• There was significant rain in early April.
• It was very wet at the time of seeding.
• Reduced emergency due to soil crusting and seeding depth.
• There was adequte rain overall but dry at emergence.

• Delayed sowing provided no advantage over early sowing in reducing ryegrass plant or head number.
• In two out of three seasons, later sown crops were lower yielding and did not provide as good crop competition allowing ryegrass head number to increase.
• Sowing time had no effect on the performance of pre-emergent herbicides for ryegrass control.

• The early break to the 2015 season meant soil moisture and rainfall conditions were similar between ToS 1 and 2 and there was little variation in annual ryegrass control among preemergent herbicides tested.
• Grain yield and quality were not affected by pre-emergent herbicide; however, there was a 0.7 t/ha yield penalty for the later ToS.
• Over two seasons of research ryegrass seed set was greater when sowing was delayed.

The early break to the 2014 season meant soil moisture and rainfall conditions were similar between ToS 1 and 2 and there was little variation in annual ryegrass control among pre-emergent herbicides tested. Grain yield and quality were not affected by pre-emergent herbicide however, there was a 1.22 t/ha yield penalty for the later ToS

1. Preliminary results show better yields and slightly improved grain quality from the earliest sowing date (25 July).
2. There was a difference in plant phenology and physiology between the two early sowing dates (25 July and 16 August).

In-crop control of radish with a range of herbicides was highly effective in reducing the wild radish population.

• Forrest was the highest yielding variety for the 9 April sowing date (Table 6). Shorter season varieties were not able to capture the yield benefits of this time of sowing.  Plant densities of 60 and 120 plants/m2 did not influence the grain yield or quality of wheat when sown on the 9th and 23rd April.
• Magenta was the highest ranked variety when sown on 23 April, however other long-mid maturing varieties also compared favourably.
• Mace , the most widely grown variety in the state, maximised yield at the 12 May sowing time.  It out yielded all other varieties at this sowing date.
• There was no influence of sowing time and plant density on the screenings which were below 5% for all varieties at all sowing times.

Canola Grain Yield at Pindar

All varieties apart from Stingray were able to yield the same or higher from the 9th April sowing opportunity.

As expected the shorter seasoned varieties were not able to capitalise on the 9th April sowing as the longer season varieties.    Grain yield declined with delayed sowing for longer season canola varieties.

Growers may not see a flat yield response for early sowings as an issue.  Instead, the early sowing window allows them to get crop out of the ground and reduces the risk of dry spells leading to a lack of future sowing opportunities.   However pests (eg Diamondback moth) and diseases (such as Sclerotinia), depending on rainfall zone and soil type, need to be factored into decisions about very early sowing windows.

The success of very early sowing depends heavily on soil type, soil moisture and temperature. Growers need to assess the conditions they face in the lead into each season closely before embarking on very early sowing, especially when using hybrid seed with high seed costs.

• If sowing before 20 April, winter wheats (Wedgetail, Wylah, Whistler, Osprey) are at lower risk of stem frost damage than slow maturing spring wheats.
• Keep spring wheats within 507 days of their opitmal sowing date.
• Be prepared tgo back-up imidacloprid treated seed with foliar insecticides if aphids are persisting in autumn.

• Two trials with first wheat sown during mid-April 2014 showed no difference in grain yield or quality as a result of being grown on 22.5cm or 30cm row spacings.
• Crops grown on a 37.5cm row spacing were 5-6% lower yielding than crops on the 30cm spacing.
• Although these are single-year results, they indicate that yield advantages of a narrow spacing (22.5cm) over 30cm, measured with later-sown wheat crops, may not be apparent when wheat crops are sown early (during mid-April).
• Trends suggesting higher dry matter (DM) produciton with a narrow row spacing, which were observed with later-sown crops, were still apparent in these earlier-sown crops; however, this did not translate to higher grain yields.

• Two wheat trials sown during mid-April 2015 showed no difference in grain yield or quality as a result of being grown on 22.5cm, 30cm and 37.5cm row spacings, when averaged across four varieties.
• Although crops grown on a 22.5cm row spacing produced more dry matter (DM), this did not correspond to increased yield.
• The results were identical to that seen with wheat sown in mid-April 2014.
• There were no differences in yields of the four wheat varieties, although Bolac produced higher screenings than the other three varieties in both trials.
• There was no difference in the overall water use efficiency (WUE) between narrow and wide row spacing, although calculated water losses (soil evaporation, drainage or unused water) were greater with wide spacing than the narrow spacing.

• Four wheat trials sown during mid-April 2014 and 2015 showed no difference in grain yield or qualityas a result of being grown on 22.5cm, 30cm and 37.5cm row spacings, when averaged across four varieties (Bolac/Kiora, Lancer, Trojan and EGA Wedgetail).
• The 2016 trial sown during mid-April again showed no difference in yield between 22.5cm and 30cm row spacings, however yields were significantly less with the widest row spacing (37.5cm).
• Trial yields in 2016 were 1.5t/ha higher than 2014 and 2015 (3–4.25t/ha), with the higher yield potential likely to be a key factor in the poor performance of the widest row spacing (37.5cm).
• The Riverine Plains Water Use Efficiency (WUE) project (2009–13) showed that when crops weresown in the traditional sowing window, the 22.5cm spacing was more successful than the 30cm spacing, except in drier years with lower yield potential (2.5–3.0t/ha).
• In the three years (2014–16) of trialling row spacing on early-sown crops, crops grown on a 22.5cm row spacing produced more dry matter (DM) than crops grown on wider rows. However, the 2016 trial was the first to show a yield disadvantage to the widest
row spacing (37.5cm) when sown early.
• As a result of lower yields, the 37.5cm row spacing gave significantly poorer water use efficiency (WUE) than 30cm row spacing, with a greater proportion of calculated water losses (soil evaporation, drainage or unused water).
• A barley row spacing trial, sown at the same time alongside the wheat, provided some usefulcomparative observations during 2016, with La Trobe barley producing higher DM and yields thanwheat with a harvest index (HI) of approximately 50% compared with wheat at 40%.

Winter wheat cultivars Wedgetail and Rosella sown on 1 April were higher yielding than LRPB Scout sown on 6 May.

Reducing plant density to 50 plants/ m² did not reduce the ability of winter wheats to compete with a simulated weed population (tame oats) when sown on 1 April

Winter wheat sown early produced more dry matter for grazing than spring wheats sown in May.

• Highest yields in 2015 came from early sown (9 April) spring cultivars (with 8mm of irrigation for emergence).
• Winter wheats Wedgetail and RAC2341, sown 9 April, yielded more than Scout sown in the normal sowing window (8 May).
• Reducing plant density in early sown slow-developing wheats did not influence yield in either the presence or absence of weeds but did result in greater weed growth.

