• Early sowing (22 April) had the largest positive impact on canola yield when comparing a range of treatments trialled in 2015, similar to results observed in 2013 and 2014. Sowing on 22 April improved yields up to 12%, depending on variety, compared to 29 April sowing date.
• Different management practices are needed to establish canola on different soil types under marginal moisture conditions. On a loamy soil at Minnipa deeper sowing (to 4 cm) produced the highest yields, whereas shallower sowing (1 cm) produced the highest yields at Piednippie, particularly with the smaller seeded variety Stingray.
• Trials at Piednippie in 2015 showed that yields up to 0.8 t/ha are achievable in a below average rainfall season, provided the crop is established early and achieves around 50 plants/m2 in open-pollinated varieties.
• Results from similar trials in 2013, 2014 and 2015 have all shown that the highest yielding canola has consistently come from plots with plant establishments of over 50 plants/m2 for open pollinated varieties and 40 plants/m2 for hybrid varieties.

• Average grain yield was higher at Hart in 2011 (2.9t/ha) compared to 2010 (2.5t/ha) and 2009 (2.4t/ha).
• Similarly to previous favourable seasons, no sowing time response was observed in 2011.
• Blackspot severity was low in 2011 because spore release was high prior to sowing and emergence.
• A 4% yield increase was achieved through fungicide applications but this was not economical in 2011.
• Recently released PBA varieties Gunyah, Twilight, Oura and Percy all performed similarly to Kaspa.
• Potential releases OZP0819 and OZP0903 both yielded 8% higher than Kaspa, while Alma was the lowest yielding variety, 7% below Kaspa.

• Grain yield of field peas sown at Hart in 2010 averaged 2.5t/ha across all varieties.
• No time of sowing response was observed in 2010.
• Early sown plots with uncontrolled blackspot showed a 35% yield loss compared to the optimum control (fortnightly chlorothalonil), which yielded 3.6t/ha.
• Prospective releases OZP0703 and OZP0903 show a lot of promise, with OZP0703 performing similarly to Kaspa and OZP0903 yielding 10% greater.
• Chlorothalonil (Bravo), pyraclostrobin (Cabrio) and azoxystrobin plus chlorothalonil (Amistar Opti) increased yields compared to the nil treatment with disease pressure.

There is a difference between maximising biomass and the optimal biomass for maximum yield in a particular environment.

Maximising biomass creates agronomic problems such as increased foliar disease and early weed competition.

Irrigation can supply moisture during grain fill but cannot control the temperature - many of the winter wheats mature too late to avoid heat stress during grain fill. 

There is a difference between maximising biomass and the optimal biomass for maximum yield in a particular environment.

Maximising biomass creates agronomic problems such as increased foliar disease and early weed competition.

Irrigation can supply moisture during grain fill but cannot control the temperature - many of the winter wheats mature too late to avoid heat stress during grain fill. 

For take home messages in regards to fungicide, nitrogen and growth regular results please see the attached trial report.

• Despite three years of above average rainfall, a red calcareous sandy loam at Minnipa with soil phosphorus reserves of 27 mg/kg of Colwell P has not required any added P fertiliser for maximum cereal grain yields.

• In year 1 of this experiment, we demonstrated that genetically diverse wheat cultivars performed differently in two locations with varying rainfall patterns. Significant differences in crop biomass, LAI, weed count and biomass between  cultivars was also location dependent. These results show that although weed suppression in wheat is influenced by genotype, the genotypic response in wheat is clearly influenced by environmental factors as well, when it comes to growth, yield and weed suppression. However, certain cultivars were excellent performers in both locations in terms of weed suppression and crop yields and these included Espada and Condo and to a lesser extent Janz. Additional results will be obtained from metabolomic analyses to evaluate both primary and secondary biosynthetic pathways operational in crop genotypes and to determine if these pathways influence weed suppression in either location over time. The role of hydroxamic acids in weed suppression will be further examined in detail through targeted metabolic profiling in both soils and plant tissue. Additional field experiments will be repeated over the next 3 years to determine impacts of year and location upon wheat cultivar performance and weed suppression.

• The trial is showing clearly that the early years of no tillage come with a significant yield penalty in most treatments.
• This is most significant when coming out of a spray fallow as seen in both the ley/fallow/wheat treatment and the wheat/fallow/wheat treatment.

• Issues such as diseases and weeds are now starting to affect the profitability of the continuous wheat system.
• Minimum tillage needs ideal conditions at sowing to be successful on these soils.
• Seasonal variation has influenced cropping system comparisons, hence the need for the trial to continue into the future.

Continuous cropping has remained the most profitable rotation since the trial began, especially continuous wheat. This system however will not last, and will be less profitable in the next few years, as suggested by the GM variations in figures 6 and 7. For continuous cropping to be sustainable, a break crop is needed to keep the system working.

• Proper rotations (irrespective of tillage methods) incorporating no more than two cereal crops in sequence with the addition of either a break crop or a fallow once in every three years is ideal. This rotation allows a very productive and sustainable farming system in our environment.
• The most profitable system since 1999 has been two years of cereal followed by a break crop such as peas under no till.
• No till systems are now becoming more profitable in the trial than cultivated systems under every rotation.
• No till will work on our problem soils so long as effective weed control is achieved.
• Under a continuous cereal rotation, the impact of weeds, diseases, poor nutrition and subsequently lower yields has lowered profitability

• No-till has performed on average 5% higher in yield and increased profits over cultivated farming systems in continuous cropping rotations.
• Adding cultivation to the system has increased both yield and profit in the 18 month fallow rotations.
• Thirteen years of continuous wheat has produced the most grain per hectare, closely followed by a wheat–barley–field pea rotation.

• No barley varietal differences in tolerance to metribuzin applied either pre-sowing or post-emergent have been detected in 3 years of trials on sandy loam soils at Walpeup and Woomelang.
• Crop damage from metribuzin has been known to occur in some commercial situations so label advice should be adhered to.

• All cultivars gave their highest yield under higher fungicide and nitrogen input (High input management), but cultivars differed in their response to increasing input with Westminster being the least responsive (1.69t/ha increase from low to high input) and Oxford the most responsive (3.09t/ha).
• RGT Planet was the highest yielding cultivar, although its advantage over Westminster was only apparent at higher levels of input, under low input both yielded similarly.
• Disease control resulting from the later fungicide application at GS37 and GS59 was strongly implicated in the yield differences, particularly between low and standard input where there was no difference in N input.
• Disease (net form of net blotch) in Oxford was uncontrollable in this trial even under high input where yield was maximised.
• RGT Planet, RGT Conquest and Westminster showed no significant difference in grain protein across the three management levels, whilst the proteins of Granger and Oxford decreased as yield increased from low to high input.
• Granger and RGT Planet recorded the lowest grain screenings. There was no significant effect of management level on screenings with these two cultivars or Westminster.
• In contrast, Oxford and Conquest that gave the largest responses to higher input showed significant decreases in grain screenings as input was increased.
• The devastating effect of NFNB on Oxford in this HRZ environment was very evident in both yield and screening results. As later fungicide input was removed from the management program so was the yield with significant reductions in yield and increased screenings.
• Under the lowest input RGT Planet and Westminster were significantly higher yielding than other cultivars tested.
• Under the highest input RGT Planet was significantly higher yielding than all other cultivars tested and produced the highest gross margins at each management level.
• With the very high disease pressure in this trial, the higher fungicide input associated with the High Input management made this the most cost effective management program of the Crop Technology Centre trials.
• As a result of higher disease pressure unlike wheat (Protocol 1) higher inputs of fungicide were generally more cost effective in barley sown early, irrespective of cultivar.

