• The varietal effects were strongly detected with the newly released PBA varieties proving their
  superiority over older chickpea varieties.

• Wimmera rye grass. Score 4 (Early season). 2 (Mid season).
• Capeweed score 4 (Early season. 2 (Mid season).
• Drought score 5 (Mid season).
•  

• Chickpea production in Victoria will increase in 2006 due to the wide availability of the ascochyta blight resistant variety Genesis™ 090.
• This variety will provide a new small seeded high yielding kabuli chickpea option for growers, particularly those in traditional desi growing areas.
• Two new larger seeded kabulis, Almaz and Nafice, with moderate ascochyta blight resistance are good varieties for areas where Kaniva has been grown successfully.

• Chickpeas are again a valid crop option with a number of varieties with improved ascochyta blight resistance, high yields and good adaptation now available to growers.
• Variety selection must be based on ascochyta blight pressure, yield and marketing opportunities, and understanding that disease management is critical to success.

• Chickpea variety selection must be based on ascochyta blight pressure, yield and marketing opportunities.
• If considering early sowing, it is essential to select a variety with excellent ascochyta blight resistance or ensure an excellent disease management strategy is implemented. 

• The first ascochyta blight resistant desi chickpea variety, Genesis 508™, is available to growers this year.
• A small-medium seeded kabuli variety, Genesis 090™, will be commercially available in 2006.
• Both varieties have been commercialised through Australian Agricultural Commodities (AAC).
• These varieties require fewer fungicide applications to manage ascochyta blight and much reduced risk.
• Each must be considered separately based on regional yield and quality.

• There appeared to be little difference in yield between applying fungicide and nil fungicide. 
• The fenugreek variety Power gave the best yield results as expected as Power is the variety for seed production and Might is a fodder variety.

• Although it was a dry year, the results highlighted significantly less ascochyta blight infection in Genesis 090, which is rated MS as compared to PBA Striker which is rated S.
• There was also significantly higher infection in the variety PBA Striker when Bixafen + Prothioconazole or Tebuconazole + Azoxystrobin were used after the first signs of infection compared to when they were used as a preventative spray. 

• Both varieties had similar grain yields (Genesis 090: 0.28 t/ha, PBA Striker: 0.26 t/ha) and no significantly different effect of fungicide treatment (see Table 3 in attached trial report summary). There was no evidence of an interaction between the fungicide and the variety.

• Despite a dry year with low grain yields, ascochyta blight was observed in all varieties, with stem breakages visible.
• However, there was significant variation between varieties and some newer breeding lines including CICA1454 ranked equal or better than Genesis 090 (see Table 2 in attached report).  
• Although there were significant differences between varieties with ascochyta blight infection, this did not equate to differences in grain yield.
• There was only a significant difference between fungicide treatments (see Table 3 in attached report). 

• Despite a dry year with low grain yields, ascochyta blight was observed in all varieties, with stem breakages visible. There was a significant interaction between variety and fungicide treatment. This showed some newer breeding lines including CICA1352, CICA1454, CICA1156 ranked equal or better than Almaz and Genesis 090 (see Table 2 in attached Trial report).
• Grain yields varied significantly, with a significant variety and treatment affect observed. Grain yield losses up to 36% were observed in the untreated (nil) plots (see Table 3 in attached Trial report). This also highlighted CICA1156, CICA1552, ‘C1’, and CICA1652 which ranked higher for yield than the highest named variety Almaz. In a pairwise analysis only CICA1652 was significantly higher than Almaz. 

• Significantly more ascochyta blight infection and lower grain yields were observed in PBA Striker (rated S) than Genesis090 (MS). Captan and Propiconazole treatments were also less effective in controlling ascochyta blight than the tebuconazole + Azoxystrobin and Bixafen + Prothioconazole, but both the Captan and Propiconazole treatments had less disease than the untreated plots. This did not equate to significantly different grain yields due to the dry season with low grain yields overall. 

• The treatments resulted in highly significant differences in nodulation assessments.  The best treatments included peat applied to the seed or Tagteam or Nodulator granules applied in the seed furrow.  No inoculation or applying the product Alosca in furrow produced very few nodules.  
• Grain yield was very low (<150 kg/ha) due to the dry season and poor establishment, therefore data has not been reported. 

• There is a benefit in inoculating chickpeas where there are limited rhizobia present in the soil. Granular inoculants present an opportunity to potentially improve nodulation under dry sowing conditions and assist with sowing logistics, with no reduction in nodulation or grain yield. It is important to understand how your seeding system may impact on efficacy of inoculants, including liquid placement, seed dressings and seed box. 

• Treatments which included Nodulaid peat and Nodulator or TagTeam granular at twice the recommended rate produced the greater number and highest weight of nodules.  Nodulator and TagTeam granular applied at recommended rates and the EasyRhiz liquid treatment produced similar outcomes for both variables.  The application of Alosca at both label and twice label rate produced very few nodules and therefore total nodule weight was the lowest of all commercial products evaluated.  There were no nodules produced in the nil treatments which confirms there was not a background population of chickpea rhizobia in the soil and highlights the importance of inoculating pulses such as chickpea.
• For further results and interpretation see attached trial report summary.

Chickpea ascochyta blight infection was low due to dry seasonal conditions, which were not conducive for high levels of disease infection at Hart, 2019. Harvestability, in terms of plant height, was not reduced where chickpea was intercropped with canola. However, intercropping chickpea with linseed in a mixed row arrangement decreased the plant height of chickpea. Grain yield of chickpea as a sole crop was greater than all intercropping treatments. Further work is required to determine if the costs of disease management, weed management and crop desiccation can be reduced by adopting mix species system.

• Grain yield was very low and variable in 2018 due to low soil pH at the site and water logging in part of the trial. The removal of phosphorus from the fertiliser significantly reduced plant biomass and showed a trend towards reduced grain yield. However, results should be treated with caution due to high variability in the trial.   