• New winter genotypes had different phenology responses compared with current commercial genotypes.

• Frost significantly affected phenology and grain yield responses in 2017.

• The highest grain yields were achieved through various sowing date × variety combinations.

• Best management practice is matching varietal phenology with sowing date, however, pre-flowering phases had a significant influence on grain yield responses.
 

• Despite the significant effect of seasonal conditions in 2019, grain yields of >5.5 t/ha were achieved, highlighting the opportunity for early sown winter wheats in grain-only systems. • Differences in phenology and yield responses across sowing dates suggest cultivar
performance can be manipulated by sowing time and can vary across environments. • New winter and long season spring types with consistent yield performance provide alternative early sowing options for growers in southern NSW.

• Disease pressure Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus (BYDV), and Zymoseptoria triticii is going to restrict sowing of susceptible varieties earlier than mid-May in the South East High Rainfall Zone.
• Growers who wish to sow early (dual purpose crops) should select BYDV resistant varieties (eg.Manning), and use resistant cultivars, fungicides and grazing to manage Zymoseptoria triticii.
• The photoperiod (daylength) requirements of Trojan increase its suitability to earlier time of sowing compared with other spring cultivars

• Disease pressure - Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus (BYDV), and Zymoseptoria triticii is going to restrict sowing of susceptible varieties earlier than mid-May in the South East High Rainfall Zone.
• Growers who wish to sow early (dual purpose crops) should select BYDV resistant varieties (eg. Manning), and use grazing/fungicides to manage Zymoseptoria triticii.
• The photoperiod (daylength) requirements of Trojan increase its suitability to earlier time of sowing compared with other spring cultivars.

The effects of plant density (50, 125, 200 plants/m2) on growth and grain yield of early sown wheat were evaluated. Early in the growing season the low density plots looked very sparse but by September had largely caught up whereas the highest density plots looked visually good during early tillering but later in the season tillers were visually thinner and prone to lodging.

There was little effect on grain yield from the cutting treatments in Mackellar whereas cutting resulted in an 18% reduction in yield of
Breakwell.

• The highest yielding spring wheat was Scepter sown on the 4th of May and 16th of March at 1.98 t/ha and 1.82 t/ha, respectively.
• The winter wheat varieties yielded between 0.82 – 1.33 t/ha, with no variety consistently outperforming another.
• 2017 conditions at Booleroo were unfavourable for winter wheats, further data across seasons and locations will be continued in 2018 and 2019.

Data was highly variable so results should be viewed with caution.

• An early sown cereal crop provides a green paddock of feed when regenerating or sown legume pastures are establishing, and avoids the cost and labour of handfeeding.
• In low to medium rainfall areas, barley and oat crops best tolerate grazing. They have better forage value and their ability to recover lessens production penalties. Grazed wheat varieties are likely to suffer grain yield and quality penalties. Dual purpose winter varieties are generally not suitable.
• In low rainfall areas, it is best to graze well before stem elongation for better crop recovery.

• Harvest dates for the ryegrass trials were 22 September and 3 November 2011, while the harvest date for the legume trial was 2-3 November. Harvest date in 2012 was 2 October.
• Little growth occurred after this due to dry conditions.

• Harvest dates for the ryegrass trials were 22 September and 3 November 2011, while the harvest date for the legume trial was 2-3 November. Harvest date in 2012 was 2 October.
• Little growth occurred after this due to dry conditions.

• Improving water use efficiency across mixed cropping and livestock systems thorughout Eastern South Australia
• Improving whole farm profitability, whole farm sustainability and whole farm ground cover across Eastern South Australia.

•    Soil amelioration through ripping with inclusion plates or clay delving has supported the development of plant cover in areas with a history of wind erosion.
•    Mixed species pasture systems can present an opportunity to increase soil cover and feed levels.
•    Summer cover crops can deliver higher levels of soil cover over summer, providing increased soil protection and can support soil amelioration practices, such as ripping with inclusion plates.
•    Compared to stubble treatments, summer cover crops can lower soil water levels when growing, but soil water levels measured post-germination showed mixed results. Even where soil water is lower, there may not be a negative impact on biomass or yield in the subsequent crop as shown in 2021.

Generally, 6-8kgN/ha applied at an earlier than milky dough growth stage is required to raise grain protein 1%. Therefore, this crop required 18-24kg to raise protein from 10.5 to 11.5%.

Each eDemonstration site has a weather station and soil moisture probe and is a place where growers, consultants and industry can gather to learn about and compare all of the decision support tools, systems and technologies available for on farm decision making. Events are organised to ensure a large variety of tools can be evaluated by growers.

• The use of variable-rate technology for nitrogen (VRT-nitrogen) application had mixed gross margin results given measured wheat yields, protein levels, calculated income and nitrogen costs in the nitrogen-rate trials undertaken at Yarrawonga and Dookie during 2017.
• Based on initial results at Yarrawonga and Dookie (using 19 and 13 years of wheat and canola yield responses to growing season rainfalls, respectively), the costs of conducting variable rate applications of nitrogen would require crop yields to increase by about 1%, or applied nitrogen costs to be reduced by at least 70%, before the approach breaks even over time.
• High overhead cost structures increase the risk of negative farm income. As VRT increases overhead costs, reviewing overall cost structures before adopting the technology is advisable.

1. Differences of $204-670/year were found between systems across sites.
2. Cropping intensity is the major factor driving good/poor economic performance.
3. A system water use efficiency of $2.50 of crop income/mm of rainfall over the cropping sequence is achievable and could be used to benchmark current farming systems.

• Fungicide spray significantly reduced the disease severity of spot type net blotch (STNB) in barley in Muntadgin in 2017.
• There was no yield penalty from not applying fungicide in the 2017 growing season in Muntadgin.
• There was no economic benefit from fungicide spray for controlling STNB in Muntadgin in 2017.

Growers view should financially compare the economic impact of both establishment systems over the whole farm, across several years. Account for the differences in grain production and also consider:
• The elite farm that has 100% of pastures successfully established with lucerne;
Versus;
• The farm using cover-cropping methods usually has only 20% of pastures with lucerne and the other 80% of the farm’s pastoral area is composed is mostly annual crop weeds because the lucerne failed to establish.

Pasture improvement in the western wheatbelt has the potential to be very profitable practice. The level of
financial success from pasture improvement is strongly correlated to a farmer’s agronomic and livestock
husbandry skills. It is advisable to take the time to develop:
• A physical plan, to improve pastures and livestock, with the assistance of your District Agronomist and
Livestock Officer;
• Gross margin budgets for sowing the pasture and the livestock enterprise, with the assistance of your
District Agronomist and Livestock Officer;
• An incisive whole farm budget, to produce an economic picture that extends over a 5 year period, with the assistance of your accountant.