• Two Mackillop Farm Management Group trials were sown to evaluate two BYDV management options across four wheat varieties.
• High Rainfall zone growers should be pro-active and develop a BYDV management plan.
• Up to date disease guides should be consulted when selecting varieties.
• Growers are encouraged to check for aphids regularly, especially early in the season.

• During the extremely dry 2006 season the addition of micronutrients had no significant effect on crop performance and there was no benefit, in terms of grain yield, from the application of nitrogen, regardless of product.
• There is no benefit to apply micronutrients when levels are adequate at GS30 and when there is a good history of applications.

• Wheat grown on highly calcareous soils responded to zinc and manganese applications.
• Micronutrients were most effective when they were applied in fluid form which provided economical responses.
• There was no grain yield response when granular micronutrients were applied as a dry blend with granular NP fertiliser or as a coating on granules.

On heavier soil types with higher levels of organic matter, using a speed tiller to incorporate a wheat stubble may assist in increasing canola yields. If incorporation occurs immediately post-harvest, then the addition of nitrogen may not be required if the soil nitrogen levels are adequate. If incorporation is delayed and occurs immediately prior to sowing, then the addition of nitrogen should be considered.

• Grazing did not change grain yield or quality. Rather, moisture stress was more important in a dry finish
• In a dry year, the ratio of grain yield to crop biomass at flowering is 0.40. In an average year it is around 0.55
• Grazing slows crop maturity by one to two weeks, which meant Revenue (long season variety) was still booting during the October heat wave 

• Depending on seasonal influence, stored soil moisture, soil nutrition, stocking rate management and correct timing (early tillering at growth stage (GS) 18-22, rather than later tillering at GS 24-28), grazing can be done with no detriment to crop yield.
• However, preceding paddock history had a significant impact on subsequent crop success and needs to be considered when planning future rotations.

• There was an effect of Moddus on plant height, the length of node interval and cell wall thickness when compared to the untreated area.

• A slight reduction in height can be seen throughout the trial. Samples of Corack (early-mid season), Mace (mid-season) and Justica (mid-late season) were taken from both the Moddus and untreated area.
• The Moddus did not affect the maturity of the varieties.

• The difference in soil organic carbon (SOC) changes between nine sites across eastern Australia was largely characterised by mean temperature and rainfall.
• High temperature strongly interacted with management practices (stocking rate, nitrogen application and residue incorporation) to reduce carbon sequestration despite favourable rainfall.
   

Slow pasture growth rates during winter limit the potential gross margins from autumn and early winter
lambing in southern New South Wales (NSW) by limiting stocking rates and/or increasing supplementary feed
requirements. Dual-purpose crops can reduce the winter feed gap in mixed-farming systems by increasing
the available feed in winter. The simulation software AusFarm was used to model a mixed-farming system
at Wagga Wagga with Merino ewes joined to terminal sires and grazing lucerne-subterranean clover pasture
over a 41-year period. A paddock of dualpurpose wheat was then added to the system, and ewes were
allowed to graze the wheat crop when feed on offer reached 850 kg DM/ha and before GS31.

 A series of experiments started in late 1970'S to the earlier 1980 on very acidic yelllow sands that are deficient in Mo.  

Yellow  acidic sandy earths with  soil pH (CaCl2) of <4.5. Mo trioxide at nil, 140 & 280 g/ha was applied on original nil Mo plots.

Summary of the Mo on very acidic yellow soils:

 With ammonium nitrate the recommended rate of Mo (140 g Mo trioxide) was  inadequate for wheat grain 2 -3 years later.. 

Mo effectiveness rapidly declines with 2 to 3 years after the application.

A general conclusion for this experimental series:_  The residual effectiveness of Mo for cereal is likely to vary widely in different situations depending on soil pH, soil content of free iron, aluminium and manganese and the rate and type of nitrogen fertliser applied to the crop.

Critical Mo concentratin in wheat YEB s appeared to be 0.03 - 0.06 mg/kg. The evaluation of Mo in the YEB as a reliable tissue test but suggested continuing testing into future years.

 

 A experiment started in 1965 on acidic yelllow sands that are deficient in Mo.  

Yellow  sandy earths with  soil pH (CaCl2) of <4.5. Mo trioxide at nil, 140 & 280 g/ha was applied in 1965

Mo application of 1965 continued to supply Mo to the 1980 wheat crop, but with only about one-tenth the effect of the 1980. Ammonium sulfate depressed Mo uptake ; sodium nitrate enhanced uptake. With ammonium sulfate the recommended rate of Mo (140 g Mo trioxide) in 1965 appeared inadequate for wheat 15 years later.. 

Critical Mo concentratin in wheat YEB s appeared to be 0.03 - 0.05 mg/kg. The evaluation of Mo in the YEB as a reliable tissue test but suggested continuing testing into future years.

 

• UAV imagery with skilled specialist analysis and programs has the potential to identify and map weed issues in paddocks.
• Grass weed patches are easier to identify in legume and pasture crops than cereal crops.
• Variability in germination and crop growth makes it harder to identify grass weed areas.
• Data capture and analysis for analytical purposes such as grass weed mapping in individual paddocks will be beyond the skills of most farm businesses unless farmers have a special interest in this area.
• Group A resistant barley grass has once again been detected at the Minnipa Agricultural Centre. Barley grass resistance to Group A herbicides has been detected three times in three years, so be aware it is present current farming systems.

• Powdery mildew severity at the WMG field site, maximum of only 7% leaf area affected on Baudin, did not allow differences between varieties to be seen, other than VS and S types (Baudin, Stirling, Vlamingh, Gairdner)
• Laboratory seedling tests indicate that some of the genes postulated to provide resistance to powdery mildew in some commercial barley varieties may be compromised by some powdery mildew isolates.
• Field screening of these varieties has shown that local differences in variety responses can occur but no widespread regional variation, or ‘breakdown’ in the field resistance of varieties to powdery mildew was observed in 2013.
• The field response of commonly grown varieties at the WMG site and across the seven trials generally reflected the resistance rankings published in variety guides.
• The differences identified in 2013 were of minor impact, or occurred in non-commercially relevant varieties, however they indicate that regional differences in variety response are possible due to variability within the pathogen population and continued monitoring is important to facilitate appropriate disease risk assessment and in-crop management.
•  

• Sclerotinia stem rot is a very sporadic disease in southern NSW. Variations in the level of disease can occur between districts, between years and between paddocks.
• The best indicators of a high Sclerotinia risk district are a high intensity of canola production, frequent development of Sclerotinia stem rot (e.g. every year) and reliable spring rainfall during flowering.
• Results indicate that prolonged (at least 48 hours) durations of relative humidity above 95% can trigger Sclerotinia stem rot development.
• A high level of petal infestation with Sclerotinia ascospores does not guarantee that stem rot will develop.

