrogen during the season. Whilst the nitrogen applica-tion treatment based of Yield Prophet reports was the second highest yielding treatment it did provide a delayed spend on nitrogen. Treatment 4 had exactly the same nitrogen application rate but the timing was far early than treatment 7 (Yield Prophet guided treatment). This does prove that Yield Prophet can help growers to make less risky nitrogen de-cisions without sacrificing yield and grain quality. Obviously with the excellent finishing rainfall the highest nitrogen application was the highest yielding treatment.
• This site was very responsive to Flexi-N and some very high yields were produced.

 

• From soil tests we knew that P was going to be the limiting factor.
• This trial shows that there is no substitue for keeping your P rates up. For example a ~$90/ha investment achieved a return of $483/ha.
• It also show the importance of soil testing.
• Plant analysis did not show any improvement in P uptake from either product enhancer and neither of these'enhancers' improved crop yeilds.