Ecopar proves to be a sound mixing partner to improve wild radish control

• Summary of 2 seasons esperiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.4 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on September Dry matter (DM) (3.1 t/ha); Seed yield (1.1 t/ha) or N % in DM (3% N) or N in the seed (3.55%).

• B had no effect on %oil (42.8) or on oil yield .

  Notwithstanding the marginal B levels on acid sands of the SWA region, care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary 1994 experiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.3 mg/kg.

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 20 mg/kg

• B fertiliser had no effect on September Dry matter (DM) (2.9 t/ha); Seed yield (1.2 t/ha) or N % in DM (3% N) or N in the seed (3.50%).

• B had no effect on %oil (43.1) or on oil yield (515 kg/ha) .

  Notwithstanding the marginal B levels on acid sands of the SWA region, care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary 1994 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.7 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser decreased seedling density (71 to 48).

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 24 mg/kg B nil; 31 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.62 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.32 t/ha  &  increased N % in DM (by 0.46%) and  N in the seed (0.33% increase).

• B had decreased %oil (1.2% decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 142 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.7 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1994 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 1..1 mg/kg.

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 30 mg/kg B nil; 36 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.35 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by .27 t/ha  &  increased N % in DM (by 0.26%) and  N in the seed (0.33% increase).

• B had decreased %oil (1.63% decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 128 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site

• Summary 1994 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0..4 mg/kg.

• B decreased seedling density (53 to 38).

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 15 mg/kg B nil; 19 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.48 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.32 t/ha  &  increased N % in DM (by 0.3%) and  N in the seed (0.12% increase).

• B had decreased %oil (0.59% decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 144 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.40 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1995 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0..4 mg/kg.

• B decreased seedling per sq. metre (50 to 39).

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 17 mg/kg B nil; 22 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.40 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.2 t/ha  &  had no effect 0n N % in DM  and  N in the seed.

• B had decreased %oil (1.4 % decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 100 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.40 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1996 : summary of 2  experiment 

• Soil extractable B was 0.6 & 0.7 mg/kg.

• B application decreased seedling per square metre (63 to 48).

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 27 mg/kg B nil; 36 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.21 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.137 t/ha  &  had no effect 0n N % in DM  and  N in the seed.

• B had decreased %oil (0.58 % decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 70 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.40 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1994 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.7 mg/kg.

• B application (Borax) decrease seedling emergence (57 to 42)

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 22 mg/kg B nil; 27 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.37 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.17 t/ha  &  had no effect 0n N % in DM  and  N in the seed.

• B had decreased %oil (0.29 % decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 90 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.40 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1994 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.37 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser decreased seedling density (67 to 41).

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 28 mg/kg B nil; 36 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.62 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.29 t/ha  &  increased N % in DM (by 0.43%) and  N in the seed (0.11% increase).

• B had decreased %oil (0.5% decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 124 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.37 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1996 : summary of 2  experiment 

• Soil extractable B was 0.6 & 0.7 mg/kg.

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 27 mg/kg B nil; 36 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.7 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.217 t/ha  &  had no effect 0n N % in DM  and  N in the seed.

• B had decreased %oil (0.8 % decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 100 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.40 soil extractable B.

• Summary of   experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.6 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (55-56 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 19 -23 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.43 t/ha); Seed yield (1.23 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.0 % N) or N in the seed (3.45 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (42.52) or on oil yield (535 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.6 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of   experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.3 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (55-56 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 15 -19 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.8 t/ha); Seed yield (1.23 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.4 % N) or N in the seed (3.65 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (42.52) or on oil yield (485 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.3 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of  experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.5 mg/kg.

• Planr density were not effected by B fertiliser (55 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 21 -25 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.84 t/ha); Seed yield (1.2 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.2 % N) or N in the seed (3.54%).

• B had no effect on %oil (43.8) or on oil yield (510 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.5 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of  experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.5 mg/kg.

• Planr density were not effected by B fertiliser (55 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 21 -25 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.84 t/ha); Seed yield (1.2 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.2 % N) or N in the seed (3.54%).

• B had no effect on %oil (43.8) or on oil yield (510 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.5 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of 2 seasons experiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.94 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (5.5 t/ha); Seed yield (1.71 t/ha) or N % in DM (3% N) or N in the seed (4%).

• B had no effect on %oil (40.8) or on oil yield (680 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of o.9 was adequate

  Notwithstanding the marginal B levels on acid sands of the SWA region, care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of 2 seasons experiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.4 mg/kg.

• Plant B concentration 20 -23 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (5.5 t/ha); Seed yield (1.71 t/ha) or N % in DM (3% N) or N in the seed (4%).

• B had no effect on %oil (40.8) or on oil yield (680 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of o.9 was adequate

  Notwithstanding the marginal B levels on acid sands of the SWA region, care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of  experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.6 mg/kg.

• Planr density were not effected by B fertiliser (53 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 21 -24  mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.3 t/ha); Seed yield (1.0 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.0 % N) or N in the seed (4.30%).

• B had no effect on %oil (38.8) or on oil yield (350 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.5 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of  2 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.3 mg/kg.

• Planr density were not effected by B fertiliser (53 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 18 -21   mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (5.9 t/ha); Seed yield (2.23 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.0 % N) or N in the seed (3.60 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (42.8) or on oil yield (950 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.3 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of   experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.7 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (64 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 22 -27 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (5.1 t/ha); Seed yield (1.73 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.0 % N) or N in the seed (3.5 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (44.2) or on oil yield (750 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.7 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of   experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.7 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (71-66 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 29 -33 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.63 t/ha); Seed yield (1.2 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.4 % N) or N in the seed (3.55 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (42.5) or on oil yield (500 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.7 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of   experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.6 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (55 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 23 -27 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.4 t/ha); Seed yield (1.43 t/ha) or N % in DM (2.9 % N) or N in the seed (4.0 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (40.0) or on oil yield (540 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.6 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of 2 experiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.4 mg/kg.

• Plant B concentrations 20 -23 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (4.76 t/ha); Seed yield (1.23 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.2 % N) or N in the seed (4%).

• B had no effect on %oil (44.8) or on oil yield (580 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.4 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of   experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.4 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (56 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 15 -18 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (5.1 t/ha); Seed yield (1.73 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.4 % N) or N in the seed (3.45 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (44.52) or on oil yield (775 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.7 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of  2 experiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.8 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (70-65 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 31 -36 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (3.0 t/ha); Seed yield (1.02 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.3 % N) or N in the seed (3.6 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (41.9) or on oil yield (420 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.8 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of  2 experiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.7 mg/kg.