• In 2018 and 2019 Sothis increased soil levels of the root lesion nematode P.neglectus when compared to chemical fallow trial strips.
• During the 2020 season Rhizoctonia levels increased from zero to high risk levels in oats with Sothis germinating underneath.
• Monitoring of soilborne diseases through different rotations and seasons helps increase understanding of the impact on our farming systems

• At both Corowa, NSW and Dookie, Victoria, there were significant yield responses to applied nitrogen (N), with maximum yields of 6.25t/ha at Corowa and 6.21t/ha at Dookie.
• Both sites gave identical unfertilised yields, averaging 4.67t/ha.
• Yield responses were associated with significantly higher dry matter (DM) production and greater nitrogen offtake when 120kg N/ha was applied at both sites.
• The maximum nitrogen offtake in the unfertilised crops at both sites equated to about 70–80kg N/ha, which was similar to the 95kg N/ha available to the crop at the start of the season at Corowa and the 65kg N/ha available at the start of the season at Dookie.
• The normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) response index (NDVI of fertilised:NDVI of unfertilised plots equal to 1.17) was measured at third node stage (GS33) and equated to maximum measured yield responses of 1.5–1.6t/ha to applied nitrogen.
• Applying an extra 60kg N/ha on top of the initial 60kg N/ha at Corowa (total 120kg N/ha) produced an average yield increase of 0.17t/ha (maximum 0.25t/ha), which was not cost effective (data not shown).
• At Dookie in 2016 applying 120kg N/ha gave greater returns and was economically worthwhile based on an extra 0.64t/ha for the additional 60kg N/ha applied (data not shown).

• Two first-wheat trials sown early-mid May showed significant increases in yield where nitrogen was applied. However, the timing of nitrogen application or whether the nitrogen was applied as a single or split application, gave no difference in yield.
• Normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) assessments showed no difference in crop reflectance (crop canopy greeness) due to timing of nitrogen application. However, there were NDVI differences due to the rates of nitrogen applied at the key growth stages (GS31 and GS33) where additonal nitrogen could still be applied to the crop to assist in reaching yield potential.
• Nitrogen timing had no effect on tiller and head numbers; however, a split application produced a taller crop canopy.
• Higher rates of nitrogen produced more dry matter (DM) and increased plant uptake of nitrogen, but the timing of application did not affect DM and nitrogen uptake.

• Monza efficacy on brome grass has not been reduced by the addition of these herbicides and insecticides at the final assessment.
• Some of the treatments were significantly different at the early timing, but the final assessment showed no significant difference.
• Crop phytotoxicity and crop yield were not measured.

• The last application of nitrogen was applied on the 20th July. At this stage Yield Prophet indicated that to meet full potential an application of nitrogen was required. The plant available water (PAW) was 37mm at this time giving us approximately 30 days before the crop became moisture stressed. This gave us confidence to apply nitrogen knowing that the crop would continue to grow well for 30 days even without rain.
• This site was very responsive to Flexi-N. Three applications (banded, Z13, and Z30) of 40 L/ha Flexi-N in creased yield from 1.8 t/ha to 3.2 t/ha. The nitrogen use efficiency from applied Flexi-N was 27 kg grain/kg N.
• There were early responses to 85 kg/ha Agstar before N supply became limiting.
• Plant tests in July indicated that molybdenum (Mo) was deficient (as low as 68 ug/kg with 85 kg/ha Agstar Extra), so 100 g/ha sodium molybdate was applied across the trial.
• Grain protein was low (8 to 9%) due to yield dilution. Grain tests showed marginal sulphur (S) concentrations (average 0.10 mg/kg) which may have been detrimental to baking quality characteristics such as dough strength and extensibility.

• The trial at Morawa compared a canola-wheat sequence to a wheat-on-wheat sequence with either high or low input levels. Low input had lower fertiliser, lower seed density and cheaper herbicide options. We also incorporated a comparison of a very early wheat cultivar (Zippy) to a medium maturity cultivar (Wyalkatchem).
• Water use by the crop was estimated from the sum of the in-season rainfall and the change in soil water between sowing and harvest. By estimating the amount of soil evaporation as one third of in-season rainfall, we determined the amount of water used by the plant as transpiration. The ratio of crop yield to transpiration is the transpiration efficiency of the crop which has a potential of around 20-22 mm/kg/ha.
• The yield of Zippy was more stable than that of Wyalkatchem, but the earlier maturity resulted in a substantial yield penalty. Zippy yielded around 2 t/ha each year whereas Wyalkatchem responded more in better years. The yield penalty associated with the earlier maturing variety was not offset by the higher input level. Higher input actually increased the variability in annual gross margins.
• So far Wyalkatchem has a substantially greater cumulative gross margin than Zippy and there is little difference between the high and low input strategies.

• The trial at Morawa compared a canola-wheat sequence to a wheat-on-wheat sequence with either high or low input levels. Low input had lower fertiliser, lower seed density and cheaper herbicide options. We also incorporated a comparison of a very early wheat cultivar (Zippy) to a medium maturity cultivar (Wyalkatchem).
• Water use by the crop was estimated from the sum of the in-season rainfall and the change in soil water between sowing and harvest. By estimating the amount of soil evaporation as one third of in-season rainfall, we determined the amount of water used by the plant as transpiration. The ratio of crop yield to transpiration is the transpiration efficiency of the crop which has a potential of around 20-22 mm/kg/ha.
• The yield of Zippy was more stable than that of Wyalkatchem, but the earlier maturity resulted in a substantial yield penalty. Zippy yielded around 2 t/ha each year whereas Wyalkatchem responded more in better years. The yield penalty associated with the earlier maturing variety was not offset by the higher input level. Higher input actually increased the variability in annual gross margins.
• So far Wyalkatchem has a substantially greater cumulative gross margin than Zippy and there is little difference between the high and low input strategies.

• Magenta and Baudin barley were the most competitive cultivars at Eradu, reducing ryegrass seed set by 65% compared to Wyalkatchem.  UA40 reduced ryegrass seed set by 51% which was a similar result to UA47, Mace and Bonnie Rock.  Leaf disease in UA47 reduced its competitive ability.  The cultivar UA39 is a very tall variety, and visually it appeared to significantly compete with ryegrass.  However, tiller counts and biomass measurements reveal that this cultivar is not as competitive as it appears. 
• While the UA cultivars may be useful as germplasm for future breeding programs, perhaps the most significant aspect of this research is the competitive ability of currently available cultivars.  Magenta is a high yielding, competitive wheat variety that is a useful tool for weedy paddocks.  Baudin Barley was very high yielding at Eradu and also very competitive with weeds.  This weed competition of barley is consistent with past research.  Future research will focus on ribbon / twin row seeding of competitive cultivars at higher seeding rates to maximise yield, profit and weed suppression.