• Grain yields were generally low in 2018 due to dry seasonal conditions and frost events during the vegetative and reproductive stages. There was no yield response to the soil nutrition treatments on both soil types. All the treatments except all nutrient minus phosphorus resulted in significantly higher biomass than the nil on the swale.
• The dry growing season conditions may have reduced movement and uptake of the applied macro and micro-nutrients by the crop. Hence, results should be treated with caution.

Treatments were not significant on grain yield. Grain yields were very low in 2019 due to extremely dry seasonal conditions. The dry conditions may have restricted microbial growth, movement and uptake of the nutrients by the crop. Hence, results should be treated with caution.

• NDVI indicated that on the heavier soil types (bay 1- 4), the All – trace elements treatment had the highest growth and this was significant in bays 1,3 and 4.  On the sander soils in bays 6 to 10 there appeared to be a response to the addition of nitrogen with the All – N and Nil treatments having the lowest NDVI values.
• Biomass data was collected from bays 3, 5 and 9. There was a response to nutrients in bay 3 with the all nutrients treatment having the highest biomass and no nutrients treatment the lowest.  The All-N treatment also had low biomass in bay 1.  There were no significant differences for biomass in the sandier soil types however productivity from these bays was very low.   

• Autumn-sown chickpea had grain yields of up to 1.3t/ha c.f. with 0.2t/ha for spring sowing. Neelam was the highest yielding variety autumn sown.  

•  In contrast to long term trial results, the chickpea varieties and breeding lines did not have yield benefits from earlier sowing in 2018.  Several frost events during the flowering and podding phase caused significant flower and pod abortion, particularly in the earlier sown treatments which were further advanced in the reproductive phase. However, it is worth noting that grain yields were impacted by dry seasonal conditions and mice damage earlier in the season and hence, results should be interpreted with caution.
• All varieties and breeding lines had significant ascochyta blight (AB) infection in the early sown and irrigated treatment. Among the varieties and breeding lines, CICA1454 and CICA1352 showed significantly less AB symptoms than others, while PBA Striker and ‘C2’ had the most severe symptoms.  

• In contrast to long term trial results, the chickpea varieties and breeding lines did not have yield benefit from earlier sowing in 2018. Several frost events during flowering and podding caused significant flower and pod abortion, particularly in the earlier sown treatments which were further advanced in the reproductive phase. Hence, growers should consider long-term data and additional information when making varietal or agronomic decisions. Early sowing and irrigating with 20 mm of water increased establishment, early growth and flowering, and risk of frost damage. The performance of varieties and breeding lines were similar except ‘C1’and ‘C2’ which had lower biomass and grain yield than others.

Chickpeas were the most profitable crop sown in spring producing estimated returns up to $900/ha. In comparison, many varieties sown autumn failed to produce a return. The new early flowering, cold tolerance trait may further improve yield and stability in spring sowing, once incorporated into more broadly adapted breeding material. In contrast faba bean was the most profitable crop overall, producing a gross margin of up $2800/ha, from high yield and grain prices received in late 2019.

•  Due to extremely dry seasonal conditions and temperature events, grain yields were very low in 2018. The commercial varieties Kaniva, Genesis090, PBA Striker and Sonali yielded better than most breeding lines. Among the breeding lines, ‘CT1’ and ‘CT2’ had grain yields equivalent to Genesis090 and PBA Striker. 
   

The resulting time of sowing (TOS) information will be used to confirm and update current agronomic recommendations for chickpea in this region.

• Chickpea yields varied with variety, row spacing and seeding rate.
• Under the dry conditions of 2007, Genesis 509 sown at 35-45 seeds/m2 inn 44 cm or 66 cm row spacing’s performed best.

• As in 2007, dry seasonal conditions did not favor chickpea production in 2008 and consequently early maturity and low grain yields were observed.
• Ryegrass competition of 33 plants/m2 at maturity reduced grain yields of chickpeas by 48%, and 120 plants/m2 reduced grain yields by 82%.
• Genesis079 was the highest yielding variety and is well adapted to short season environments.
• These results confirm previous findings showing chickpeas as a poor competitor, and the unsuitability of control measures such as weed-wiping and crop-topping.

The choice of vigorous, leafy, nutritious forage crops available for low to medium rainfall environments to supply nutritious green feed to sheep during the winter and spring months continues to expand. Forage cereal crops provide feed during winter; vetch is useful from late winter into spring and forage brassicas provide from late spring into summer. To help decide which forage to grow from the broad range available, first plan the time of greatest need (time of year, duration), intention to harvest silage, hay or grain and the rotational requirements of the paddock in which forage is to be planted.

• Henley was the highest yielding variety across the 3 sites.
• Gairdner was the only variety to meet malt requirements at all three sites.

• 45Y22RR was the top performer across both sites, yielding at 120% of the site mean at Inverleigh and 109% at Westmere.
• The Mid and Mid to Late season varieties of Thumper, Hyola 555 & Crusher TT have performed consistently well over the past 3 seasons across a number of trials in the Lake Bolac area. Hyola 656 TT will be one to watch after showing promise at both SFS sites in 2012.
• Hyola 50 & Garnet conventional varieties have proved to be reliable performers over the past 4 years, regularly yielding 3t/ha and over.
• 45Y86 CL was the standout Clearfield variety in 2012, with Hyola 575 CL remaining a consistent performer over the past 2 years.

