• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Chocolate spot is a major disease in bean crops, causing significant losses to yield and profitability.
• Low disease levels in 2012 and favourable seasonal conditions meant that there was no treatment or variety response for either disease severity or grain yield.

• In a year with high rust pressure, fungicide application provided beneficial to all genotypes, even those with a good level of rust resistance.
• Several advanced breeding lines from the northern breeding program show promise, with high yield and large seed size combined with rust and chocolate spot resistance equal to or better than the current northern varieties.

Conclusion:

The high rust pressure and frequent rainfall towards the end of the season was likely responsible for the poor fungicide response in the LF experiment in terms of reducing symptoms and improving yield and seed size. In the HF experiment, mancozeb and
tebuconozole were most effective overall in reducing symptoms and improving yield and seed size. Four of the five fungicides were effective in increasing yield in the HF experiment compared with only one in the LF experiment, indicating the need for repeated sprays when disease pressure is high.

Note that the permit for tebuconazole allows for only three applications of 145 mL/ha in commercial crops.

 

• Sowing time has far greater consequences on growth, development, dry matter and grain yield of faba bean than variety choice.
• The dry spring combined with temperature constraints, imposed a common ceiling to yield despite large differences measured in dry matter (DM), height and reproductive number across all treatments.
• Early sown faba bean was primarily affected by severe frosts, while later sown was limited by flower node production and heat stress.
• Under these conditions, early April sowings resulted in greater biomass, taller plants, more flowering nodes, additional lodging, more disease and greater frost damage. Given a more favourable spring, disease and lodging could have been further exacerbated, inflicting even greater yield penalties to the first time of sowing (TOS).
•  Findings from this and previous experiments show the optimum sowing window for faba bean on acidic, red brown soils of southern NSW to be from 20 April to 15 May. The later sown crops within this window could still be disadvantaged under early unfavourable finishing conditons. 

• The Making Better Fertiliser Decisions for Cropping Systems in Australia (BFDC) database allows us to search for soil test calibrations for four macronutrients across a range of crops, soils types, regions and time spans.
• As an example, the critical range for soil test P (Colwell) for wheat grown in red chromosols in NSW has increased under minimum-tillage management.

2012 was a set up year for the Rhizoctonia best bets demonstrations. Fungicides banded with fluid fertilisers at seeding did not reduce Rhizoctonia in the following cereal crop.

In 2013 the Rhizoctonia best bets demonstrations using rotations were over sown with cereal and showed break crops which are grass free are the best option to lower Rhizoctonia inoculum levels.

• In the southern Victorian Mallee environment, grazing crops intended for grain production can be risky, with potential penalties to grain yield and/or quality.
• The success of grazing crops relies on an early sowing opportunity and good spring.

• This work summarises the experiences of seven farmers grazing winter cereals across four different types of enterprise.
• The economic benefits were positive in all cases and ranged from $10.80/ha to $84.06/ha. When comparative grain yields were also included, this range became $21.56/ha to $430.80/ha.
• For further findings please see the attached trial report.

The very dry conditions of 2002 produced little green pasture for sheep, with a maximum for the year of 160 kg/ha green feed-on-offer available in July. Stocking rates ranged from 2 to 5.4 dry stock equivalents per effective grazing ha. The stocking rates in the Reduced Till and Fuel Burner systems were higher than for 2001. Supplementary feeding from April, with ewes placed in a stock containment area in October supported sheep in the Hungry Sheep system.

• Reliance on chemicals as the only weed control option is difficult (almost impossible) in a run of dry years.
• This trial will cease at the end of 2004 (3 years too early to obtain meaningful results) unless other funding is found.
• The trial showed, in the 2003 season, that there was no yield penalty for waiting until rain for sowing, although grain protein was lower in these crops.

• There is no clear difference between till and no-till crop establishment systems for yield at the Farming Systems Trial.
• Low protein in some plots indicated nitrogen deficiency in 2009.
• Pre-sowing deep soil nitrogen tests indicated low protein but not always at the levels expected.

• Long chemical fallow plots achieved record yields in 2010.
• Rotation was a factor in higher 2010 yields, but the cause of differences is not clear.
• Pre-sowing soil nitrate was not a good predictor of crop yield potential in 2010.