Crop topping timing and delayed harvest timing can reduce faba bean seed quality.
 

• The high level of grain yield response to soil inversion is very exciting.  However, some sites have had little or no yield response while others have achieved an excellent yield response.  The key to the future success of this technique is to improve our ability to pick responsive soil types to maximise the return on investment in this technology.
• The very high level of weed control, which in some cases has been maintained for two to three years, is also very exciting.  There is no doubt that a mouldboard plough has enormous potential to decimate a weed seed bank.  However, it is imperative that the plough is set up correctly to achieve good weed seed burial.  The Smart CV site is a good example of how it can go wrong.  This site was ploughed in a rush during seeding in 2010 with a tractor that was not ideally suited to the plough (ie. not enough horsepower).  Consequently, full soil inversion did not occur and many wild radish weed seeds were left in the topsoil.  The grower knew this at the time but persisted with the trial to test the potential of the plough.  This soil is extremely non-wetting and a very big yield response was achieved. 
• The Brennan site was established in 2009 at West Moora by Dave Gartner (AgLime) using the DAFWA three furrow plough to assess the potential for lime burial with a mouldboard plough.  The site is deep yellow sand with moderate to high water repellence (water droplet penetration time 180 seconds).  Treatment with the mouldboard plough corrected the water repellence (water droplet penetration time 0 seconds).  The site was sown to wheat in 2009 and canola in 2010.  Large yield responses were measured in both years.  As yet there has been no response to lime.
• In summary, all of the growers that have purchased mouldboard ploughs have been very happy with the performance of ploughed paddocks in 2010.  Using a plough to invert the soil of a sandy, poor performing paddock every 10 to 15 years appears to be a fast, effective and economical way of renovating a paddock back to a point of high production.  Of course this machinery will have its limitations and is not a universal panacea.  However, our early studies are very encouraging.  Research into this area is ongoing and will eventually answer some of the long term questions that continue to arise.
•  
• Some of the practicalities
• Most of the growers so far have accessed machinery directly from Europe and then shipped it to Australia in sea containers.  Some growers have purchased second hand ploughs for $30,000 to $50,000. These machines have been completely dissembled and cleaned to meet quarantine standards so there are many hours of assembly work involved.  Some growers have accessed new machines for $90,000 to $130,000 for 9 to 14 furrow machines.  The cheaper machines have sheer bolt break out while the more expensive machines have hydraulic break out.  Sheer bolt machines have their limitations when it comes to rocks and stumps but have performed well nonetheless.  All ploughs imported so far are reversible and so are suited to up and back ploughing.
• A fourteen furrow machine can be set to cut 5.5 to 7 metres.  They work to a depth of 30 to 35 cm at 8 to 10 kph.  So the large machines can plough 4.5 to 7 hectares per hour at a cost of $70 to $100 / hectare (these are figures from growers).  The power requirement is 30 to 35 hp per furrow depending on soil conditions and working depth.  In good conditions a 450 hp 4WD wheel tractor can pull a 14 furrow plough but it will struggle in low soil moisture conditions.  4WD tractors often have the problem of the wide dual wheels running over the furrow which affects the depth and form of the first furrow.  Track tractors are preferred for pulling large ploughs.
• The large ploughs (12 to 14 furrow) have mainly been set up with a tool carrier that allows them to be connected to a large tractor without three point linkage.  This allows the tractor to run on level ground.  The smaller ploughs (8 to 11 furrow) are typically pulled by front wheel assist tractors in the 300 to 350 hp range with three point linkage.  In this situation, one wheel of the tractor runs in the furrow.
• There is clearly a large wind erosion risk immediately after ploughing.  Paddocks should be sown to wheat for cover immediately after ploughing (preferably the same day).  Wheat is more acid tolerant than barley and in many cases a profitable crop can be grown in the year of ploughing.  Cereals are more tolerant to sand blasting than broadleaf crops and so are the obvious choice as a cover crop.  Pay careful attention to seeding depth as it is easy to sow deep into soft soil.  Rolling of the paddock is essential after ploughing unless your hobby is towing tractors out of bogs.  Some growers are spreading seed / fertiliser and then rolling with coil packers to establish the wheat cover crop.  Relatively light rolling (eg. coil packers) is all that is necessary to firm the top 5 to 10cm of soil after ploughing.

This is the 3rd wheat crop where there has been no benefit in yield or quality due to mouldboard ploughing.

 

The highest yield in the trial was produced by the 2012 Mouldboarding treatment (1st crop) and the yield advantage dropped off for the second crop (2011 mouldboard treatment)

• No stand out varieties with peas at Mt Cooper in 2009.
• Av-Garnet conventional variety yielded the best at Mt Cooper followed by the two Clearfield varieties, Hyola 571CL and 43C80.

Prosaro Fungicide was the best option for reducing Sclerotinia disease pressure during the season. The treatments were applied at 50% Flowering, before any petal drop had occurred. The return on investment was still very good, with Pro-saro returning an additional $116/ha above the untreated control. Perhaps a larger response to fungicides would have been evident if the sprays had been applied at 20-30% flowering, as infection was very evident before spraying. The Rovral fungicide treatment was disappointing in this trial.

• Weed sensing and selective spot spraying with machinery such as the WEEDSEEKER and WEED-IT selective spot sprayers has allowed for very cost effective broadacre spot spraying of weeds without spraying the whole pad-dock area.
• Selective spot spraying of hard to kill summer weeds is one application where this technology has a potential to save growers significant funds usually allocated to herbicides.
• Elevated rates of non-traditional or previously cost prohibited herbicides of a different resistance group can now be used to achieve much more reliable and faster control of weeds.
• Alliance, Gramoxone, Basta, Roundup Powermax and Ally provided acceptable levels of control on large Roly Poly at high rates suitable for selective spot spraying.
• Hammer and Sharpen did not provide acceptable control of Roly Poly after initial impressive weed burndown.
• Roundup Powermax, Garlon, Grazon, Kamba 500 and Tordon 75D all provided excellent Afghan Melon control.
• Grazon, Kamba 500 and Tordon 75D caused herbicide toxicity issues in the wheat crop as per trial report.

• Weed sensing and selective spot spraying with machinery such as the WEEDSEEKER and WEED-IT selective spot sprayers has allowed for very cost effective broadacre spot spraying of weeds without spraying the whole pad-dock area.
• Selective spot spraying of hard to kill summer weeds is one application where this technology has a potential to save growers significant funds usually allocated to herbicides.
• Elevated rates of non-traditional or previously cost prohibited herbicides of a different resistance group can now be used to achieve much more reliable and faster control of weeds.
• Alliance, Gramoxone, Basta, Roundup Powermax and Ally provided acceptable levels of control on large Roly Poly at high rates suitable for selective spot spraying.
• Hammer and Sharpen did not provide acceptable control of Roly Poly after initial impressive weed burndown.
• Roundup Powermax, Garlon, Grazon, Kamba 500 and Tordon 75D all provided excellent Afghan Melon control.
• Grazon, Kamba 500 and Tordon 75D caused herbicide toxicity issues in the wheat crop as per trial report.