• Bannister and Echidna yielded significantly higher than Mitika and Yallara.
• Oats can provide another option in rotation and can be hay.
• Susceptible varieties of oats such as Mitika need to be monitored for red leather leaf

• Surface applied liming will only move to address subsurface acidity if pH(Ca) in the topsoil is kept greater than 5.5
• Surface applied lime movement is very slow and may take many years to treat subsurface acidity
• Check the plant back period for legumes if using sulphonyl urea herbicides as surface applied liming makes the pH level in the top 2.5 cm high and will affect its break down 

• Lime quality is affected mainly by its neutralising value and particle size and solubility plays a minor role affecting performance in the first 6 to 12 months
• A high quality lime has a NV above 90% and contains a high proportion of particle sizes less than 0.1 mm
• There are calculators available that can help growers compare the cost effectiveness of limes 

• Positive crop production responses still remain at Cadgee five years after amelioration treatments were applied.
• Application of clay improved establishment and flowering biomass, regardless of incorporation depth (shallow, 10 cm and spaded, 30 cm), compared to the control and the spaded lucerne treatments (see Fig. 1 in attached trial report).
• Grain yield response to clay application increased with the depth of incorporation, and were doubled in the spaded clay + Luc treatment compared to the control, adding 1.58 t/ha in 2018.
• Over the long term, this treatment has produced an additional 95 % grain (4.5 t/ha) since 2014 (four years grain data; Fig. 2). 
• Changes in soil chemical, hydrological and physical characteristics as a result of spading and lucerne and clay addition were the focus of 2019 soil measurements at the site.
• A full report detailing temporal trends and long term soil fertility changes will be released soon.
   

• Incorporating clay into the sand has led to yield increases that are improving with time.
• Yield response to clay application increased with the depth of incorporation; a cumulative increase of 0.74 t/ha (23%) over the control was achieved when clay was incorporated in the top 10 cm (Fig. 1 Shallow clay), increasing to 1.41 t/ha (44%) when the clay was incorporated to 30 cm (Fig. 1 Spading + clay).
• A similar response was achieved when 10 t/ha of Lucerne hay (organic matter (OM)) was spaded in, resulting in a 1.62 t/ha (50%) increase in yield (Fig. 1 Spading + OM).
• The combination of OM plus clay gave the best grain yield result in all years, with a cumulative 2.95 t/ha (92% increase) achieved across the 2014, 2015 and 2017 seasons (Fig. 1 Spading + Clay + OM).
• Spading alone led to cumulative decreases in yield of 0.39 t/ha (-12%), which is in contrast to results on Mallee sands, where the effect of spading has remained positive over time.
• Changes in soil chemical, hydrological, physical and biological characteristics as a result of clay and OM addition are the focus of 2018 soil measurements at the site.
• The response to deep disturbance and placement of OM and nutrition, in contrast to spading, is the focus of future research conducted by PIRSA at Murlong on the Eyre Peninsula in 2018.

A summary of the main results from the first season at the Moora trial are presented in Figures 1 and 2.  Due to technical issues, the trial was not seeded at the same time as the rest of the paddock, which was supposed to be used as an untreated control. For this reason, a comparison of the treatments to a control treatment without tillage and clay spreading is not available.  A statistically significant effect of tillage on early plant establishment was found when analysing the plant counts measured about four weeks after sowing (Figure 1, left). All the treatments with the off-set disc (in combination or not with clay spreading) had more plants per linear meter in comparison to the one-way plough treatments. This is likely due to uneven seeding depth following tillage with the one-way plough (deep tillage) compared to the shallower tillage with the off-set disc. Surprisingly, incorporation of subsoil clay at any given rate did not show any significant effect on early plant establishment although this result could be explained by the wetter than usual weather in April-May reducing the severity of soil water repellence.

Again, when looking at the tiller counts recorded 8 weeks after sowing (Figure 1, right) the addition of clay at different rates did not affect the number of tillers. However, the wheat growing in the one-way plough treatments overcame the initial delay in germination giving higher tiller number than those recorded in the treatments with the off-set disc (except for the treatment with 250 t/ha of clay). This trend continued at harvest, with the one-way plough treatments producing higher yields (4.5-4.6 t/ha on average) than the off-set disc treatments (4.1-4.3 t/ha on average) at any given rate of subsoil clay.

Due to the low rates of clay spreading and the low cost of the incorporation methods, all treatments provided a positive return of investments in the first year (ROI= ($/ha gain – $/ha total direct costs) / $/ha total direct costs), based on mean values in Table 1. Not surprisingly, the best ROI in the first year was obtained by the one-way plough treatment without clay spreading (1.42 $/ha), followed by the off-set disc without clay spreading (1.22 $/ha) and the treatments clay spread at 50 t/ha incorporated with one-way plough (1.17 $/ha). These estimates are indicative only, as indirect costs and interests on the initial capital investment are not included in the calculations. For more accurate estimates of ROI, yield results from multiple seasons and crops will be collected in the next 3 years.

 

A summary of the main results from the first season at the Moora trial are presented in Figures 1 and 2.  Due to technical issues, the trial was not seeded at the same time as the rest of the paddock, which was supposed to be used as an untreated control. For this reason, a comparison of the treatments to a control treatment without tillage and clay spreading is not available.  A statistically significant effect of tillage on early plant establishment was found when analysing the plant counts measured about four weeks after sowing (Figure 1, left). All the treatments with the off-set disc (in combination or not with clay spreading) had more plants per linear meter in comparison to the one-way plough treatments. This is likely due to uneven seeding depth following tillage with the one-way plough (deep tillage) compared to the shallower tillage with the off-set disc. Surprisingly, incorporation of subsoil clay at any given rate did not show any significant effect on early plant establishment although this result could be explained by the wetter than usual weather in April-May reducing the severity of soil water repellence.

Again, when looking at the tiller counts recorded 8 weeks after sowing (Figure 1, right) the addition of clay at different rates did not affect the number of tillers. However, the wheat growing in the one-way plough treatments overcame the initial delay in germination giving higher tiller number than those recorded in the treatments with the off-set disc (except for the treatment with 250 t/ha of clay). This trend continued at harvest, with the one-way plough treatments producing higher yields (4.5-4.6 t/ha on average) than the off-set disc treatments (4.1-4.3 t/ha on average) at any given rate of subsoil clay.