• It is possible that a one off cultivation in no-till systems could increase crop yields in successive years..
• Standard and Fuel Burners outyielded No Till, followed by Reduced Till, followed by Hungry
  Sheep

This study of Victorian wheat crops shows that:

• increasing the uptake of nitrogen by 50kg N/ha improves WUE by 3.4kg/mm,
• introducing a break crop increases WUE by 2.1-4.2kg/mm,
• the efficiency with which fertiliser nitrogen is taken up by wheat increases from 40 to 80% as GSR increases from 200 to 400mm,
• each 1% of OC contributes from 16kg N/ha (200mm GSR to 32kg N/ha (400mm GSR) to the uptake of nitrogen,
• at current prices for fertiliser N ($1kg/N) and for wheat ($170/t) is is still more economic to apply fertiliser N than to increase N supply by raising OC levels with pasture,
• grain protein levels tend to fall by 1% for each 100kg/ha increase in yields.

• Summer-active perennial grasses such as commercial Panic varieties have persisted, provided year-round groundcover and produced good quantities of pasture over several years in two field trials in the Mallee; growth rates and grazing potential are highest and most reliable in November and April.
• The high level of winter dormancy can allow for opportunistic establishment of inter-row winter species (e.g. pasture cropping). In 2012, with low growing season rainfall, pasture-cropped wheat production was penalised; evaluation is ongoing.

It’s been, once again, a frustrating season. A dry spring, then a late rain to spoil the rainfall records - and too late to be of benefit. The role of livestock in the system to diversify income has, once again, been demonstrated. It is worth looking after the stock you have because they can be a huge benefit in years like this. Many people are reaping crops with very high screening levels due to the harsh finish. What is the value of these screenings for livestock?

• Zinc (Zn) has been shown to be a clear limiting factor in achieving maximum fertiliser response from N and P on all soils sown in the SA Operation FerTill experiment program.
• Increased wheat grain yield of 4-6% has been achieved with Zn as a coat to DAP applied in each year over 3 years.
• This clearly questions the current practice of Zn application once every 3-4 years.
• These results suggest that Zn when used in combination with higher P and application should be considered every year.
• P and Zn placement are very effective management tools to reduce the severity of Rhizoctonia spp, in crops.
• Some P and Zn placement in the seed row of cereal crops is beneficial in reducing the severity of Rhizoctonia patch by up to 50%, increasing grain yield.

Grain yield increased by approximately 1.0t/ha as fertiliser increased from nil to the higher rates.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• See Milestone 2 for weather interpretation.
• Emergence was 55 plants/m2 for Kaspa, 45 plants/m2 for Moonlight and 42 plants per/m2 for Sturt. Targeted densities were 50 plants/m2 for Kaspa and Moonlight and 40 plants/m2 for Sturt.
• All varieties responded similarly to the herbicide treatments. No visual damage was observed for any of the herbicide treatments. This was probably due to the dry conditions experienced.
• Grain yields were strongly correlated with weed populations, i.e. herbicides that gave good
  weed control resulted in highest grain yields. To overcome this affect, we used weed score as a covariate. This showed that Imazethapyr applied at double rates caused a significant reduction in yield (approximately 40%). This implies that the safety margin for this chemical is relatively low, therefor growers need to use caution and avoid overlapping within their crops.
• Sturt appears to have the best adaptation to dry environments with yields 50% greater than
  Kaspa and Moonlight. This is the same trend as has been observed in the breeding program.

• New varieties of field peas are available for southern Victoria, offering a range of grain types and forage options, associated with excellent yield potential.
• Kaspa continues to perform well with new line OZP1101 consistently producing the highest yields.
• Crop topping saw a yield reduction in most varieties due to crops not being advanced enough when ryegrass was at milky dough stage.
• In 2013, a fortnightly fungicide program proved profitable to control disease in field peas (particularly black spot).
• Sowing earlier has been found to be most profitable in this region, but disease management needs to be a priority.
• Based on yields achieved where disease was managed (4.7 t/ha) peas could have achieved a net profit of approximately $1000/ha based on management costs of $370/ha and grain price at $300/t.
   

• Field pea trial yields across the Mallee were variable, ranging between 0.8 and 2.5 t/ha, reflecting those achieved in commercial crops in the region.
• The main factors affecting yield were low spring rainfall and presence of powdery mildew and downy mildew.
• Many of the new varieties show a significant advantage in yield, disease resistance, harvestability, early vigour, shatter resistance and seed quality compared to the commonly grown variety Dundale.
• A series of late maturing breeding lines have given superior yields in the Mallee over the last three years.
• The yield advantage due to shatter resistance in PSL4 was clearly demonstrated at the North Central sites where heavy rains fell prior to harvest.
• The dun pea PSL4 with its excellent shatter resistance and the white pea PSL10 will be multiplied as potential variety releases.