• Weed sensing and selective spot spraying with machinery such as the WEEDSEEKER and WEED-IT selective spot sprayers has allowed for very cost effective broadacre spot spraying of weeds without spraying the whole pad-dock area.
• Selective spot spraying of hard to kill summer weeds is one application where this technology has a potential to save growers significant funds usually allocated to herbicides.
• Elevated rates of non-traditional or previously cost prohibited herbicides of a different resistance group can now be used to achieve much more reliable and faster control of weeds.
• Alliance, Gramoxone, Basta, Roundup Powermax and Ally provided acceptable levels of control on large Roly Poly at high rates suitable for selective spot spraying.
• Hammer and Sharpen did not provide acceptable control of Roly Poly after initial impressive weed burndown.
• Roundup Powermax, Garlon, Grazon, Kamba 500 and Tordon 75D all provided excellent Afghan Melon control.
• Grazon, Kamba 500 and Tordon 75D caused herbicide toxicity issues in the wheat crop as per trial report.

• The moisture results indicate that canola uses more water at a greater depth than wheat. There is less water remaining in the soil profile below 40cm under canola sown at 1 and 6 kg/ha than for the same depth under wheat. There will be less moisture accessible to a wheat crop in 2012 on the canola plots than on the fallow plots.
• The use of fallow for moisture storage alone is unlikely given the volume of stored soil moisture at the beginning of May 2011. Indications for the use of a break crop were positive from early April. Summer rainfall had refilled the soil profile, fol-lowing the wheat of 2010, giving some surety to crop yield. Only a small rainfall event was required to break the season and join the soil moisture fronts.
• Season length and consistent rainfall has favoured yield of canola regardless of its plant density. A very plastic species as the yield from 22 plants/m2 is only 200 kg/ha less than that from 68 plants/m2. The canola plots received all required inputs as a result was a more expensive crop to grow than either the wheat or fallow.

• ATR Stringray was the highest yielding variety, even though it showed the least crop canopy and vigour of all varieties tested. This trait suggests it puts more resources into grain production than into crop biomass and leaf area.
• The TT hybrid varieties exhibited the greatest leaf biomass and canopy closure by 21st July. However, due to a higher than ideal plant density, this heavier crop canopy did not translate into higher grain production.
• The 2 new varieties from Nuseed – Stingray and Snapper, were the most profitable varieties in this trial and may re-place areas of Cobbler plantings in the future.

• The season was characterized by above average rainfall conditions which provided good growing conditions for crops and also ideal conditions for weed establishment, particularly medic which was difficult to control at the site and may have masked variety differences from crop topping application timings in the trial.
• Crop topping lentils 10 days prior to the recommended ARG milky dough stage led to a significant (>50 %) yield loss when compared to the respective Nil treatments across all lentil varieties. This indicates that correct timing of this practice in critical in this crop and may be difficult to achieve in long favorable growing seasons like 2016.
• Grain yield of lentil varieties was affected similarly across the crop top timings in 2016. This conflicted with previous findings, which had shown that varieties like PBA Blitz were better suited to this practice, and highlights the large effect seasonal conditions have on this agronomic practice in lentil. Further varietal development work is required in lentil before the industry has a robust variety which is well suited to effective crop topping of ARG across environments and seasons.
• All varieties of field peas showed a high level of adaption to the agronomic practice of crop topping in the long and favorable season of 2016 which is consistent with previous findings in this crop (Southern Pulse Agronomy Results Summary, 2015)
• A significant grain yield loss was observed from crop topping chickpeas 10 days earlier and at the recommended ARG milky dough stage highlighting the poor relative suitability of this crop to the agronomic practice of crop topping. PBA has developed early maturing chickpea varieties which may be better suited to crop topping in some environments and seasons. Further evaluation is required with these lines as the ability to reduce ARG seed set in this highly uncompetitive crop is essential for its continued uptake in southern farming systems.

• The 2016 season saw higher yields than the previous two seasons in field pea, lentil and faba bean. Chickpeas however performed better at Minnipa in 2014 due to adequate rainfall during the growing season and warmer temperatures during critical flower and pod fill stages. A virulence change in the ascochyta blight (AB) pathogen in southern Australia now means that all current chickpea varieties are rated as either susceptible or moderately susceptible. Although often relatively lower yielding in low rainfall regions, moderately susceptible varieties GenesisTM090 and PBA Slasher will have a reduced production risk and require fewer fungicides than the higher yielding susceptible varieties such as PBA Striker. Chickpeas are generally less suited than other pulse options in many cropping regions in SA due to their relatively late maturity and increased sensitivity to cold temperatures during the flowering and pod filling phase.

• Crop species were blocked and not randomized for ease of management and this experiment was only aimed at obtaining a general understanding of rhizoctonia susceptibility in different crop species. As such results will require careful interpretation and crops cannot statistically be compared with each other. Only comparisons between varieties and treatments within a crop species can be statistically compared.
• Results do however indicate a trend in increased susceptibility of some crops and varieties to Rhizoctonia than others with faba beans appearing to show a reduced ability to decrease rhizotonia levels when compared with the other crop species. This finding backed up field observations throughout the year for both crop growth and root health.
• Further work is required in this area to understand if pulse crops vary in their ability to offer a ‘break crop’ benefit in terms of rhizoctonia root disease levels to the following cereal crops..
• Initial results also suggest variety variability for reducing or hosting rhizoctonia in pulses may exist and also requires further understanding.
• An improved field screening methodology is required to achieve the above due to the patchy and random nature of this disease in the soils of SA. An associated project by SARDI root diagnostics group is underway to try and develop such a methodology.

• There were no significant yield differences in this trial with all of the new chickpea lines producing equivalent yields to Kaniva under low disease pressure.
• Flip94-509C and Flip94-508C were very dark in colour compared to Flip94-090C and Kaniva.
• Improved ascochyta resistance will make management of these new varieties a lot easier than over the past five years, however quality and marketing will be the key to profitability with many of Australia’s markets for desi chickpeas now supplied by alternative sources.

The theoretical N contribution from faba stubbles is 20 kg N/tonne of stubble. However this assumes all residue is mineralised. 

Stubble retained on the soil surface is broken down more slowly than residues present in the soil.

A 6 t/ha bean crop resulted in approximately 140 kg N/ha being released for the following season. 