Due to the low rates of clay spreading and the low cost of the incorporation methods, all treatments provided a positive return of investments in the first year (ROI= ($/ha gain – $/ha total direct costs) / $/ha total direct costs), based on mean values in Table 1. Not surprisingly, the best ROI in the first year was obtained by the one-way plough treatment without clay spreading (1.42 $/ha), followed by the off-set disc without clay spreading (1.22 $/ha) and the treatments clay spread at 50 t/ha incorporated with one-way plough (1.17 $/ha). These estimates are indicative only, as indirect costs and interests on the initial capital investment are not included in the calculations. For more accurate estimates of ROI, yield results from multiple seasons and crops will be collected in the next 3 years.

The topsoil sand at Yanda was severely repellent (Figure 1, left), as measured by the molarity of ethanol droplet test (MED). Clay spreading and tillage (either combined or separated) significantly reduced the severity of water repellency. When the subsoil clay was not incorporated by tillage or was incorporated using an off-set disc, the soil water repellency generally decreased with an increasing amount of subsoil clay. However, low-repellency (MED<1) was obtained only at rates over 150 t/ha of subsoil.

In contrast, spading (either at standard speed of the tractor or at half speed) was the most effective method for the alleviation of soil water repellency. In these treatments, the MED values were completely reduced to zero (non-repellent soil) and, most importantly, this was achieved independently from the presence, or not, of clay-rich subsoil. The significant reduction of the soil water repellency however did not convert to better plant establishment measured five weeks after sowing (Figure 1, Right).  This result could be explained by the wetter than usual weather recorded during April-May 2016 that reduced the impact of the soil water repellency on plant establishment. Nevertheless, tiller counts collected five weeks after plant counts showed a significant effect of tillage on the number of tillers. In particular, the spader treatments (standard and ½ speed) had the most tillers while the control had the fewest.

This trend was repeated with the barley grain yields at harvest time (Figure 2). Both tillage and rate of clay spreading, significantly improved grain yield in comparison to the control treatments (no clay and no tillage). The lowest yield were recorded in the control treatments and in the off-set tillage only (no clay) with an average of 1.41 t/ha and 1.36 t/ha respectively. The shallow tillage (or incorporation) using off-set discs did not yield significantly differently from the treatments with no incorporation at any given rate of subsoil clay. Clay spreading at 250 t/ha followed by spading at standard speed produced the highest yield on average (2.93 t/ha). Nonetheless, all treatments with spading (standard and ½ speed) were able to yield over 2.5 t/ha, even without the addition of subsoil clay (Figure 2). 

Field observations showed that the trial was also affected by frost, which explained the lower than expected yields. Head samples were collected in early November 2016 from all the treatments (except spading at ½ speed) for the assessment of frost induced sterility (FIS= number of sterile florets / total number of florets) and the results are shown in Figure 3.

The results on FIS showed that frost damage might be one of the main reasons of low yields and responsible of the large yield differences between treatments. The control treatments and the off-set treatment (no clay) had over 60% frost induced sterility. Even though increasing amounts of subsoil clay significantly reduced FIS (Figure 3c), the treatments with no incorporation or with incorporation by off-set discs still recorded FIS values above 50%. Spading was the most effective treatment to significantly reduce frost damage to below 40%, regardless of the presence or not of subsoil clay (Figure 3a and b).

Spading was the most successful treatment in this first year of the trial at Yanda. Most importantly, spading was able to produce the highest yields and significantly reduce the frost damage regardless of the addition subsoil clay. This was particularly evident when estimating the simple return of investments on the first year of the trial (ROI= ($/ha gain – $/ha total direct costs) / $/ha total direct costs), based on the mean values presented in Table 3. Because of the high crop-specific costs with barley at Yanda (500 $/ha) and the yield reduction due to frost, spading alone at standard speed was the only treatment that gave a positive ROI on the first year (+0.4 $/ha) followed by negative ROI with spading at ½ speed (-0.18 $/ha) and the control (-0.35 $/ha). These estimates are indicative only, as indirect costs and interests on the initial capital investment are not included in the calculations. For more accurate estimates of ROI, yield results from multiple seasons and crops will be collected in the next 3 years.

 

Conventionaland TT canola and many pulse crops are very sensitive to traces of sulfonylurea (Glean, Logran or Ally) remaining in the boomspray (tank, hoses and filters). It is recommended to clean out the boomspray using the recommended procedures with bleach. However, if a sensitive crop (such as regular canola) is to be sprayed after using one of the SU herbicides then it is suggested to also clean the boomspray with an EC formulated herbicide or insecticide.

• Due to unreliable crop establishment, accurate data could not be generated.
• Oil data was however obtained which is given in the following table. 

• DPI-Horsham are currently breeding Clearfield® tolerant Juncea canola varieties
• The Clearfield® tolerant varieties express a high level of tolerance to recommended rates of the imidazolinone herbicides.
• These Clearfield® tolerant varieties will most likely be commercially available in 2009.

• Janz significantly outyielded both Jnz CL and Declic.
• Janz CL was also significantly higher yielding than the Declic. 

• Clearfield chemistry significantly increased brome grass control, at this timing compared to the SU's.
• Clearfield offers control, not suppression.
• There are many factors that must be weighed up before deciding upon the weapon of choice for brome grass control.

Grain yield losses of up to 40% can be caused by clethodim at particular rates and timings. Early application timings were the best to avoid crop damage. Variation does exist between herbicide tolerant crop types (Conventional, Clearfield and TT) and their level of sensitivity to clethodim

• The greatest height reduction was achieved by the Cycocel and Moddus in combination which included an application at the start of stem elongation (GS 30).
• Reduced height was correlated wtih an increase in lodging resistance and was achived without penalty; there was a minor trend for yield increases with PGR treatments.
• Cycocel was associated with a minor reduction in screening >3.2mm.

Mouldboard ploughing changed the soil structure, inverting the top 30cm of soil and creating a new profile including soil pH. Interestingly there was also a pH response to deep 
ripping.