• Plant density were not effected by B fertiliser (59-56 plants/m2)

• Plant B concentrations 26 -30 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on seedling density; September Dry matter (DM) (2.0 t/ha); Seed yield (1.55 t/ha) or N % in DM (3.43 % N) or N in the seed (3.6 %).

• B had no effect on %oil (41.9) or on oil yield (650 kg/ha).

• Soil extractable B Hot CaCl2 of 0.7 was adequate

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary of 3 seasons esperiments mainly located in the Yuna & Badgingarra region

• Boron (B) deficiency frequently occurs on soils that are low in organic carbon (C) (<1.0% organic C), pH (soil pHCa <5.0), and clay content (<5% clay). Acid sands with these soil properties are common in south-western Australia (SWA). Moreover, hot calcium chloride (CaCl2) extractable B levels are commonly marginal in the acid sands of SWA. This study examined the effects of soluble and slow release soil-applied B fertilizer and foliar B sprays on crops most likely to respond to B fertilizer on these soils, canola (oil-seed rape, Brassica napus L.) and lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.).

  At 25 sites over three years, canola was grown with (0.34 kg ha-1) or without B applied as borax [sodium tetraborate decahydrate (Na2B4O7·10H2O) 11% B], and this was followed by nine experiments with B rates [0, 0.55, 1.1 kg ha−1, applied as borax or calcium borate (ulexite, NaCaB5O6(OH)6·5(H2O), 13% B] and foliar sprays (0.1% solution of solubor, 23% B) in 2000–2001. A further five sites of B rates and sources experiments were carried out with lupin in 2000–2001. Finally, foliar B sprays (5% B w/v as a phenolic complex) at flowering were tested on seven sites in farmers’ canola crops for seed yield increases. No seed yield increases to soil-applied B were found while foliar B application at flowering increased canola seed yield in only one season across seven locations. By contrast, borax fertilizer drilled with the seed at sowing decreased canola seed yield in nine of 34-farm sites, and decreased lupin yield in two of five trials. Toxicity from drilled boron fertilizer decreased yield could be explained by decreases in plant density (by 22–40%) to values lower than required for optimum seed yield. Seedling emergence was decreased by borax applied at sowing but less so by calcium borate. Foliar B spray application never reduced seed yield due to toxicity effects.

   

  Boron fertilizer drilled with the seed increased the B concentration in plant dry matter at early to mid-flowering. Boron application decreased the oil concentration of grain of canola at four sites. The oil yield of canola was significantly decreased at seven sites.

  Notwithstanding the marginal B levels on acid sands of the SWA region, care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

There were no snails found in grain samples at three of the four locations were samples were taken. As such, it is possible that spatial variability and snail density may have a greater impact on snails numbers in grain samples than harvesting method. Site variability is a key issue and more information around how sites can vary is demonstrated in the work by SARDI at Lake Hawdon in the GRDC Stubble Initiative pest management guideline.

• Under extreme disease pressure, Ascochyta blight can be successfully and economically managed on susceptible varieties such as KyabraA.
• However, Ascochyta blight management is easier and more cost effective on varieties with improved resistance such as PBA HatTrickA and PBA BoundaryA.
• The 2015 Ascochyta trial, confirmed the next variety planned for release (CICA0912) has an improved level of resistance to Ascochyta blight.
   

A field trial was undertaken at Minnipa in 2020 to investigate combinations of wheat seed rate and herbicide treatments to control annual ryegrass. The average seedbank of annual ryegrass (ARG) at the site was 2012 ± 461 seeds/m2. ARG plant density was significantly influenced by herbicide treatment (P=0.008). Boxer Gold and Sakura + Avadex controlled ARG plant density by 63% and 70% respectively. Consistent with the trends observed for ARG spike density, ARG seed production was also significantly influenced by herbicide treatments (P<0.001) and while not significant there was a trend towards suppression of ARG seed production when wheat seed rate was increased (P=0.096). When averaged across all the seed rate treatments, the untreated control produced 13,155 ARG seeds/m2. The Boxer Gold treatment reduced ARG seed set by 69% to 4,018 ARG seeds/m2, while the Sakura + Avadex treatment reduced it by 70% to 3,849 ARG seeds/m2. Such high ARG seed set even when using pre-emergent herbicides highlights the importance of an integrated weed management strategy that incorporates diverse crop options such as hay and includes other cultural methods such as harvest weed seed collection and improved crop competitiveness. Consistent with the level of ARG control, herbicide treatments had a significant effect on wheat grain yield with Boxer Gold (1.869 t/ha) and Sakura + Avadex (1.871 t/ha) both increasing grain yield by 35% compared to the control (1.384 t/ha).

• There was no effect of a two-week delay in sowing (P=0.672) on in-crop ryegrass plant density with 390 plants/m2 in TOS 1 and 401 plants/m2 in TOS 2. The combination of dry autumn and high seed dormancy in this ryegrass population is likely to be the reason for the lack of sowing time effect on weed density.
• Combinations of pre- and post-emergent clethodim or clethodim + Factor failed to reduce ryegrass plant density below 200 plants/m2. Such a high level of ryegrass plant survival is likely to be related to the presence of a high level of group A/1 resistance in this population of ryegrass.
• Ryegrass seed production was significantly affected by canola sowing time (P<0.001) with TOS 1 producing 35,757 seeds/m2 as compared to 49,368 seeds/m2 in TOS 2. Greater seed production with delayed crop sowing is likely to be the result of reduced competitive ability of canola with weeds when sown later.
• Superior early crop vigour in Trophy was reflected in 21% lower ryegrass seed set than in Bonito (37536 seeds/m2 Vs 47,589 seed/m2). Canola sown at the higher seed rate (50 seeds/m2) resulted in a denser crop canola, which reduced ryegrass seed set by 38% (32,683 Vs 52,442 seeds/m2).
• Combination of early crop sowing, higher seed rate, hybrid variety and herbicide treatments allowed canola to produce more than 2 t/ha yield at this site with a high seedbank of multiple herbicide resistant ryegrass. However, ryegrass population that survived management was able to produce up to 60,000 seeds/m2. Future management of this trial paddock would require at least 3 years of effective ryegrass management before normal crop management programs can resume.