• The waterlogging event affected all treatments, such that both the chlorophyll content index (CCCI) and normalised difference red edge (NDRE) were similar for all treatments immediately after the water-logging event.
• The topdressed treatments recovered better after the waterlogging event than the mid-row banding (MRB) treatments.
• MRB showed an acceptable yield and apparent nitrogen recovery efficiency (ANRE) in both waterlogged and non-waterlogged conditions, but similar or less than N topdressing treatments. The topdressing treatments had surprisingly high ANRE.
• The mid-row banded nitrogen declined during the season, presumably with nitrification and uptake. Some mid-row banded nitrogen was still evident 131 days after sowing.
• The majority of the mid-row banded nitrogen was present as ammonium during the season, which allowed it survive the waterlogging event

• Unfortunately, crop was only sown at 40kg/ha, half the intended seeding rate. Low seeding rate and sever sub-soil compactions resulted in relatively low yields.
• There were only low levels of yellow leaf diseases.
• The site responded to N and K. With fungicide applied, there was a 0.7t/ha response to 85 kg N/ha (trt 3 v 4), and a 0.5t/ha response to 68kg K/ha (trt 2v9).
• There was a significant response to fungicide at the high rate of N, but only with K applied. This suggests the benefits of fungicide are greatest where nutrient deficiencies are overcome.
• Hectolitre weights were 74-77 kg/l and screening less than 5%
•  

• There was a strong response to P but no response to N
• Plant tests showed that the crop was unlikely to respond to N
• 0N 24P was nearly $300/ha more profitable than 80N 16P!
• Profitability is driven by getting the N and P balance AND application rates right.

• Good growing conditions produced wheat yields of up to 5.0t/ha and canola yields of up to 2.6t/ha.
• There was no response to P in either crop where N was applied.

Only medic based systems from 2008 and 2009 resulted in higher wheat yields in 2011.

• Growers need to be aware that glyphosate, trifluralin and diflufenican residues, plus the glyphosate metabolite AMPA, can accumulate to agronomically significant levels in certain soils.
• These findings suggest that the current risk of damage to crops in NSW is minor compared with some sites in WA that have lower rainfall and sandy soils with low organic matter.
• The risk to soil biological processes is generally minor when herbicides are used at label rates and given sufficient time to dissipate before re-application.
• However, given the frequency of glyphosate application and the persistence of trifluralin and diflufenican, further research is needed to define site-specific critical thresholds for these chemicals to avoid potential negative effects on soil function and crop production.

• Natrakelp applied to the foliage showed no yield advantage in any of the crop types.
• At this stage this product needs further evaluation before it is widely used.

The results confirm some suspicions of some observant farmers that a small amount of compaction, or 'firming' can be beneficial to crop yield.

• Richmond produced an average yield 7% higher than Soya 791 in advanced variety evaluations at early sowing dates (first week in December) over six seasons.
• Richmond produced an average yield 7.7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in advanced variety evaluations at late sowing dates (mid January) over eight seasons.
• In on-farm experiments, Richmond yielded 16% higher than Soya 791 in a wide-row system on the northern slopes, and 7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in a narrow-row coastal system.
• In addition to higher yield potential, Richmond is tolerant to lodging and pre-harvest weather damage, has clean leaf drop, large seed size and high protein, and is resistant to powdery mildew. This combination of traits provides greater crop security and a full range of market options for growers, and high quality grain for buyers and processors.

Conclusions:

The Australian soybean variety RichmondA produces large grain (22 g/100 seed) with a clear hilum and high levels of protein (42% dry matter), which is suitable for all markets including human consumption and export. The traditional variety, Asgrow A6785, has small grain (<16 g/100 seed) with a brown hilum and protein levels less than 40%, which limits the range of markets to which it is suited. The traditional variety, Soya 791, has average sized grain Agronomy(19 g/100 seed) with a light brown hilum and high levels of protein (42%). Both A6785 and Soya 791 are prone to excessive vegetative growth, especially at an early sowing date. However, this is not necessarily converted into grain yield as demonstrated in the on-farm experiment at Harwood.

RichmondA is superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in terms of grain yield, tolerance to lodging, tolerance to pre-harvest weathering and clean leaf drop. RichmondA offers a summer legume option with high yield and high grain quality for early, mid or late sowing windows in northern New South Wales. The variety’s performance was not adversely affected by the range of soil types and farming systems reported in this paper; it was superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in all situations. RichmondA is resistant to powdery mildew. This package of traits represents a significant advance in soybean varieties for the North Coast, Tablelands, Northern Slopes and Liverpool Plains production regions of northern New South Wales.

The results of the on-farm experiment of RichmondA versus Soya 791 in a wide spacing, single row system at Oakwood demonstrates the variety’s ability to compensate for wide rows and the associated lower plant populations in dryland systems. Row spacing and plant population interactions of new soybean and mungbean varieties are being investigated in the current NSW DPI–GRDC project DAN00171

Key messages: 

• Richmond produced an average yield 7% higher than Soya 791 in advanced variety evaluations at early sowing dates (first week in December) over six seasons.
• Richmond produced an average yield 7.7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in advanced variety evaluations at late sowing dates (mid January) over eight seasons.
• In on-farm experiments, Richmond yielded 16% higher than Soya 791 in a wide-row system on the northern slopes, and 7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in a narrow-row coastal system.
• In addition to higher yield potential, Richmond is tolerant to lodging and pre-harvest weather damage, has clean leaf drop, large seed size and high protein, and is resistant to powdery mildew. This combination of traits provides greater crop security and a full range of market options for growers, and high quality grain for buyers and processors.

Conclusions:

The Australian soybean variety RichmondA produces large grain (22 g/100 seed) with a clear hilum and high levels of protein (42% dry matter), which is suitable for all markets including human consumption and export. The traditional variety, Asgrow A6785, has small grain (<16 g/100 seed) with a brown hilum and protein levels less than 40%, which limits the range of markets to which it is suited. The traditional variety, Soya 791, has average sized grain Agronomy (19 g/100 seed) with a light brown hilum and high levels of protein (42%). Both A6785 and Soya 791 are prone to excessive vegetative growth, especially at an early sowing date. However, this is not necessarily converted into grain yield as demonstrated in the on-farm experiment at Harwood.

RichmondA is superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in terms of grain yield, tolerance to lodging, tolerance to pre-harvest weathering and clean leaf drop. RichmondA offers a summer legume option with high yield and high grain quality for early, mid or late sowing windows in northern New South Wales. The variety’s performance was not adversely affected by the range of soil types and farming systems reported in this paper; it was superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in all situations. RichmondA is resistant to powdery mildew. This package of traits represents a significant advance in soybean varieties for the North Coast, Tablelands, Northern Slopes and Liverpool Plains production regions of northern New South Wales.

The results of the on-farm experiment of RichmondA versus Soya 791 in a wide spacing, single row system at Oakwood demonstrates the variety’s ability to compensate for wide rows and the associated lower plant populations in dryland systems. Row spacing and plant population interactions of new soybean and mungbean varieties are being investigated in the current NSW DPI–GRDC project DAN00171

 

KEY MESSAGES:

• Richmond produced an average yield 7% higher than Soya 791 in advanced variety evaluations at early sowing dates (first week in December) over six seasons.
• Richmond produced an average yield 7.7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in advanced variety evaluations at late sowing dates (mid January) over eight seasons.
• In on-farm experiments, Richmond yielded 16% higher than Soya 791 in a wide-row system on the northern slopes, and 7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in a narrow-row coastal system.
• In addition to higher yield potential, Richmond is tolerant to lodging and pre-harvest weather damage, has clean leaf drop, large seed size and high protein, and is resistant to powdery mildew. This combination of traits provides greater crop security and a full range of market options for growers, and high quality grain for buyers and processors.