• Break crops faced a range of tough environmental conditions in the Mallee in 2015 including multiple frost and heat shock events.
• Timely rainfall in April and hence early sowing resulted in excellent biomass production with most crop options producing on average more than 2 t DM/ha and several break crop options producing greater than 2.5 t DM/ha.
• The highest grain yields tended to be crops with the quickest maturity such as lentils (0.73 t/ha), vetch (0.64 t/ha) and field peas (0.63 t/ha).
• High value crops such as lentils and vetch were highly profitable due to both excellent prices and reasonable grain yields. (v) Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types.

• Break crops faced a range of tough environmental conditions in the Mallee in 2015 including multiple frost and heat shock events.
• Timely rainfall in April and hence early sowing resulted in excellent biomass production with most crop options producing on average more than 2 t DM/ha and several break crop options producing greater than 2.5 t DM/ha.
• The highest grain yields tended to be crops with the quickest maturity such as lentils (0.73 t/ha), vetch (0.64 t/ha) and field peas (0.63 t/ha). 
• High value crops such as lentils and vetch were highly profitable due to both excellent prices and reasonable grain yields.
• Break crop productivity and profitability was very different between common Mallee soil types.

• Break crops faced a range of tough environmental conditions in the Mallee in 2015 including multiple frost and heat shock events.
• Timely rainfall in April and hence early sowing resulted in excellent biomass production with most crop options producing on average more than 2 t DM/ha and several break crop options producing greater than 2.5 t DM/ha.
• The highest grain yields tended to be crops with the quickest maturity such as lentils (0.73 t/ha), vetch (0.64 t/ha) and field peas (0.63 t/ha).
• High value crops such as lentils and vetch were highly profitable due to both excellent prices and reasonable grain yields.

• Varieties with the longest coleoptiles on average were Cutlass and Yitpi with 81 mm and 80 mm, respectively.
• Varieties with the shortest coleoptiles on average were Cobra and Wedgetail with 61 mm and 62 mm, respectively.
• Increasing soil temperature had a negative impact on coleoptile length with an average length of 67 mm recorded at 21°C, compared to 72 mm at 16°C.

There were no significant differences in yield between the forms of nitrogen product used in the trial, however there was a trend towards a higher yield where nitrogen was used. There was a significant difference in grain protein between the different treatments.

• Double knock applications of group H containing herbicides followed by paraquat seven days later appear to be very effective in controlling early flowering common sowthistle.
• Paraquat and Velocity were also very effective as standalone treatments in controlling early flowering common sowthistle.

• Double knock applications of some group H containing herbicides followed by paraquat seven days later appear to be a viable alternative to double knocking with Tordon 75D followed by paraquat for the control of early flowering flaxleaf fleabane.
• The most effective group H containing herbicides in combination with paraquat as double knock treatments were Precept, Balance and Velocity in order of effectiveness of their control of early flowering flaxleaf fleabane.

• All of the double knock treatments were very effective in controlling mid-late tillering awnless barnyard grass (BYG).
• Herbicides, apart from haloxyfop or glyphosate, have the potential to be used as the first spray in double knock treatments to control mid-late tillering awnless BYG.
   

• Balance and haloxyfop, followed by a double knock application of paraquat seven days later produced excellent control of mid-late tillering feathertop Rhodes (FTR) grass.
• Atrazine and paraquat, followed by paraquat, was slightly less effective than the Balance and haloxyfop double knock treatments.
   

Yield increases were the result of stripe rust control and the associated green leaf retention achieved with fungicide treatment.

Mouldboarding was the driver of crop yield in the trial with 2012 mouldboard treatments producing, on average, 85% higher yielding than no mouldboard. The 2011 mouldboard treatments were on average 44% higher yielding than no mouldboard.

• Incorporation of the lower subsoil application rates (50 and 100 t/ha) with offset discs resulted in increased canola plant establishment compared with the offset disc control plots without subsoil. However, at the higher subsoil application rates (360 and 450 t/ha) establishment was reduced due to inadequate clay incorporation (Fig. 1). Visually it was clear that the high rates of subsoil application resulted in surface sealing due to the poor incorporation by offset discs and this sealing was sufficient to reduce canola establishment. Incorporation of 50t subsoil/ha using a spader appears to have resulted in a reduction in canola establishment (Fig. 1) but there is no apparent reason why this should the case. Apart from this anomaly there is a trend towards improved plant establishment when higher rates of applied subsoil are spaded (Fig. 1).
• Comparing grain yields between subsoil incorporation using offset disc and rotary spader is not valid on this trial as the offset disc treatments are situated on pale deep sand which has less water holding capacity and lower potential than the sandy gravel on which the spaded treatments are situated. Canola grain yields in 2010 showed trends not dissimilar to those obtained for wheat on this trial in 2009. For the offset disc treatment there was no impact of the lower subsoil application rates on yield but a trend towards lower yields at the high application rates (Fig. 1) again most likely due to inadequate subsoil incorporation. For the rotary spader there was a trend towards higher yields as the subsoil application rate increased (Fig. 1), indicative of the capacity for the spader to achieve good subsoil incorporation. Overall canola yields were increased by more than 300 kg/ha when either 360 or 450 t/ha spread subsoil was incorporated using a spader (Fig. 1).
•  In both the 2009 and 2010 seasons the trends in crop establishment and grain yield have demonstrated the principle that when claying the subsoil application rate needs to be ‘matched’ to incorporation method that will be used to incorporate the clay. The results suggest that offset discs are only likely to be successful at incorporating lower subsoil application rates, probably of the order of 150 t/ha or less while rotary spaders are more appropriate for incorporating higher subsoil application rates of 250 t/ha or more.

• All of the herbicides examined appear to work well when tank mixed with paraquat to control early flowering common sowthistle.
• However, paraquat alone also provided excellent control of early flowering common sowthistle which questions the value of tank mixes with other herbicides.