A field trial was undertaken in 2020 to investigate the effects of sowing time, canola variety, seed rate and herbicides on annual ryegrass management at a high rainfall site in Victoria (Winchelsea). Crop establishment at this trial site was significantly influenced by the time of sowing (P=0.006) and the seed rate (P<0.001) and there was an interaction between time of sowing and seed rate (P=0.014). Crop establishment was close to half of the target density, which may have been due to dry soil conditions in TOS 1 but there may also have been some slug damage. Select and Factor herbicides provided a much higher level of ARG control in TOS 2 than in TOS 1. Evaluation of weather data for the site showed that there were 4 frost events before the application of POST herbicides on 12 June in TOS 1, including the day of herbicide application. Previous research has shown a negative effect of frost on the level of weed control provided by these herbicides. Grain yield of canola was significantly influenced by sowing time (P=0.008), variety (P<0.001), seed rate (P<0.001) and herbicide (P<0.001). There were also significant interactions between time of sowing x variety (P=0.023), sowing time x seed rate (P<0.001) and sowing time x herbicide (P<0.001). Lower grain yield in TOS 1 compared to TOS 2 (2.3 Vs 3.4 t/ha) is most likely related to significantly lower canola plant density. The average grain yield of hybrid Ignite (3.13 t/ha) was significantly greater than that of open pollinated Wahoo (2.54 t/ha). There was a strong correlation between annual ryegrass spike density from herbicide treatments and canola grain yield (R2=0.96). Sowing time x herbicide treatments that provided weaker control of ARG also produced lower grain yield and vice versa. These results show that ARG can be highly competitive with canola in high rainfall environments and all efforts need to be made to achieve good crop establishment and selection of effective herbicide strategies.

A field trial was undertaken at Kinnabulla (VIC) in 2019 to investigate combinations of sowing time, seed rate and herbicide treatments to control brome grass in barley. Spartacus CL barley was used in this trial to enable the use of Intervix® for post-emergence control of brome grass. In 2019, the trial site received 181 mm rainfall during the growing season (April-October), which was 23% lower than the long-term average for the site. However in December 2018, the site received a heavy downpour of 199 mm, which created good growing conditions for barley crop grown in 2019. In this trial, barley seeding rate did not have a significant effect on either yield (P=0.213), brome panicles/m2 at maturity (P=0.889) or brome seed set/m2 (P=0.409). This lack of effect of crop seed rate on the number of brome panicles and seed set could be related to the high plant available water during the crop and weed life-cycle or due to Spartacus being a less competitive barley cultivar due to its erect architecture. Time of sowing had a significant effect on brome panicles/m2 at maturity and brome seed set/m2. TOS 2 had a lower brome panicle density at maturity than TOS 1 across all herbicide strategies, which was most likely due to low pre-sowing weed kill in TOS 1 as brome grass had not yet germinated. However, brome population that had germinated after the opening rains was killed by glyphosate application prior to seeding barley in TOS 2. As the numbers of panicles were lower in TOS 2, brome seed set was also reduced in TOS2 relative to TOS 1. Herbicide strategy had a significant effect on barley grain yield. As the herbicides reduced the impact of brome on barley, its yield increased from 3.24 t/ha in the knockdown treatment (NIL), to 3.72 t/ha in the pre-emergent herbicides only and to 3.96 t/ha when the pre-emergent herbicides were followed by post-emergent Intervix. Somewhat surprisingly, TOS 2 produced higher yields than TOS 1 across all the treatments, with the greatest difference being 0.46 t/ha in the Nil herbicide treatments. However, the yield difference between the two times of sowing decreased when more effective herbicides were used (0.08t/ha difference between TOS 1 and 2 in pre-emergent only and 0.04t/ha difference when pre-emergent herbicides followed by Intervix). Higher barley grain yield in the later sown crop is most likely due to a significantly greater weed density in barley in TOS 1 than in TOS 2, as large numbers of early germinating brome plants were controlled with glyphosate knockdown in TOS 2. TOS 1 also experienced a mild frost during flowering, resulting in patchy frost damage. Furthermore, May 23 (TOS 2) sowing date still falls within the optimum sowing window for Spartacus, which is an early maturity variety, and TOS 1 on April 29 was earlier than optimum for this variety.

A field trial was undertaken at Riverton in 2020 to investigate combinations of faba bean sowing time, seed rate and herbicide treatments to control brome grass. Three week delay in sowing caused a 95% reduction in brome grass plant density in faba beans. Riverton population of brome grass has been shown by our previous research to have a low level of seed dormancy. It appears excellent rainfall at the site in April and good follow-up rains were highly suitable for stimulating seedling emergence from the seedbank. The general trend of lower brome plant density in TOS 2 than in TOS 1 was also reflected in brome panicle density, which is the major driver of its seed production. This trend was particularly clear where only pre-emergent herbicides were used for weed control. The application of Verdict® eliminated brome panicle production and seed set. There was a significant effect of faba bean seed rate (crop density) on brome grass seed production. Increasing competition from faba beans reduced brome grass seed set by more than 50% as crop seed rate increased from 20 to 40 seeds/m2. Faba bean grain yield was only influenced by the main factors time of sowing (P<0.001), seed rate (P<0.001) and herbicide treatments (P=0.007). Earlier sown faba bean produced significantly greater yield than the crop sown 3 weeks later. Faba bean seed rate also resulted in a significant increase in grain yield as seed rate increased from 20 to 40 seeds/m2. As a result of the low brome grass density at the site, the increase in grain yield in response to weed control were small but significant (P=0.007). The combination of pre-emergent propyzamide followed by post-emergent application of Verdict significantly increased faba bean yield compared to pre-emergent propyzamide alone.

• Delay in crop sowing by 25 days did not have a significant (P=0.796) effect on brome grass density in wheat (TOS1 = 8.7 brome plants/m2 Vs 8.1 plants/m2 in TOS2). Lack of brome grass establishment during the time gap between TOS1 and 2 is likely to be related to below average rainfall (15.6 mm) during the month of May, which was less than half of the long-term average.
• Brome grass plant density in wheat was only significantly influenced by the herbicide treatments (P<0.001). Intervix alone and as a follow-up treatment after Trifluralin + Avadex provided significantly greater control of brome grass than the knockdown treatment as well as Rexade treatment.
• Even at this low weed density site, sole reliance on the knockdown herbicide treatment allowed brome to set 1753 seeds/m2 and build-up its seedbank. Application of Rexade reduced brome seed set by 84% compared to the knockdown control. Treatment with Intervix virtually eliminated weed seed set and could play an important role in brome grass management in the Mallee.
• Even though the difference in wheat grain yield between the worst (knockdown only) and the best herbicide treatment (Intervix) was 190 kg/ha, these differences (11%) were statistically significant. Based on 2021 wheat grain prices, effective brome control treatments increased revenue by about $70-80/ha.