• Despite consistent stubble loads between treatments, differences in lodging (in all crops) and
  grain yield (field peas only) were generated between the three stubble heights at Pinery in 2013.
• In a similar trial in 2012, stubble treatments generated significant responses for biomass, maturity and grain yield.
• This supports previous work conducted by this project showing that the physical arrangement of stubble (ie standing versus slashed) can have a significant effect on the growth and performance of pulse crop types, as well as the amount of stubble present (ie retained versus removed).

• Weather patterns experienced early in 2015 resulted in growers in many districts being advised by DAFWA’s Blackspot Manager Prediction model to delay sowing of field peas in SA. This sowing was often out of alignment with optimal sowing times based on best agronomic practice for some districts.
• Under high disease risk situations, growers in low rainfall areas may be best suited to choose alternative break crop options to field peas to avoid significant yield losses through delayed sowing or disease infection. If field pea remains the preferred crop it is important that growers consider the current recommended fungicide strategy of PPT and Mancozeb treatments, selecting paddocks with little or no field pea history, avoiding close proximity to previous field pea stubbles, and delaying sowing as long as possible.
• Several experimental fungicides with greater efficacy than Mancozeb showed improved blackspot control and significant yield increases over the nil and Mancozeb treatments in 2015.
• Disease progression and grain yield were both reduced by dry and hot spring conditions in early October at all sites in 2015. Further evaluation is warranted in years and environments with more favourable spring conditions. Earlier application timings than the 8 week treatment used in these experiments may also be warranted, along with additional ‘spring’ treatments in longer more favourable seasons.
• A number of industry support groups have reported the economic benefit of using fungicide in controlling blackspot in field pea. Results in 2015 showed the current fungicide application strategy, using PPT and two Mancozeb applications suppressed blackspot at most sites, but previous yield benefits reported from this treatment were not realised due to the hot and dry spring conditions experienced in 2015.
• New fungicide actives and formulas being evaluated showed significant increases in efficacy for controlling blackspot compared to untreated plots and those treated with Mancozeb. Furthermore, a significant yield benefit (approx. 15%) were also identified in these treatments this year. Further trials are planned in 2016 to explore these results.

• Pulse production was generally much higher at the Mildura site than the Ouyen site.
• Field pea was the best yielding pulse crop at both sites.
• Selecting the right crop was more important than selecting the best variety.
• Field pea, lupins and faba beans had the greatest biomass production.
• Vetch biomass production was low due to the late break.

• Pulse production was generally much higher at the Mildura site than the Ouyen site.
• Field pea was the best yielding pulse crop at both sites.
• Selecting the right crop was more important than selecting the best variety.
• Field pea, lupins and faba beans had the greatest biomass production.
• Vetch biomass production was low due to the late break.

1. There was a 35% (970 kg/ha) grain yield response to the highest deep-P treatments in the 2018 sorghum crop.
2. There was no significant response to K in the 2018 sorghum crop.
3. Over 5 crops the deep-P treatments have produced between 2500-3000 kg/ha of extra grain over the zero P treatments.
4. After 5 crops the return on investment for 20 kg and 40 kg P/ha are 4.7 and 3.4 respectively.

• Cereals yield well relative to other crop types under low rainfall conditions, but use all available water and nitrogen
• Grain legumes do not yield well in dry seasons but can fix valuable amounts of nitrogen if brown manured
• Forage legumes (vetch and forage peas) can produce profitable amounts of dry matter in dry seasons.
• Research in higher yielding environments has shown that break crops provide significant yield benefits to subsequent wheat crops. Benefits to subsequent crops should be accounted for when making decisions regarding break crop options and end-uses.

• Cereals yield well relative to other crop types under low rainfall conditions, but use all available water and nitrogen
• Grain legumes do not yield well in dry seasons but can fix valuable amounts of nitrogen if brown manured
• Forage legumes (vetch and forage peas) can produce profitable amounts of dry matter in dry seasons.
• Research in higher yielding environments has shown that break crops provide significant yield benefits to subsequent wheat crops. Benefits to subsequent crops should be accounted for when making decisions regarding break crop options and end-uses.

• Grain yields can vary considerably within the paddock in the Victorian Mallee. The spatial pattern of this yield variation, however, is not always consistent, with relative yield patterns differing over consecutive seasons, and/or crop types, in a flip-flop (alternating) pattern.
• Consistently high yielding zones existed where the shallow subsoil (10-20cm) was a clay loam texture (33% clay) with low salinity. In contrast, consistently low yielding zones possessed a shallow subsoil of light clay (40% clay) and medium to high levels of salinity.
• Flip-flop yield zones were associated with gilgai (crab-hole) depressions where yields tended to increase in dry seasons (due to a concentration of surface water) but decreased in wet seasons (due to water logging of the heavy textured soils). In contrast where gilgai depressions and light textured soils occurred, crop yields were depressed in dry seasons.
• Overall, the flip flop patterns in grain yields observed within paddocks was attributed to the effect of gilgai microrelief and changes in soil texture which influence soil water availability to crops.