CONCLUSIONS; 

The Australian soybean variety RichmondA produces large grain (22 g/100 seed) with a clear hilum and high levels of protein (42% dry matter), which is suitable for all markets including human consumption and export. The traditional variety, Asgrow A6785, has small grain (<16 g/100 seed) with a brown hilum and protein levels less than 40%, which limits the range of markets to which it is suited. The traditional variety, Soya 791, has average sized grain Agronomy NORTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2017 | 53 (19 g/100 seed) with a light brown hilum and high levels of protein (42%). Both A6785 and Soya 791 are prone to excessive vegetative growth, especially at an early sowing date. However, this is not necessarily converted into grain yield as demonstrated in the on-farm experiment at Harwood. RichmondA is superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in terms of grain yield, tolerance to lodging, tolerance to pre-harvest weathering and clean leaf drop. RichmondA offers a summer legume option with high yield and high grain quality for early, mid or late sowing windows in northern New South Wales. The variety’s performance was not adversely affected by the range of soil types and farming systems reported in this paper; it was superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in all situations. RichmondA is resistant to powdery mildew. This package of traits represents a significant advance in soybean varieties for the North Coast, Tablelands, Northern Slopes and Liverpool Plains production regions of northern New South Wales. The results of the on-farm experiment of RichmondA versus Soya 791 in a wide spacing, single row system at Oakwood demonstrates the variety’s ability to compensate for wide rows and the associated lower plant populations in dryland systems. Row spacing and plant population interactions of new soybean and mungbean varieties are being investigated in the current NSW DPI–GRDC project DAN00171

• Barley is a valuable rotation crop as it is not susceptible to many wheat foliar diseases (yellow spot, stripe rust, septoria), suffers less yield loss from root diseases, and competes well with weeds.
• Schooner and Gairdner have been the preferred malting varieties in central NSW. Gatrdner has proved to be the highest yielding malting variety, but is prone to high screenings under dry conditions, late sowing and excessive nitrogen or seeding rates.
• Buloke, a new potential malting variety for the mid-lower rainfall parts of the region performed well in 2005.
• Fitzroy, Baudin and Cowabbie yielded well in the mid-higher rainfall areas.
• Tilga and Tantangara are high yielding feed varieties with Tilga better suited to drier areas. Binalong, Mackay and Grout are new feed grain lines particularly suited to the northern half of the State.
• Seeding rates of 70-120 seeds/m2 are likely to be a good compromise for yield and grain quality for barley; the higher rate should be used with late sowing and in wetter areas, but care is needed with Gairdner which is prone to high screenings.

• Disease pressure in the trial was low however, there were measurable differences in SFNB and scald for all treatments compared to the control.
• Systiva (seed treatment) provided similar control compared to all in-season applied foliar fungicides.

• Early disease control is important for reducing initial AB infection levels in field pea crops with a yield potential above 1.5 t/ha.
• A late fungicide spray is important to control AB in spring when rainfall is conducive to disease spread and pod and seed infection.
• Early sowing into a high disease risk window with new fungicide actives evaluated in this project, were demonstrated to have improved yield benefits over later sowing in the 2017 season.

• Early disease control is important for reducing initial AB infection levels in field pea crops with a yield potential above 1.5 t/ha.
• A late fungicide spray is important to control AB in spring when rainfall is conducive to disease spread and pod and seed infection.
• Early sowing into a high disease risk window with new fungicide actives evaluated in this project, were demonstrated to have improved yield benefits over later sowing in the 2017 season.

The application of nitrogen increased grain yield by 0.5t/ ha, but there was no benefit from additional sulphur. At this site, money was better spent on nitrogen than on sulphur.

Grain protein was very low (7-10% protein) which is becoming an issue on sandy country despite adequate nutrition.

The timing of nitrogen and sulphur applications made no difference to crop yield or quality. Consequently, growers could reduce production and financial risk by delaying some applications and adjusting rates to the seasons.

• Data support a negative relationship between yield and protein.
• Season will always play a major role in determining protein content of grain in low rainfall areas.
• Producers should aim to maximise the opportunities to increased grain protein.

The faba crop contributed a significant amount of N, resulting in less symptoms of waterlogging during winter, reduced N applied through the season but insignificant yield effects and changes to barley grain quality.

• The 2014 wheat crop at Karoonda had a harvest index of 0.4 and fertilizer N recovery was 35%.
• Wheat stubble from the 2014 crop contained 16 kg N/ha and had a C:N ratio of 95 which is common for cereal crop residues in these environments .
• Mineralization during summer resulted in the accumulation of 18-33 kg/ha of mineral N to 50cm depth across all the treatments at sowing in 2015.
• Incorporation of 2014 cereal stubble increased microbial biomass and N supply potential at sowing in the surface soil when compared with standing stubble.
• The management of cereal stubble affects the microbial activity that influences the cycling and supply of nutrients (nitrogen (N) and phosphorus) to growing crops.
• There was no significant effect of management of 2014 stubble on subsequent wheat grain yield in 2015.

• Grain yield was driven by biomass production rather than harvest index.
• Timing of nitrogen had relatively little impact on yield or nitrogen response.
• Nitrogen rate had little effect on total crop water use.
• Nitrogen use efficiency and water use efficiency were improved with additional water availability (irrigated treatment).

• With a soil nitrogen (N) content of 103 kg N/ha at sowing, Mace wheat yielded 3.1 t/ha with no N fertiliser applied and contained 6.6% protein.
• Optimum gross margins were recorded with 75 kg N/ha, though none of the N levels up to 100 kg N/ha reached 9% protein.
• Yield response was greatest for N application timings at sowing, GS31, or a split application between GS31 and GS39.
• A crop sensor was used to measure in season nitrogen responsiveness and was able to predict the optimal N rate.

• At Minnipa the late sown (resown due to mice damage) wheat gave a yield response to 20 units of up-front N, but not to N applied in-crop in 2010.
• At Mudamuckla there was no response to applied N above base rates on soil with adequate N content in 2010.

Four nitrogen fertiliser products were compared for efficacy in relation to providing the crop with sufficient N to optimize production at two sites, Birchip and Marnoo. The products compared were: granular Urea, granular Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN), liquid Urea Ammonium Nitrate (UAN) and liquid Urea. The products were applied three times (pre-sowing; at the five leaf stage and at the end of tillering).

• Grain yields of wheat were higher when additional nitrogen was applied at sowing compared to when applied at GS31.
• Timing of nitrogen application is essential to maximise plant growth and achieve yield potential.
• Grain protein was only higher when delayed nitrogen application was applied, which resulted in reduced wheat yield.
• Starting soil moisture, paddock rotation history and potential yield of crop are important factors to consider when deciding amount of nitrogen to apply and timing.
   