• Brome grass panicle density was significantly influenced by the time of sowing of wheat (P=0.034) and herbicide treatments (P<0.001). Three week delay in sowing reduced brome grass panicles from 538 panicles/m2 in TOS 1 to 321 panicles/m2 in TOS 2 (40% reduction).
• The trends observed in brome grass panicle density were reflected in its seed production. The delay in crop sowing resulted in 21% reduction in brome seed set with 7392 seeds/m2 in TOS 1 as compared to 5807 seeds/m2 in TOS 2 (P=0.025). Rexade provided significantly better seed set reduction (62%) in brome than Trifluralin + Avadex Xtra but was inferior to the Intervix treatments (91-94% reduction).
• Three week delay in sowing at this site resulted in 29% higher wheat grain yield in TOS 2 (2.198 t/ha) than in TOS 1 (1.703 t/ha). This improvement in wheat yield by delayed crop sowing was associated with 84% reduction in brome plant density in TOS 2 compared to TOS 1.
• Trifluralin + Avadex Xtra, used in this trial as the control, produced 1.439 t/ha wheat yield, which was a reflection of its low efficacy against brome grass. Rexade, which only had a moderate efficacy on brome, increased wheat grain yield by 45% compared to Trifluralin + Avadex Xtra. The highest wheat yield and the lowest weed seed set in this trial was observed where Intervix post-emergent was used after pre-emergent application of Trifluralin + Avadex Xtra (2.214 t/ha).

• Ryegrass plant density in this trial was significantly affected by the herbicide treatments (P=0.002). Boxer Gold IBS had the highest ryegrass plant density, which was significantly greater than the tank-mix application of Boxer Gold with Treflan or Overwatch followed by early post-emergent Boxer Gold.
• The results obtained for ryegrass head or spike density highlight the capacity of this weed species to take advantage of cold and wet conditions. In this trial each ryegrass plant produced around 10 heads, which could cause a sizable build-up in ryegrass seedbank for subsequent crops.
• Addition of Treflan to Boxer Gold and sequential application of Boxer Gold after Overwatch caused a significant reduction in ryegrass spikes as compared to application of Boxer Gold or Overwatch by itself.
• Even though the effects of crop sowing on barley grain yield were small, the difference between TOS 2 (10.6 t/ha) and TOS 1 (10.1 t/ha) was statistically significant (P=0.03). Boxer Gold + Treflan mixture and sequential treatment of Overwatch followed by Boxer Gold produced higher yield than the single herbicide treatments.

A field trial was undertaken in 2020 to investigate the effects of sowing time, canola variety, seed rate and herbicides on annual ryegrass management at a high rainfall site in South Australia (Frances). As expected, canola plant density was also significantly influenced by the seed rate (P<0.001). The lower seed rate had 26 plants/m2 as compared 52 plants/m2 in the higher seed rate. Therefore, crop seed rates selected were able to achieve the target crop density. Delayed sowing did not have any effect on in-crop ryegrass density (P=0.355). Application of pre- and post-emergent herbicide treatments resulted in a significant reduction in ARG plant density. However, there were no differences in ARG plant density between the herbicide treatments. These trends were also reflected in ARG spike density. The large amount of spikes produced by ARG in all the treatments indicates high tiller production by the plants that survived herbicide treatments as well as later emergence of ARG at this site. ARG spike production, which is the main determinant of its seed production, was significantly affected by canola variety (P=0.007). Hybrid variety Hyola 650TT was able to reduce ARG spike density by almost 50% compared to open-pollinated Wahoo. As seen with ARG spike density, canola variety had a significant effect on ARG seed set. Hybrid canola Hyola 650TT reduced ARG seed set by 73% as compared to the open-pollinated Wahoo (P=0.017). Herbicide treatments also had a significant effect (P=0.014) on ARG seed set. The treatment where Select + Factor + Atrazine were used post-emergent was the best performer with significantly lower ARG seed set than the other three treatments. Addition of Factor (butroxydim) has been shown to significantly improve control of clethodim resistant ARG populations. Canola variety selection also had a significant effect on grain yield (P<0.001). Hyola 650TT produced significantly higher grain yield than the open-pollinated Wahoo. These results clearly highlight the benefits of good early vigour of the hybrid variety for grain yield and weed suppression in this high rainfall environment.

A field trial was undertaken in 2019 to investigate combinations of faba bean sowing time, seed rate and herbicide treatments to control annual ryegrass. ARG plant density was significantly influenced by the time of sowing (P<0.001), herbicide treatment (P<0.001) and the interaction between the time of sowing and herbicide (P=0.012). The 3 week delay in seeding faba beans had no impact on ARG plant density, as shown by the similar ARG density in the simazine + trifluralin treatment. However, POST clethodim and butroxydim had much greater efficacy in the 2nd time of sowing (TOS 2) than in the TOS 1. The same trend was evident in ARG seed set when crop seeding was delayed. In the Simazine + Trifluralin (IBS) treatment there was only an 8% reduction in ARG seed production when seeding was delayed. However, Simazine + Trifluralin (IBS) fb Clethodim had a 62% reduction in ARG seed production in TOS 2 than in TOS 1. ARG seed production was also strongly influenced by faba bean seed rate (P<0.001). The high faba bean seed rate had 43% less ARG seed set compared to the low faba bean seed rate. This result indicates that faba beans can be highly competitive with ARG at the high seed rate. Faba bean grain yield was significantly influenced by crop seed rate (P<0.001), with the high seed rate yielding 14% and 30% higher than the medium and low seed rates, respectively. Herbicide treatment had a significant effect on faba bean grain yield. When POST clethodim was applied after the Simazine + Trifluralin IBS (1.55 t/ha), faba bean grain yield improved by 43% to 2.211 t/ha. Crop yield responses to herbicides treatments were consistent with their efficacy on ARG, which highlights the sensitivity of faba bean grain yield to weed competition. This study has shown that at high plant density, faba beans can provide a significant suppression of ARG. However, faba beans were very intolerant to weeds as shown by the large yield losses. Higher seed rates, are important to both increase competitiveness of faba beans in suppressing ARG, and to also maintain grain yield. However, fungal disease management would need to be monitored and managed effectively.

• Propyzamide provided stable and effective ryegrass control at both sowing times. In contrast, simazine + Trifluralin by itself or followed by clethodim was more effective in TOS 2 than in TOS 1. It is possible superior soil moisture conditions at sowing in TOS 2 may have improved weed control in these treatments.
• Increased crop ground cover from higher faba bean seed rates reduced ryegrass growth and spike density. An increase in faba bean seed rate from 20 to 40 seeds/m2 reduced ryegrass spike density from 35 to 21 spikes/m2 (41%).
• The combination of propyzamide followed by Factor + Clethodim was able to almost eliminate ryegrass spike production (0.1 spikes/m2). Previous studies have also shown improvement in ryegrass control when Factor (butroxydim) is added to clethodim when treating clethodim resistant populations.
• Faba beans sown on 26 May produced significantly greater grain yield than the crop sown on 22 June. This is consistent with general grower experience of superior performance of faba beans when sown early.
• As ryegrass density at the trial site was low (<35 plants/m2), grain yield of faba beans in herbicide treatments ranged from 2.48 to 2.65 t/ha and was unaffected by herbicide treatments (P=0.309). These results suggest faba beans can tolerate low ryegrass densities without suffering any loss in grain yield. However, failure to effectively control low ryegrass densities can lead to large build-up in ryegrass seedbank for subsequent crops.