• Fluid forms of Phosphorus such as Ammonium Polyphosphate (APP) and Phosphoric Acid have been shown to significantly increase the growth and grain yield of crops on highly calcareous soil on the Eyre Peninsula of SA compared to granular fertiliser forms such as DAP and Triple Super.
• Field trials conducted at three sites in 2003 in Victoria on alkaline soils (central and southern Mallee and Wimmera Plains) demonstrated that fluid forms of P fertiliser promoted the growth of wheat more than granular forms at all sites but this was translated to a yield response at only one site (Birchip).
• There is no reliable diagnostic tool however presently available for predicting under what circumstances fluid forms will outperform granular forms of P.
• Experimentation will continue at the same sites in 2004.

• An aggressive fodder species with good herbicide options is effective at controlling weeds.
• Grazing in summer or winter has no significant effect on weeds. Instead, controlling the late-in-crop weeds that survive grazing and preventing them setting seed is what’s important.
• The timing of seed removal operations is critical. Hay can be just as effective at reducing weeds as silage if it is timed correctly to prevent seed set.
• Modelling has shown that the longer the pasture phase, the greater the weed control. Early work indicates that this may be the case but future trials will need to confirm this.
   

• Fungicides are an effective management tool in protecting faba bean crops from grain yield and quality losses caused seasonally by Chocolate Spot and Ascochyta blight.
• Owing to the late break in the season crop growth rates were low until late September and the canopy remained open minimising the risk of a severe disease infestation.
• Fungicide treatments did not significantly affect yield (average yield 2.6 t/ha) or grain quality at this site.
• Seasonal conditions and disease pressures must always be taken into account when making a fungicide decision.

 

• Simulated grazing up to early tillering on cereals caused only a minor reduction in grain yield.
• There are broad leaf field crop alternatives, forage peas and vetch, that as a monoculture or as component of a cereal or oilseed mixture can increase total (anthesis) biomass production.
• There are further opportunities to develop farming systems around the multipurpose break crops on upper Eyre Peninsula.

Native perennial shrubs other than old man saltbush are showing promise al alternative feed sources in a research trial located in the Central Victorian Mallee.

Frost events will occur when temperatures at the soil surface are below 0°C. These conditions often occur when a cloudy day is followed by a windless cloud free night. Cereal crops are at the greatest risk of damage when there is a frost during flowering however, damage can be done any time between late stem elongation and late grain fill.

• Mace and Scout both yielded higher when fungicide was applied.
• Triad is a cheap fungicide and can be effective, but needs to be used strategically and at rates of at least 2 L/ha.
• Management and attention to monitoring wheat crops must match variety grown to achieve yield potential.
• Regular crop inspections are essential to maximize yield potential • All fungicides work best when used as a preventative spray than as a cure.

• Mace and Scout both yielded higher when fungicide was applied
• Triad is a cheap fungicide and can be effective, but needs to be used strategically and at rates of at least 2 L/ha
• Management and attention to monitoring wheat crops must match variety grown to achieve yield potential
• Regular crop inspections are essential to maximize yield potential
• All fungicides work best when used as a preventative spray than as a cure

When spraying for stripe rust in susceptible crops spraying should take place during the early stages of disease development and generally not before the flag leaf stage of the crop. Spraying when the disease has fully developed and/or waiting until the crop is past the flowering stage is unlikely to be beneficial. See also “Fungicide strategies in wheat and barley” articles in this manual.

•  A survey of 80 winter cereal crops across central and northern NSW in 2016 established that low levels (generally <1%) of Fusarium head blight (FHB) were evident with the causal pathogen predominantly being Fusarium pseudograminearum (Fp).
• This was the crown rot fungus (Fp), reminding growers that it does not disappear in a wet season.
• FHB infection caused by Fp has a reduced risk for mycotoxin accumulation in infected grain, but could have detrimental impacts on crop establishment if seed is retained for planting.
• Planting Fusarium-infected grain can also introduce seed-borne crown rot infection into clean paddocks, negating the rotational benefits associated with growing non-host crops.
   

• Clover content in kikuyu can be increased by hard grazing of the kikiyu stand prior to the opening rains (insure RLEM are controlled, lime if soil is pHCaCl<5).
• Sowing legumes can increase legume content. If grass suppression is used, weeds may also increase unless control measures are taken.
• Legume content can be increased after the break by using a grass selective herbicide to suppress the kikiyu, if you have an adequate clover seedbank.
• If clover needs to be added, drill seed in, don't broadcast.