• Tank mixing group H and H/I herbicides with paraquat (Group L) for the control of early flowering fleabane generally only provided moderate efficacy in this experiment.
• Tordon 75-D (Group I) mixed with paraquat and Velocity (Group H/C) mixed with paraquat, however, provided reasonable control at 89% and 81%, respectively.
   

• Tank mixing systemic herbicides and paraquat for mid-late tillering feathertop Rhodes (FTR) grass control resulted in one potentially useful treatment (paraquat + haloxyfop).
• Haloxyfop tank mixed with paraquat, provided excellent control at 35 days after treatment (DAT), which was the only treatment to reach 100% efficacy.
   

• In 2013 there was no evidence of changes in soil condition or organic carbon associated with the application of compost at up to 3 t/ha in 2012. Potential changes in soil organic carbon and other soil properties will be determined in February 2014.
• This trial will be continued in 2014 to assess changes in soil condition and future production.

• In 2013 there was no evidence of changes in soil condition or organic carbon associated with the application of compost at up to 3 t/ha in 2012.
• Potential changes in soil organic carbon and other soil properties will be determined in February 2014.

• Results from experimentation undertaken in southern NSW in 2011 and 2012, have demonstrated that crop sequences which include a brassica or legume break crops can be as profitable as, and in many instances more profitable than, continuous wheat.
• Canola was consistently the most profitable break crop option. However, the rotational benefits of canola were usually restricted to just the first subsequent wheat crop whereas additional wheat yields can occur for 2 years after a legume.
• Growing pulses for grain maximises profit, particularly in favourable seasons, but compromises grass weed control and (depending upon species) reduces N available to subsequent crops compared to brown manuring.
• Growing pulses for hay was found to be profitable across a range of season types, achieves excellent grass weed control and provides greater N inputs and higher carry-over of soil water than when the same crop is grown for grain.
• Growing pules for brown manure loses money in the year they are grown, but achieves excellent grass weed control, high N inputs, residual carry-over of soil water, provides more ground cover, and requires less labour than when grown for hay or grain.

The Gross Returns (Income less Input Costs) for this demonstration using 2016 wheat prices for APW1, APW2 and ASW1 indicate that farmer practice (control) had the highest return of $443.61/ha (Figure 7 and Table 3). The second highest return was the spaded treatment at $442.11/ha.

All the treatments made a profit during 2016 between $303.13/ha to $443.61/ha. For a season such as 2016 where there was sufficient rainfall for plant establishment and growth, wetters may not be required at seeding which would reduce input costs.

Results generated using an average wheat price of $250/t over all treatments indicates that farmer practice (control) would still have the highest return of $465.81/ha, whilst the ploughed treatment would have the second highest return of $462.52/ha (Figure 8 and Table 4). All treatments would make a profit over $353.11/ha.

Over both scenarios the Gross Return ranking trend remained similar, with the soil amelioration treatments bringing a greater return than the wetters and DBS knife point at depth.  There is a larger $/h return difference between the two wetter treatments when comparing the 2016 wheat prices due to the grade of the grain (Table 2); $52.55/ha for 2016 wheat price and $22.67/ha for average $250 price.

It would be interesting to see how all plots at this site perform under a range of seasonal conditions. A multi year Gross Returns analysis could indicate a change in the $/ha return ranking trend in seasons where wetters have a greater influence on plant establishment. This analysis may also present significant return on investment for the soil amelioration treatments in the second and third year crops.

The wheat following brown manure contained higher numbers of the listed weeds. However, numbers were not critically high in the wheat treatment.

Capstan, Fleet, Lockyer, Commander and Oxford were the highest yielding barley varieties at Hart in 2009, averaging 4.94 t/ha.

In 2007, wider row spacings (400mm vs 200mm) significantly (P<0.01) reduced yield (4.36t/ha vs 4.69t/ha) when averaged across five barley varieties and two nitrogen timings, suggesting that the benefits of wider row sowing for crop residue management practices are coming at a significant financial cost ($100/ha+, using current prices). However, the barley variety WI with nitrogen applied at
sowing (GS00) achieved the opposite result, as wider row spacings (400mm vs 200mm) significantly (P<0.05) increased yield (5.15t /ha vs 4.31t/ha).

• Some early flowering varieties developed significantly higher levels of sclerotinia stem rot infection.
• Variety response to infection and yield could be relative to other factors such as infection timing and plant
biomass.

Greater variation in dry matter production at the water ripe sampling time was observed compared to milky-soft dough. Dry matter production was highest at milky-soft dough and Moby barley consistently had the lowest. Majority of cereal forage varieties had NDF and NDFD levels to meet grade 1 and 2. Feed quality did not decline significantly with later cutting

Using the highest label rate of either Aviator Xpro or Prosaro in the first application for sclerotinia lowered the level of sclerotinia infection and recorded a higher $ROI/ha in this trial. Increasing the rate of fungicide increases early activity on active disease but will also increase the length of protection from reinfection. 

The use of higher rates under high sclerotinia disease pressure is recommended not only in a single spray application to extend the window of protection but as recorded in this trial it can provide benefits to a two spray strategy. Improvements in length and strength of sclerotinia control from the use of a higher rate in the first application have been recorded across multiple commercial trials conducted by Bayer Crop Science across Australia in the 2016 season.

Study Conclusions

Potential nitrogen contributions are assumed to be 40% of the total nitrogen contribution, assessed from the dry weight and nitrogen content (N% tissue) of the green manure crops measured at anthesis. Legume crops provided the most potential nitrogen of all treatments, due to high tissue nitrogen and moderate to high biomass production. Oats had the highest biomass but were low in tissue nitrogen and potential nitrogen benefits were therefore negligible. Any benefits from this type of crop, would be largely associated with the contribution of organic carbon to the soil. Emergence of both canola and mustard was poor, whilst the lathyrus and vetch competed poorly with weeds due to slow initial growth.