• Grain yields of wheat were higher when additional nitrogen was applied at sowing compared to when applied at GS31
• Timing of nitrogen application is essential to maximise plant growth and achieve yield potential
• Grain protein was only higher when delayed nitrogen application was applied, which resulted in reduced wheat yield
• Starting soil moisture, paddock rotation history and potential yield of crop are important factors to consider when deciding amount of nitrogen to apply and timing

For further information see Payne, RA and Ladd, JN (1993) Soil organic matter and nitrogen management in dryland cropping systems, Part II: Nitrogen requirements for dryland cereal crops. Dept Primary Industries of SA. Technical Report No. 212 (Agdex 536).

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits. The grower mentioned the usefulness of the Greenseeker map to provide a visual overview of how the crop was growing and where nitrogen was being used. This has helped with understanding how different soil types perform and allow extraction of nitrogen during a growing season.

• Paddock variance was measured across two paddocks through EM (electromagnetic) surveys. Based on this variance, high and low EM zones were identified.
• Two small plot trials compared nitrogen (N) response in a high and low EM zone of two paddocks sown to Trojan wheat, one in Yarrawonga (sown 22 April) and the other in Dookie (sown 12 May).
• • Both paddocks had high levels of nitrogen available in the soil (120–200kg N/ha 0–60cm) irrespective of zone.
• The largest response to nitrogen (1t/ha) was observed in the high EM zone at Dookie, where the highest levels of available soil nitrogen were recorded (200kg N/ha).
• Dry matter (DM) differences and normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) readings at the Dookie site suggested the crop canopy was responding to applied nitrogen; this indicates the crop did not benefit from the high levels of soil nitrogen present (possibly as a result of later sowing or subsoil constraints).
• At the Yarrawonga site there were no significant indications from NDVI readings that a response to nitrogen fertiliser was likely; this was supported by high grain yields in the nil nitrogen plots (5.8t/ha and 6.4t/ha in the high and low EM zone respectively).
• At the Dookie low EM site, grain protein of 11.9% in the lowest-yielding treatment suggested there was sufficient soil nitrogen available to meet crop yield and protein requirements; this contrasts with in-crop NDVI measurements, which suggested the crop would respond to applied nitrogen.
• At Yarrawonga nitrogen application strategies based on NDVI readings meant nitrogen application was
• delayed until third node (GS33) in the high EM zone, which resulted in only limited uptake. A slightly earlier second node (GS32) application in the low EM zone resulted in an excellent response (0.39t/ha)to the NDVI-based approach.

Key findings:

• This site was fairly unresponsive to nitrogen (N) application. Yield and screenings did not significantly change with increasing rates of N, but there were moderate responses in grain protein to all rates of applied N in all varieties.
• The 40 kg N/ha at sowing + 40 kg N/ha in crop treatment had a significant increase in grain protein above the 40 kg N/ha at sowing only treatment in all varieties, but was not significantly different from the 80 kg N/ha at sowing treatment

Results:

There were moderate responses in grain protein to all rates of applied N in all varieties. The 40 kg N/ha at sowing + 40 kg N/ha in-crop treatment showed a significant increase in grain protein above the 40 kg N/ha at sowing only treatment in all varieties, but was not significantly different from the 80 kg N/ha at sowing treatment. Screening levels were low, with only Dart above 5% in some treatments. Dart, being the quickest variety in this trial, flowered and reached grain filling ahead of the other varieties, most likely causing it to be filling grain and losing green leaf during the hotter and drier part of September. The slower varieties probably benefited more from the late spring rains in this season

Key findings:

• This site was only moderately responsive to nitrogen (N) application. Yield and protein generally increased in all varieties with the 20 kg N/ha and 40 kg N/ha rates. However, yield decreased with higher application rates.
• Protein and screening levels increased with N rates above 40 kg N/ha.
• KioraA produced the highest screening levels. The sowing date of 5 May at Nyngan is probably a bit late for KioraA, which would have exacerbated screenings.
• Varieties with comparatively lower biomass such as DartA, LancerA, SpitfireA and SunmateA maintained higher yield and lower screening levels even with the higher N application rates with a corresponding lower impact on harvest index also observed in these varieties.

Conclusions:

Conditions at sowing were very wet. There was no effective in-crop rainfall after August and combined with temperatures above 35⁰C in September resulted in a hard finish to the season.

This site had a high background starting N level (233 kg N/ha) which was surprising given the history of continuous cropping – 17 years of crop (Wheat 40%, canola 20%, barley 20%, pulse 20%) with additional N (above starter fertiliser application) only applied once in 1999. The lower rates of 20 and 40 kg N/ha gave modest yield increases in most varieties however rates higher than this tended to reduce yield and also caused screenings levels to increase in this trial. Protein levels increased with N application rates of 40 kgN/ha and above as seed size decreased.

Biomass and harvest index data (data not shown) showed that increasing N rate in heavier strawed varieties such as EGA_Gregory, Viking, Kiora produced more dry matter with comparatively less grain yield i.e. lower harvest index.

Farmers in this situation can be confident that since the NDVI and the N sensor measurements complement one another, the low producing areas can be farmed differently to the high producing areas. In order to maximise profits on farm, growers ought to consider varying inputs according to productive potential of their paddocks. Soil types vary considerably throughout the Upper North and can also be quite variable within paddocks. Considerable cost benefits can be made over time by using variable rate technology in paddocks with high variability. While the upfront costs might be large, the investment quickly pays itself off, giving farmers increased confidence in using the technology. Some training is often required when using new monitors and equipment however regular use and familiarity of products improves ease of operation.

• Later applications of nitrogen (GS30 & GS37) were the most profitable with the highest yield and quality, for malt barley in 2010.
• There was no significant differences in yield of varieties between early and later sowings.
• Crop sensors provide a good measure of nitrogen response and can improve nitrogen use efficiency.

Crop growth and yield potential were severely limited by one of the driest seasons on record at this site. Hence, the very poor grain yields and no response to nitrogen applications.

Results are complex and its difficult to separate the effect of waterlogging and crop development stage.
Results not statistically significant but suggest:

• Double application of nitrogen increased the crop yield,
• Potentially there is a benefit in applying nitrogen once waterlogging abating, and
• Quality increased with late application of nitrogen but yield did not increase.

•  Delaying post sowing applications of nitrogen (92 kg/ha N) to the flag leaf stage for both Kellalac and MacKellar at the Gnarwarre site, resulted in the best grain yield and grain quality.
• Application of nitrogen (35 kg/ha N) to barley at the early jointing stage (GS32), gave the best grain yield and quality at Gnarwarre.
• Late nitrogen applications appeared to result in more flower sites (florets) filling with grain for both wheat and barley. 
• For further conclusions please see the attached trial report.

• Early sulphur application supported higher tiller numbers although this did not translate into yield
• Site was very responsive to at least 79kg nitrogen application.
• An additional 50kg urea (23kg N), resulted in slightly higher protein readings.
• Site was unresponsive to sulphur application.
• Timing and splitting of in-crop fertilisation conferred no yield advantage • Good utilisation of applied N and S in spite of high rainfall year.