• Current knowledge about the effects of gibberellic acid application to oats is limited.
• In 2016 gibberellic acid had no impact on biomass or feed quality of oats.
• Exceptional growing conditions and a mild winter may have reduced effects of gibberellic acid.

• Sowing winter habit canola early in the autumn can provide grazing and grain yield.
• Garnet sown early can still produce good results.
• In mild weather aphids are a problem longer into the season and possibly sowing a spring variety earlier gives the potential to develop before succumbing to viruses.
   

• There has been no evidence of any soil health or production losses with grazing after seven years, irrespective of whether crop or pasture inputs were increased or kept at district practice levels.
• In 2014 higher input systems showed how increased inputs and costs throughout the season can result in increased productivity and subsequent profitability.

• There has been no measured grain production or soil health decline associated with grazing sheep on pastures and crop stubbles over a 4 year pasture-wheat rotation. Grain yields were higher as a result of increased wheat seed and fertiliser rates in 2013.
• Higher applied crop seed and fertiliser rates with an improved medic pasture increased estimated gross margins by $16/ha/annum over a 6 year wheat-wheat-pasture-wheat-pasture-wheat rotation

• Grazing sheep have not damaged soil health over eight years of several crop/pasture rotations.
• In 2015 total annual biomass was greater in higher input and grazed rotations. High input grazed systems carried twice the stocking rate of a low input system.

• Over nine seasons, incorporating livestock into the rotation improved overall system outcomes in this trial, including; increased nitrogen cycling and water use efficiency, reduction in weed and pest populations and no negative effects on cereal performance or soil health, while value adding to stubble and pastures by grazing.
• The high input grazed farming system had a gross margin of over $100/ha/year more than lower input and ungrazed treatments over the nine-year trial period.

Early dry matter production (forage value) was boosted by earlier sowing.

• Forage cereals offer a more flexible grazing resource than the traditional grain cereals.
• The grain yield penalty as a result of grazing depends on the timing of grazing, the level of grazing pressure and allowing sufficient time for the crop to recover. If these factors are optimised, grain yields will not be affected.

• Pasture cropping is a relatively new system combining livestock and crop production on the one area of land.
• Production of crop and pasture individually can be lower when grown together in a pasture cropping system compared with when either is grown alone, however the overall annual production can be higher.
• Pasture cropping systems can be managed so that annual winter crops have no direct competition from pastures while the crop is growing.
• Pasture cropping can improve year-round resource use increasing overall annual productivity compared with conventional annual cropping or pasture systems.
• Pasture cropping will be most effective in soil types that do not store soil moisture well and have some summer rain.

• Grazing pressure is greatest in winter, with volunteer pasutre providing the majority of the value.
• The stocking rates used on the improved pastures are also relatively high.
• Crop stubbles provide the majority of the grazing value in summer and autumn however they are grazed at very low stocking rates.

 

Cattle are brought onto the property from stations from June to September at an average weight of about 140kg/ha and then leave from mid-October to mid-February at approximately 300kg/ha.

Cattle are brought onto the property from stations from June to September at an average weight of about 140kg/ha and then leave from mid-October to mid-February at approximately 300kg/ha.

Cattle are brought onto the property from stations from June to September at an average weight of about 140kg/ha and then leave from mid-October to mid-February at approximately 300kg/ha.

In summary, the TOS1 showed a greater variance overall between grazing treatments and the frost events of 2016 seemed to have a greater impact on this section of the trial. Results from TOS2 did not vary greatly between treatments and the effects of frost damage were not as prevalent. This indicates that grazing early sown cereals can have a great effect on yields and provide an excellent source of feed to livestock and the grazing of later sown crops in a season like 2016 does not impact yields or quality

Filed peas, lentils and chickpeas are responsive to the application of phosphorus.

Growers should soil test paddocks going into grain legumes to determine the optimum phosphorus rate to apply and ensure lentils and field peas are priority crops for P fertiliser.

The regular use of grain legume super zinc on alkaline, calcareous soils of this region is recommended for legume crops to provide sufficient zinc for other crops in the rotation.

For discussion of results please see the attached trial report.

• Revenue was significantly higher yielding than Einstein which in turn out-yielded Endeavour. Revenue appears to have set a new plateau in wheat yield potential in Tasmania across a range of sowing dates both in grain-only and in dual purpose trials.
• For further take home messages please see the attached trial report.