A field trial was undertaken near Winchelsea, VIC to investigate the effect of faba bean sowing time, seed rate and herbicide treatments on annual ryegrass (ARG) control. ARG plant density was unaffected by the seeding date but was significantly influenced by the herbicide treatments. The results of seed production were somewhat surprising. As expected in such a long growing season, the use of pre-emergent treatment of Simazine + Triflur X IBS was unable to provide adequate weed control and resulted in the highest ARG seed set. The results also show that the post-emergent application of Select and Factor were relatively ineffective when used in TOS 1. However, the post-emergent treatments were highly effective in TOS 2. Previous research has shown reduction in the efficacy of these herbicides under cold and frosty conditions as in this study. Crop seed rate had a significant effect on faba bean grain yield (P<0.001) but time of sowing did not influence grain yield (P=0.61). Grain yield increased significantly as seed rate increased from low (4.65 t/ha), medium (5.96 t/ha) to high seed rate (6.51 t/ha). At this high rainfall site, simply relying on pre-emergence herbicides proved inadequate. Simazine + Triflur X had a significantly lower grain yield than faba beans sprayed with a combination of pre- and post-emergence herbicides. Even though the highest ARG plant density present at the site was 33 plants/m2, it was quite competitive with the crop (P=0.01) and reduced its yield by 0.4 t/ha as compared to the treatments where Select or Select + factor were used as post-emergent treatments.

A field trial was undertaken at Washpool in 2019 to investigate combinations of wheat sowing time, seed rate and herbicide treatments to control annual ryegrass. The average seedbank of annual ryegrass (ARG) at the site was 2249 ± 284 seeds/m2. There was no evidence at this site of any reduction in ryegrass infestation in wheat by delaying sowing by three weeks between TOS 1 (77plants/m2) and TOS (74plants/m2). This result suggests the Washpool ARG population likely has a high level of seed dormancy, reducing the rate of ryegrass germination after the opening rainfall events. Herbicide treatment had a significant influence on ARG plant density (P<0.001). Boxer gold and Sakura + Avadex reduced ARG plant density by 45% and 73% from the untreated control (125 ARG plants/m2). Wheat was much more competitive against ARG when it was sown early. This was made evident by the large increase in ARG seed production when seeding was delayed. When averaged across all other treatments TOS 1 produced 1634 ARG seeds/m2, which was 73% lower than 5974 ARG seeds/m2 produced in TOS 2 (P=0.013). Wheat seed rate had a significant influence on ARG seed production (P=0.005), with the high wheat seed rate supressing ARG seed production by 37% when compared to the lowest wheat seed rate (100 seeds/m2). Wheat grain yield at this site was significantly influenced by the time of sowing (P=0.001), seed rate (P=0.001), herbicide treatments (P=0.001), and the interaction between the time of sowing and herbicides (P=0.011). Wheat was much more tolerant to ryegrass competition when sown early (TOS 1) as shown by the small increase in grain yield in herbicide treated plots. In contrast, there was a significant increase in wheat grain yield in herbicide treatments in TOS 2. The results of this study clearly show that delayed sowing of wheat allows for greater seed set by ryegrass and is also associated with a large yield penalty.

• Herbicide treatments had a significant (P<0.001) effect on ryegrass density. The highest ryegrass plant density was observed in Boxer Gold; other herbicide treatments provided significantly greater weed control than Boxer Gold.
• Boxer Gold treatment was also the worst performer in terms of ryegrass spike density with 223 ryegrass spikes/m2. Overwatch and Sakura + Avadex Xtra provided significantly greater suppression of ryegrass spikes than Boxer Gold. The best result was obtained where Overwatch applied before seeding was followed by Boxer Gold at 1-2 leaf stage of ryegrass.
• Boxer Gold was the lowest yielding treatment, which was consistent with its highest ryegrass spike density. Herbicide treatments that provided greater reduction in ryegrass spike density resulted in higher wheat grain yields.
• Overwatch followed by Boxer Gold was the highest yielding treatment in this trial (5.26 t/ha). The results of this trial highlight the importance of increasing the duration of herbicide activity in high rainfall areas such as Frances.

• The site mean for ARG plant density was 845 plants/m2, which is a reflection of the high seedbank. Delay in sowing from TOS 1 to TOS 2, reduced ARG plant density by 27% in the control (knockdown only). Further delay in sowing (TOS 3), reduced ARG plant density by 39%. Among herbicide treatments, Overwatch + Avadex Xtra provided the greatest reduction ARG plant density in all TOS.
• As wheat seed rate was increased from 100 to 200 seeds/m2, ARG spike density declined by 37%, which is quite similar to the previous results. Further increase in wheat seed rate had a marginal additional benefit for reducing ARG spike density.
• As wheat seed rate increased from 100 to 200 seeds/m2, ARG seed set decreased by 41%. Further increase in wheat seed rate to 300 seeds/m2 only had a small additional effect on ARG seed set.
• When only the knockdown herbicide was used to control ARG (control), wheat grain yield increased with delayed sowing, which is most likely due to improvement in ryegrass control. However when pre-emergent herbicides were used, wheat yield declined with delay in sowing. In these pre-emergent treatments, grain yield declined by >1 t/ha as crop sowing was delayed from 21 May (TOS 1) to 27 June (TOS 3).
• Yield improvements of more than 3 t/ha were achieved by combining early sowing with optimum wheat seed rate and effective pre-emergent herbicides.

A field trial was undertaken in 2020 to investigate combinations of wheat sowing time, seed rate and herbicide treatments to control annual ryegrass. Increase in wheat seed rate from 100 to 200 seeds/m2 caused a significant reduction in ARG spikes and seed set. The level of additional weed suppression from higher wheat seed rate ranged from 30-35%. As expected, both pre-emergent herbicides caused a significant reduction ARG plant density, spikes and seed production. Even though there was a general trend for Sakura to be slightly more effective than Boxer Gold, these differences were non-significant. It is somewhat disconcerting to note that even with the use of the tank mix of Sakura + Avadex Xtra, ARG was able to set more than 34,000 seeds/m2. These results highlight the need for integrating multiple weed control tactics to drive down the populations of this resilient weed. Wheat grain yield at Roseworthy ranged from 1.85 t/ha to 3.48 t/ha and with a site mean across all treatments of 2.773 t/ha. Time of sowing wheat did not have a significant effect on wheat grain yield in 2020 (P=0.168). However, wheat grain yield was significantly influenced by crop seed rate (P=0.023) and herbicide treatments (P=0.001). There was no interaction between these management factors. As seed rate increased from 100 to 200 seeds/m2, wheat grain yield steadily increased by 15%. Herbicide treatments had a highly significant (P<0.001) effect on wheat grain yield in this trial, which was not surprising considering the high ARG seedbank and weed density. Application of Boxer Gold and Sakura + Avadex Xtra increased wheat yield by 41% and 54% compared to the untreated control.