The percentage of undecomposed material remaining on the soil surface at seeding in 1999, varied from approximately 35% for oats down to 10% for lathyrus. The general pattern was that the crops with higher tissue nitrogen content broke down quicker. This indicates the microbial degradation of legume crops is likely to be faster than for brassica or cereal crops.

Differences in water infiltration observed may indicate the potential for treatments to increase the initial sorptivity of soil (ability for more rapid entry of rainfall) and decrease the flow rate through the soil (effectively increasing moisture retention). This may allow earlier sowing after summer rains, increased moisture availability during the growing season and potentially longer availability under dry finishing conditions. These results are variable and subject to trial/operator error. Further evaluation of these attributes is required prior to evaluation of renovation techniques.

The high cost of seeding and maintenance of the green manure crop, can significantly influence the gains or losses experienced over this three year period. It may be most economic, to green manure legume crops in seasons with low potential returns (poor yield potential or price).  The cost of harvesting a lupin crop for example may prove less beneficial than using it as a green manure to improve wheat yield and quality, where prices are depressed or where disease/season has reduced yield potential. Strategic use of green manure crops as a tool in integrated weed management or potential productivity gains through addressing specific problems may result in little or no short term economic gain where employed in better performing paddocks and must be viewed as a long term strategy to overcome yield constraints. However, strategic use of these techniques for poor performing paddocks, or paddock that would have otherwise been ‘rested’, are likely to result in economic responses, particularly where using low cost crops or pasture has been employed as there is no requirement to recover the cost of foregone yield – only those associated with growing a crop and the implementation of techniques.

Data supports the hypothesis that a green manuring:wheat:wheat rotation, may be as profitable as a legume:wheat:wheat rotation using either a field pea or Lathyrus crop. Given this assessment does not include any additional benefits that may be gained from green or brown manuring in terms of additional weed control and potential improvement of soil characteristics such as the addition of organic material, improved soil structure and longer term productivity gains, these techniques are likely to prove both economical and sustainable by providing additional benefits that may be observed in lower herbicide costs through better weed management, improved soil health and a more flexible farming system.

• Revenue produced a significantly higher grain yield than Mackellar although this was not significantly different to H150.1 and Tennant. In addition Revenue tends to have higher dry matter prodution than Mackellar. In this trial the latter may have been more susceptible to the waterlogging.
• The white grained CSIRO line H150.2 continues to produce high grain yields in Tasmania and has now also demontrated potential as a dual pupose crop. It will be suitable for an earlier dual purpose sowing as it is later flowering than both Mackellar and Revenue.
• Preston showed good early vigour but it will flower too early for more typical dual purpose sowing times in Tasmansa, e.g. March.

You need to reduce the use of grass selective herbicides in pastures; however, if it is necessary to use grass selectives, make sure there is a 'mop-up' treatment later in the year to control resistant annual ryegrass and silvergrass.

• Average yield for the trial was 3.47 t/ha with a range from 3 – 4 t/ha.  Most of the lines since Tanjil, which was released in 1998 ranked in the top 10 with the exception of Jenabillup.  Jenabillup is only recommended for the southern and low rainfall areas due to its low tolerance of metribuzin and moderate susceptibility to anthracnose.  
• The best performing lines were those with superior anthracnose resistance with the new variety PBA Gunyidi, whose anthracnose resistance is between Mandelup and Tanjil, being 109 and 114% better than Mandelup and Tanjil. 
• The stand out for yield performance was WALAN2325 which yielded 113% and 118% of Mandelup and Tanjil. 
• In addition, the breeding program has been concentrating on producing an anthracnose resistant, metribuzin tolerant variety specifically to replace all varieties in the coastal West Midlands.  

• There are no significant differences in yields between east-west crop orientation and north-south crop orientation.
• As the paddock has good weed control, the results were primarily influenced by water availability and evaporation within the crop.

Over all four trials both Sakura treatments maintained a positive $ROI/ha with Sakura + trifluralin ($78.50) slightly ahead on average $ROI/ha to the standalone Sakura ($73.48)

Sakura 118 g/ha recorded a $55.08 increase in $ROI/ha over Boxer Gold across the four trials. Boxer Gold $ROI was generally in line with that of the prosulfocarb treatments in three of the sites, except from Waddy Forest where prosulfocarb 2.5 L/ha recorded a higher yield. Why this occurred is not clear as results were cross checked back with the contractor to ensure there was not a transcription error.

Trifluralin, due to its poor weed control, especially at Cunderdin, returned a slight positive $ROI/ha ($7.20) across the four trials.

All four sites to some extent were affected by frost which may have affected yield outcomes.

Getting weed control right is the key to ensuring the longevity of any herbicide but it also allows the crop it’s best possible chance of achieving its yield potential. Using a program of effective knockdowns and a product with a long residual activity like Sakura can deliver higher yields and returns across a variety of soil types and locations as seen across the four trials conducted during the 2016 season.

• Utilising a pre-emergent herbicide of any kind significantly reduced broadleaf weed establishment overall .
• Terrain and Terrain + Avadex treatments resulted in highest control of fumitory and cleavers.
• No significant difference between pre-emergent herbicides on grass and radish control.
• There was no significant influence of pre-emergent herbicide on yield.
• Untreated and Sakura treated plots had significantly lower protein levels.

• All three seeders have resulted in successful establishment of sub-tropical grasses at the paddock scale.  This reinforces that successful establishment can be achieved with a range of seeding machinery providing the basic principles are followed: i.e. furrow sowing, press wheels, precise shallow seeding together with wide row spacing.
• The disc seeder appeared to have the least soil disturbance, with less loose soil on the soil surface after seeding, but had slightly more sand infill.  This may be due to steep side walls and a relatively narrow furrow, while the seeders with tynes created larger – wider furrows, so sand moving into the furrow was spread over a wider base.  The Case-International combine with a single point had the lowest sand infill.
• The disc seeder resulted in the highest establishment of panic grass, but in late October many of these plants were still small seedlings and subsequently many died over summer.  As number of plants, size and health of plants need to be taken into account, the disc machine may not provide an overall advantage as the proportion of healthy plants was much less. Visually, the Case-International combine appeared to produce a thicker stand; this was most likely due to the higher number of medium to large sized plants when compared to the other machines. 
• The knockdown did not completely kill the brome grass which subsequently recovered and competed with the emerging perennial grass seedlings in early spring.  Combined with dry conditions in October (5 mm) the perennial grass seedlings were struggling in late October.  More favorable seasonal conditions in November and December enabled the grasses to establish.  The scalping points on the John Shearer were able to reduce the impact of brome grass more successfully than the other seeders.
• Persistence will be measured over late summer until the break of the season.  This machinery demonstration trial will be the focus of an extension video which features the producers describing the modifications to their seeders.