• A replicated trial was conducted to compare grain yield from four winter wheat varieties: Mackellar, Tennant, Alberic and the soon to be released 95102.1
• Yield ranged from 7.3 to 10.6t/ha. Mackellar and tennant were lowest yielding varieties and also the most prone to lodging, in particular Mackellar. Mackellar being the earliest to flower also suffered the most frost damage.
• Alberic and 95102.1 yielded the hisghest and show the greatest potential for early sowing without grazing. 

• Late sowings could have a negative effect on barley yield due to heat and water stress during grain fill. In 2015 this was the key detrmining factor for grain yield.
• While mid season varieties yielded well in the first sowing time, mid and late sowings favoured early-flowering.
• Early sowing, early flowering crops are at risk of flowering during frost events, and sowing decsisins should be based on the phenology of teh particular variey and understanding the region's climate.

• In a drier season, early-mid maturing Mace wheat provided better feed and grain value than mid-late maturing Trojan.
• Make variety choice based on the stored soil moisture, the potential time of sowing and the seasonal outlook.
• Variety differences exist between Mace and Trojan and their response to grazing.

• Cobra responded very well to a one off graze over a period of 14 days with an application of 10L of CoRoN giving an increase of 350kg/ha. 

Canola provided significant grazing value during the growing season as well as during summer.The varieties tested showed minimal yield penalties from grazing with some varieties showing a positive yield advantage from the grazing operation.Grazing canola crops were able to provide good weed control and will allow the following wheat crop to benefit from this.Grazing canola and cereal crops allows farmers to alter their stocking rate quickly and easily as they progress through the season. This practise will mean in better seasons a much smaller proportion of paddocks will need to be left for stock and more paddocks can be taken through to harvest which will result in a significant increase in farm profitability. In poor seasons there will be less paddocks taken though to harvest which will result in a reduction in grain income, higher sheep grazing losses and lower farm profitability. The overall profitability of grazing cereal crops will depend on the frequency of dry years and good years.Don Nairn finds that grazing cereal crops takes the stress out of running sheep as there is always an option for the farmer when feed runs short (ie he can simply graze another crop). Hopefully this trial gives farmers a better appreciation of where the dollars fall when crops are grazed.

Subsoil moisture and an early sowing opportunity meant that grazing did not affect yield or the gross income return of canola at Sea Lake in 2012. Dry conditions increased canola tissue nitrate levels to toxic levels as plants matured. Canola has a shorter grazing window than cereals, and requires careful grazing management to avoid high tissue nitrate situations, and roughage to balance fibre.

• Barley produces more feed than wheat at the time of grazing and is nutritionally superior.
• Early maturing varieties had the greatest yield penalties when grazed.

• Grazing cereals is a tool for risk management in low and medium rainfall environments.
• Late grazing of cereals in medium rainfall affected grain yield.
• Grazing cereals is useful only if the feed is required.
• Locally adapted wheat varieties performed better than long growing season winter wheats

• Four farmer grazing cereal demonstrations showed no difference in yield between grazed and un-grazed crops.
• Grazing increased screenings in all four demonstration paddocks.

• There was no yield penalty from grazing in 2011. 
• This was probably due to removal of the sheep at closer to the ideal (i.e. Z31) crop stage and possibly the reduced grazing density as well as a favourable finish to the season. 
• This resulted in a profit of $29.89 in 2011 for the grazed treatment compared to -$29.74 for the grazed in 2010.

• Grazing crops can offer the ability to spell pastures, however careful management needs to be practised to ensure there are no grain yield losses. Grain yield losses can very easily result in a negative profit from grazing crops.
• In this case I suggest that the paddock was grazed heavily in the days leading up to removal of the paddock and this resulted in poor recovery of the crop from grazing.  In hindsight I feel that fewer yield losses would have resulted if there was more bulk left leading into stem elongation.
• On the 17th August the Grain & Graze II trial site was visited by the Northern Agri Group (NAG) field day.  During the day we had over 100 growers discuss the pros and cons of grazing crops.  Both Don Nairn and I addressed the field day and had good feedback about the system.

This wheat crop provided significant grazing value, however the paddock was in late in the sowing program which reduced the ability to graze the crop early in the season. This may also have affected how well the crop recovered from grazing due to the delay in maturity of the crop.There was an 11% reduction in yield in this demonstration. Sheep grazed the trial past the Z31 stage which would have meant grain heads would have been vulnerable to the damage from grazing. Smaller yield reductions would have been possible if sheep were removed from the paddock a few days earlier.When the grazing value of the sheep was taken into account there was a $29.74 reduction in profitability from grazing the paddock.Grazing cereal crops allows farmers to alter their stocking rate quickly and easily as they progress through the season. This practise will mean in better seasons a much smaller proportion of paddocks will need to be left for stock and more paddocks can be taken through to harvest which will result in a significant increase in farm profitability. In poor seasons there will be less paddocks taken though to harvest will result in a reduction in grain income, higher sheep grazing losses and lower farm profitability. The overall profitability of grazing cereal crops will depend on the frequency of dry years and good years,Don Nairn finds that grazing cereal crops takes the stress out of running sheep as there is always an option for the farmer when feed runs short (ie he can simply graze another crop). Hopefully this trial gives farmers a better appreciation of where the dollars fall when crops are grazed.