• Summary of 1 year.
• Cu fertiliser previously drilled with wheat appeared more availalble  than current drilled.
• CuSulfate @ 5.5  kg/ha gave maximum dry matter yield.
• Zn & Mo basalled for clover growth.
• Cu  at 5.5 kg Cu sulfate gave maximum yield of barley in year 2..
• Copper deficiency of wheat, barley and poor clover growth has been recorded by many farmers.
•  

• Cu & Zn either separately or in combination increased grain yield.
• Combination of 11 Kg Cu sulfate and 3.3 kg ZnO recommended
• Follow with a combination of 5.5  Kg Cu sulfate and 1.6 kg ZnO recommended in following crops.
• No information on Zn depressing yield with nil or low rates of Cu.

• Neither Cu or Zn added to superphosphate increased grain yield.  Nil Cu & Nil Zn gave maximum grain yield.
• Zinc oxide at 3.3 kg/ha did not reduced yield of wheat with Cu.
• Cu application gave  no yield increase or decrease without Zn applied.
• No combination of Cu sulfate and kg Zn oxide required.
• Plainsuperphosphate gave higher yield than aerophos+gypsum gave maximum yield.
• .

• Cu increased with or without Zn added to superphosphate.  
• Zn depressed yield when Cu was 5.5 or below (0 & 2.75)
• Higher the Zn rate the greater the depression..
• Combination of Cu sulfate (5.5 kg Cu sulfate) and nil kg Zn oxide required.
• Or Cu 2.75 kg Cu sulfate & nil Zn gave maximum yields.
• Highest ZnO (3.3 kg/ha), particularlym at 0 & lowest Cu level (2.75 kg Cu sulfate/ha)
• Plain superphosphate gave same yield as aerophos+gypsum.
• .

• Cu increased with or without Zn added to superphosphate.  
• Zn depressed yield when Cu was 5.5 or below (0 & 2.75)
• Higher the Zn rate the greater the depression..
• Combination of Cu sulfate (5.5 kg Cu sulfate) and nil kg Zn oxide required.
• Or Cu 2.75 kg Cu sulfate & nil Zn gave maximum yields.
• Highest ZnO (3.3 kg/ha), particularlym at 0 & lowest Cu level (2.75 kg Cu sulfate/ha)
• Plain superphosphate gave same yield as aerophos+gypsum.
• .

• 2 experiments in region on the same soil type.
• Cu increased with or without Zn added to superphosphate.  
• Zn markedly depressed yield when nil Cu. Depression smaller for 2.75 & 5.5 kg Cu sulfate /ha.
• Highest the Zn rate (3.3 Kg ZnO/ha) the greater the depresion
• Combination of Cu sulfate (2.75 kg & 5.5 Cu sulfate) and nil kg Zn oxide required for maximum grain yield.
• Plain superphosphate (PS) gave higher grain yield than aerophos+gypsum (AG)
• AS PS >AG indicates Zn wouls be required for oats or Clover.
•  
• .

• Cu & Zn either separately or in combination increased grain yield.
• Zn deficiencies seen in wheat.
• Combination of 11 Kg Cu sulfate and 3.3 kg ZnO recommended
• Follow with a combination of 5.5  Kg Cu sulfate and 1.6 kg ZnO recommended in following crops
•  

• Cu increased with Zn or without Zn added to superphosphate.  
• All Zn depressed yield when no  Cu.
• Combination of Cu sulfate (.2.75 kg Cu sulfate) and nil  KgZno /ha required for maximum yields.
• .Best combination of the soil type for both 1967 & 1967 Cu Sulfate at 2.75  and nil  ZnO/ha

• Trend to higher grain yield with increasing Cu & Zn levels
•  Zn O at 0.8 kg/ha supplied enough Zn for maximum grain yield.
• Combination of Cu sulfate with  KgZnO /ha required for maximum yields. Howver, Cu level required could not be determined.
• .Best combination of the soil type for both 1966 & 1967 suggest  that Cu Sulfate at 5.5 -8.25 kgCusulfate   and 0.8  ZnO/ha would be best for the soil type.

• Cu increased grain yield in the absence or presence of Zn.
• Zn application depressed grain yield at lower rates of Cu (nil & 2.75 kg Cu sul/ha).
• Zn increased grain yield with 5.5 & 8.25 kg Cusul/ha
• Combination of Cu sulfate (5.5 &m 8.25 kg Cu sulfate) and 1.6 KgZnO /ha  gave for maximum yield.
• Plain superphosphate yield same as  Aerophos +gypsum.
•  

• Cu increased grain yield in the absence or presence of Zn.
• Zn application depressed grain yield at lower rates of Cu (nil & 2.75 kg Cu sul/ha).
• Zn increased grain yield with 5.5 & 8.25 kg Cusul/ha
• Combination of Cu sulfate (5.5 &m 8.25 kg Cu sulfate) and 1.6 KgZnO /ha  gave for maximum yield.
• Plain superphosphate yield same as  Aerophos +gypsum.
•  

• Cu increased grain yield with & without Zn
• Combination of 5 Cu levels and 4 ZnO [ incomplete factorial].
• Cu application increased grain yield by 50 -100%.
• Zn depressed yield at nil Cu
• Combination of Cu sulfate (2.75kg Cu sulfate) and nil Zn
• 0.6 - 1.0 Kg ZnO /ha for  maximum yield of oats, clover & linseed.

• General location only as 3 experiments are summarised for 1960's.
• Combination of 4 Cu levels and 3 ZnO.
• Cu application increased grain yield by 50%
• Zn depressed grain yield at nil Cu
• Combination of Cu sulfate 8.25 kg Cu sulfate) and 2.75 Kg ZnO /ha  gave for the same maximum yield.
• Suggested a further application of 5.5 kg Cu sulfate & 1.6 kg ZnO may be benficial.

• General location only as 8 experiments are summarised for 1967.
• Trials over 1965-1967 
• Combination of 4 Cu levels and 3 Zn [0.8 kg ZnO ommitted].
• Summary of  8 experiments with 4 Cu and 3 Zn levels sandy and gravelly laterite derived soils
• Cu increased grain yield in the absence or presence of Zn.
• Cu application increased grain yield by 35 - 50%
• Zn depressed grain yield at nil Cu and 2.75 kg Cu Sulfate/ha
• Combination of Cu sulfate (2.75kg Cu sulfate) and nil KgZnO /ha  gave for the same maximum yield.as 5.5 kg Cu Sulfate & 0.8 kg ZnO/ha
•