• This trial demonstrates that a good establishment result is possible using a range of different seeding configurations, provided the key steps to establishment are followed.
• These factors include:
  • scalping of non-wetting sand and weeds away from drill runs;
  • row spacing of 50-60 cm;
  • sowing into furrows to harvest rainfall (especially important in dry springs); minimizing furrow collapse;
  • ensuring sowing depth is 5-10 mm; and - using press wheels for good soil contact with seed.

• Treatments were a single application of 10 kg/ha of Zn as zinc sulfate monohydrate (ZSM) (35% Zn) in 1996 or 4 applications of 1.25kg/ha or 2.5 kg/ha Zn as Incitec.
• Granulock ST-Z (10 %N, 19.5 % P, 2.5% Zn) between 1996 and 1999. Soil samples were collected at the commencement of the experiment, after the first application and post-harvest from the fourth crop.
• Samples were analysed for DTPA extractable Zn.
• The percentage of soil extractable Zn available from applied Zn after 4 cereal crops was about 12 % for the single application of 10 kg/ha Zn as ZSM, 22% for multiple applications of 1.25 kg/ha Zn and 20 % for 2.5 kg/ha Zn as STZ.
• It would appear that provided there is no compromise in crop productivity, a multiple low rate strategy of Zn fertiliser addition may be more effective in building available soil Zn concentration than a single higher rate.

Overall, early growth was a function of a number of constraints. In the fully retained stubble plots plant establishment was poor due to large straw windrows creating major problems at sowing and mice damage. In surface stubble treatments lower soil temperatures and higher populations of vulpia resulted in reduced plant vigour. Where stubble was fully retained this effect was less than when most stubble was removed through cutting and baling.

The use of trifluralin as part of an integrated herbicide management program for the control of Group A resistant annual ryegrass populations has increased dramatically over the past decade. The requirement of incorporating Triflur 480 within 4 hours of application has imposed management issues during the busy sowing period, however, the advent of Crew (a slow release trifluralin formulation) offers greater management flexibility with an incorporation period of 24–48 hours.

Ungarra Site: No different in yields (grain or dry matter) between any of the treatments (ie seeder had no effect)

• There were a number of high yielding (3.82 – 4.24 t/ha) AH varieties at Hart in 2017 including, Beckom, Scepter, Arrow, Cobra, Mace and Scout.
• Trojan and Cutlass were the highest yielding APW varieties at 4.32 and 4.00 t/ha, respectively.
• Test weight and screening levels across the trial were good, averaging 80.2 kg/hL and 0.8%.

Overall the results returned from this trial were confounded by low growing season rainfall and high temperatures during spring. This was reflected in the poor seed yields and significant variation across the treatment replicates reducing the confidence with which results can be drawn from the data.

Note: This trial was an unreplicated demonstration with observations/assesments based on one plot per treatment only, and as such results may not be definitive.

• High sowing rates (120kg/ha) and narrow row spacing (17cm) had the highest yield in all wheat varieties tested.
• The results were repeatable over two dry seasons (1997 and 1998).

Increased use of grass selective herbicides in many farming systems has caused increased selection pressure for herbicide resistance in grass weed populations such as annual ryegrass and brome grass. Work conducted by Bill Roy (Agricultural Consulting & Research Services Pty Ltd, York) with GRDC support demonstrates that managing herbicide resistance requires a diversified approach using a number of different tools. Manipulating canopy through seeding rates and row spacing is one of the options being explored by the BCG.

Increased use of grass selective herbicides in many farming systems has caused increased selection pressure for herbicide resistance in grass weed populations such as annual ryegrass and brome grass. Work conducted by Bill Roy (Agricultural Consulting & Research Services Pty Ltd, York) with GRDC support demonstrates that managing herbicide resistance requires a diversified approach using a number of different tools. Manipulating canopy through seeding rates and row spacing is one of the options being explored by the BCG.

Barley was more competitive than wheat in reducing ryegrass numbers.

• Variety: there was no difference between the yield of Digger and Northfield (0.56 vs 0.57 t/ha respectively)
• Row spacing: there was no significant difference in the yield of lentils sown at 18 cm (7") or 36 cm (14") (0.59 vs 0.54 t/ha respectively). However, the crop sown at 18cm (7") was much easier to harvest and stood up better.
• Sowing rate: there was a significant negative effect of sowing rate on yield - the 50kg sowing rate had the higher yield compared to the 100kg/ha sowing rate (0.62 vs 0.51 t/ha respectively).

• The extremely late break to the season highlighted maturity differences very clearly. 
• The long season trial was sown on the same day as the main season trial, favouring heavily the short season varieties.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Weeds have the biggest impact on summer water storage.
• Over the last two summers, the method of weed control had little effect on moisture storage
• Even under adequate growing season rainfall, weed control is necessary because weeds tie up and/or prevent significant amounts of nitrogen mineralizing, which cost 0.5t/ha of the canola yield.

Controlling summer weeds conserved both water and nitrogen and doubled wheat yields in 2011 on both sand and clay soil types. Retaining or removing stubble has only minor effects on wheat yield. Complete control of summer weeds pays, and there is no excuse for weedy paddocks during summer in the Wimmera and Mallee!

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.