In July 2010, barley and wheat crops provided nutritious fodder for livestock in July.

• Both the oats and the ryegrass recovered very quickly from each graxing, however, the legumes were very slow to start growing as expected.
• The treatments in this trial were set up for intensive strip grazing.
• The pasture and DSE carrying capacities are representative of this type of system.

Overall, moderate grazing up to Z25-Z30 and clip grazing at and after Z25-Z30 had little to no significant impacts on yield. However,assessing the value of grazing to the farm system is complicated as grazing can affect time of flowering and frost impacts. It can also increase water use efficiency, allow pasture paddocks to be deferred, reduce the need for supplementation and allow increased stock numbers and/or crop area.

• Moderate grazing up to Z30 and clip grazing after Z30 did not appear to have significant impacts on yield in 2012 when compared to early sown crops.
• However, assessing the value of grazing to the farm systems is complicated as grazing can affect time of flowering and frost impacts. It can also increase water use efficiency, allow pasture paddocks to be deferred, reduce the need for supplementation and allow for increased stock numbers and/or crop area.

These on-farm trials once again demonstrate that it is possible to graze crops in winter and maintain grain yield.  However, the frequency that yield penalties occurred (when grazing crops) increased when compared to the same set of trials in 2011.  Yield penalties (i.e. greater than 5% yield reduction) occurred in seven out of eleven (64%) trials in 2012 compared to two out of seven (29%) trials in 2011.  There are three possible reasons for this increase.  Firstly, growing season rainfall was significantly less in 2012 with most sites receiving only decile 1 or 2 rainfall.  Moisture stress may reduce the ability of crops to recover from grazing.  Secondly, a number of the 2012 trial sites were located in the low rainfall zone where the short seasons are less suited to crop grazing.  And finally, the timing and intensity of grazing may have increased the frequency of yield penalties experienced.  Four out of the eleven crops were grazed later than recommended and seven out of eleven crops were grazed heavily.  It is quite likely these three factors interact, and that a dry year or location exacerbates the negative impacts of late and/or heavy grazing.

The average amount of grazing value provided by crops was significantly less in 2012 compared to 2011 (214 vs 307 DSE grazing days per hectare).  This was mainly due to the late start and the cold and very dry July experienced in 2012.  The amount of grazing value provided by the crop is important when considering the economic implications of crop grazing.  In a year such as 2012, when grain prices were high, a small yield penalty caused by crop grazing can have a large impact on grain income per hectare.  At the current relatively low livestock prices, a lot of grazing value is needed to make up for any grain yield penalty.

• Forage barley variety Moby has vigorous early growth and matures quickly, and should be grazed sufficiently early to enable recovery for a second grazing.
• Spring wheat variety Bolac maintained yield when sown early and grazed in 2014.  
• Winter wheat variety Wedgetail can be sown very early (March-early April) in low rainfall areas to utilise early rainfall, and widen both the sowing and flowering window of crops.

• Forage barley variety Moby has vigorous early growth and matures quickly, and should be grazed sufficiently early to enable recovery for a second grazing.
• Spring wheat variety Bolac maintained yield when sown early and grazed in 2014.  
• Winter wheat variety Wedgetail can be sown very early (March-early April) in low rainfall areas to utilise early rainfall, and widen both the sowing and flowering window of crops.

• Forage barley variety Moby has vigorous early growth and matures quickly, and should be grazed sufficiently early to enable recovery for a second grazing.
• Spring wheat variety Bolac maintained yield when sown early and grazed in 2014.  
• Winter wheat variety Wedgetail can be sown very early (March-early April) in low rainfall areas to utilise early rainfall, and widen both the sowing and flowering window of crops.

• Grazing did not change grain yield in 2015 or 2016. Variety selection was the most important factor for final yield, particularly with the soft finish in 2016.
• Grazing slows crop maturity by one to two weeks, which meant Revenue (long season variety) was still booting during the October heat wave in 2015. In 2016, grazing lengthened the growing season for Bolac (mid-season variety) with a resulting 0.54 t/ha (NS) yield increase.
• To graze without yield loss, it’s important to start planning from the beginning of the season, e.g. early sowing of long season varieties. 

• Moby has the ability to be grazed 2-3 times and taken to harvest with a yield result of 815kg/ha,

• Grazing treatment had no influence on pasture sward composition when averaged over seasons.
• Grazing, rather than the type of grazing management, increased soil carbon under native pastures.
• Soil under cell-grazed pastures had a significantly greater carbon stock to 0.30 m compared with ungrazed pastures (32.9 t C/ha vs 25.6 t C/ha), however, there was no difference between cell and tactically grazed (29.5 t C/ha) pastures.

• Grazing livestock can compact surface soil and reduce infiltration rates, but their biggest impact on fallow efficiency is through stubble removal.
• Stubble improves summer fallow efficiency primarily by increasing infiltration; it slows but does not stop evaporation, and this is only beneficial where rainfall events occur close together or if it aids crop establishment.
• Despite high rainfall during the 2009-10 fallow period at Condobolin, there was little response in soil water storage to the grazing and stubble treatments.
• Wheat yield in 2010 was reduced by very heavy grazing but not by moderate (more typical) grazing.

The main impacts of climate change by 2030 on grazing livestock enterprises is likely to be shorter  growing seasons, greater variability in pasture growth, reduced pasture quality, less available pasture, reduced wool quality and increased variability in farm gross margins. Possible adaptations to alleviate
some of these impacts are;

• Minimising the need for supplementary feed by reviewing lambing and calving times, age at first joining, stocking rates and sale times,
• Increase flexibility in systems by varying sale times/rules, confinement feeding, movement, more animal trading (core breeding), agistment, matching feed demand to pasture production, and
• Improved pasture utilisation by grazing management.

Winter wheat has to potential to produce high grain and forage returns. Early grazing should be no later than GS30 in order to maximise final grain yield. Early grazing of winter wheat can reduce final stubble volumes and increase harvest index. Ideally for best forage production, winter wheat should be planted in March if possible.

• Quadrat cuts at the end of July showed that each of the crops produced about 0.5 t/ha dry matter. There were no significant differences between the crops (P< 0.05).
• Crop yields were generally between 3 and 4 t/ha. Once again, there were no significant differences between varieties and there was no significant effect of grazing on yield (P < 0.05).
• The ungrazed Baudin was badly affected by mildew.

• Sowing early, grazing the crops and taking through to harvest gives only a small yield penalty.
• Manning has been a strong performer across all three sowing dates.
• With early sowings, more feeding is essential to improve yields at the end of the season.
   

• New crop varieties have been recently released that have improved tolerance to imidazoline (imi) herbicides. 
• Group B tolerant varieties showed slight damage symptoms to herbicides registered for use. Damage to non-group B tolerant varieties was observed in many treatments.

• New crop varieties have been recently released that have improved tolerance to imidazoline (imi) herbicides.
• Group B tolerant varieties showed only slight damage symptoms to herbicides registered for use. Damage to non-group B tolerant varieties was observed in many treatments.

• New crop varieties have been recently released that have improved tolerance to imidazoline (imi) herbicides.
• Group B tolerant varieties showed no damage symptoms to herbicides registered for use. Damage to non group B tolerant varieties was observed in many treatments.

• There are several Group G herbicide spikes on the market for use prior to broadacre crops with their specific benefits and limitations
• It important to read the herbicide label and be aware of plant back restrictions before the use of any herbicide.
• Sharpen Group G herbicide significantly increased percentage of brown out across the weed spectrum 7 DAA at Frances in 2012.
• At Frances in 2012 all Group G herbicides showed increased percentage of brown out 7 DAA on annual ryegrass but there was no significant difference between treatments 22 DAA.
• Sharpen, Hammer 400 and Valour significantly increased percentage brown out 22 DAA on clover at Frances in 2012.
• At Frances in 2012 the results indicated Glyphosate was providing majority control of lesser loosestrife.
• Sharpen Herbicide showed a significantly increase in brownout on capeweed 7 DAA at Frances in 2012.

Estimating what a paddock will yield allows growers to manage herbicide and fertiliser inputs during the season; forward sell grain and accurately insure their crops. This is an important tool for managing gross margins and ensuring profitability.

Estimating what a paddock will yield allows growers to manage herbicide and fertiliser inputs during the season; forward sell grain and accurately insure their crops. This is an important tool for managing gross margins and ensuring profitability.

Estimating what a paddock will yield allows growers to manage herbicide and fertiliser inputs during the season; forward sell grain and accurately insure their crops. This is an important tool for managing gross margins and ensuring profitability.