Cu greatly increased yield fro 560 kg/ha to 1570 kg/ha.  Copper was applied as copper sulfate at 6.6 kg/ha.

Highlights of the results are:

(a) preseeding cultivations after drilling the Cu in 1979 markedly increased Cu uptake;

(b) medium sized Cu-OSP was inferior ti fine granule size

(c) the effects of granule size & 1979 pre-seeding cultivations were not reflected in 1980 Cu uptakes.  The effectiveness of the treatments which were relatively ineffective in 1980 as those treatments which were most effective in 1979

(d) Cu drilled with the seed in 1980 was much less effective than all Cu treatments applied the previous year

(e) although all grades of Cu-OSP drilled with the seed in 1980 were relatively ineffective compared with that applied the previous year, the inclusion of 15% fine material with 85% medium material increased Cu uptake from the fertiliser by 40%, 50% fine material increased Cu uptake from fertiliser by 80%.

GRanules > 3 mm are much less effective than medium sized granules.

REsearch suggests that 1 kg/ha copper sulfate at early boot is required for the first crop where Cu fertiliser is applied at recommended rates.

 

• A soil and sediment survey of 10 irrigated cotton paddocks across four cotton-growing valleys revealed the tail drain sediments were enriched in organic carbon (1.03% ± 0.05) and nitrogen (0.11% ± 0.01) compared with head ditch soils (0.73% ± 0.07 for carbon and 0.08% ± 0.01 for nitrogen) of the same paddocks. Nitrate-nitrogen and dissolved organic carbon analyses showed similar trends.
• After irrigation, tail drain samples tended to release more nitrous oxide compared with head ditch samples. Emission rates were linked to the pre-irrigation mineral nitrogen concentrations of the soil/sediments.
• These non-cropped areas, representing up to 2% of the paddock area, are a significant source of nitrous oxide emission per unit area of farm as they retain high soil moisture and nutrient concentrations in the absence of plants.
• Nitrous oxide emission calculations for cotton farming systems should incorporate the emissions from head ditch and tail drain sections of the irrigation network.
   

• There is no clear difference between till and no-till crop establishment systems for yield at the Farming Systems Trial.
• Low protein in some plots indicated nitrogen deficiency in 2009.
• Pre-sowing deep soil nitrogen tests indicated low protein but not always at the levels expected.

• Long chemical fallow plots achieved record yields in 2010.
• Rotation was a factor in higher 2010 yields, but the cause of differences is not clear.
• Pre-sowing soil nitrate was not a good predictor of crop yield potential in 2010.

Spinnaker at 150ml/ha was the safest post-sowing-pre-emergent herbicide for use in fenugreek. Post-emergent herbicides with good crop safety included Broadstrike 25 g/ha + Uptake 0.5%, Buttress 2 L/ha, Buticide 2.5 L/ha and Broadstrike 25 g/ha + Buttress 1 L/ha.

• Post-Sowing-Pre-Emergent Spinnaker caused significant visual damage and significant yield loss in fenugreek in the very dry 2002 season.
• Few differences were observed among post-emergent treatments.
• Of the new varieties, little difference in herbicide tolerance was observed, however further work is needed in more typical growing conditions.

The double incorporation of trifluralin method is designed to minimise the number of ryegrass that emerge from the edge of the furrow wall. However, there was no effect of incorporation with rolling harrows, or the snake chian on ryegrass density in the furrow of this trial.

• A two year pasture break has been more beneficial in the first cereal year than a one year break, resulting in lower grass weed numbers, higher soil reserves of N and low disease levels.
• The impact of pasture management and pre-seeding tillage on grain yield and quality was greater following a medic pasture in 2015 than in 2016.

• Chickpeas will suffer far more from being too cold and to some degree too wet than they ever will from being too hot and too dry.
• Chickpeas don’t like high levels of boron, but will handle some.
• Chickpeas have some Pratylenchus tolerance but low resistance. Do a Predicta-B test for Pratylenchus. If levels are high, you will need to find an alternative paddock.
• Chickpeas don’t like competition from weeds. Use the herbicide Balance post sowing pre-emergent. If you don’t have broad leaf weeds under control before chickpea emergence there are few herbicide options. Grass weed control is quite easy as for normal pulses, such as Targa or Select.

Many farmers who target high protein wheat find malting barley a difficult crop to grow. The quality characteristics for malting are tight (less than 11.8% protein and less than 28% screenings). Trial work has shown that to have an increased chance of growing malting barley it is important to:
• sow early (mid May to early June)
• use a sowing rate less than 90 kg/ha
• only use pre-drilled urea if the soil has less than 100 kg/ha of available N at sowing
• do not top-dress urea

• In 2015 the drier start to the season and low soil moisture resulted in lower herbicide efficacy and less chemical damage than expected.
• In different stubble management systems the activity and resulting weed control of specific herbicides will be influenced by the solubility index (movement through the soil profile with rainfall events) of that herbicide. Soil texture and soil chemical properties can affect chemical movement and availability in the soil profile.
• Herbicide performance will vary seasonally due to soil moisture levels, rainfall pattern post application, timing of weed germination, position and number of weed seeds in the profile, etc. Understanding how the various herbicides work can reduce the likelihood of failures.
• Herbicides are only one tool for weed control – always adopt an integrated weed control package that includes non-chemical control, and where possible, consecutive seasons of total weed control.
• Consider the whole farming system when making chemical decisions as the impact may last for several seasons (eg. effects on medic germination and medic seed bank).

• Herbicides which may be influenced by high stubble loads include trifluralin, triallate, pyroxasulfone, prosulfocarb and metalochor products. If grass weeds are an issue in paddocks with high stubble loads (greater than 50% stubble cover), removal of some stubble may maximize the herbicide activity and grass weed control.
• In-crop germination patterns are later for barley grass than for other grass weeds in MAC paddocks, which is limiting early control with pre-emergence herbicides.
• If you expect most of your grass weeds to emerge straight after sowing maybe 2 L/ha trifluralin (plus an added herbicide depending on cost and risk factors such as seasonal conditions, soil type, rotation etc.) is the best value for your system.
• If you have a later germinating population, and aim to reduce the seed bank, you may be better investing in some of the more expensive herbicide mixes even though they may cost more in the first season.

Dry seeding conditions and lack of rainfall at the start of the 2017 season resulted in challenging conditions for both establishing crops and weed control.

Stubble residues reduced plant establishment and weed numbers; standing stubble in dry conditions had higher wheat germination than chained stubble.

April dry sowing had lower wheat numbers than later sowings, which reduced grass weed competition during the season. Grass weed numbers were also higher and set more seed in the April sowing.

No pre-emergent herbicide provided total barley grass weed control and keeping the weed seed bank low through other methods is important.

Under the production regimes of upper EP, stubble management is unlikely to impact negatively on performance of pre-emergence herbicides targeting grass weed control, providing adequate water rates and best practice application techniques are used.

• No significant difference in ryegrass control was found between plots treated with any of the three pre-emergent herbicides tested.
• Though not statistically significant, the trial demonstrated a trend of increased herbicide efficacy with increasing herbicide carrier volume.

Pre-emergent simazine and propyzamide (IBS) at maximum label rates recorded low crop safety margin.

Higher uptake of simazine following good soil moisture appeared to have made lupins varieties sensitive to damage by normally safe rates of post-emergent broadleaf herbicides.

A new herbicide Ultro® 900 WG at 2.3 kg/ha applied before seeding was tolerated by all the lupin varieties.

For blue lupin control/suppression, Garlon® 600 (triclopyr) at 30 mL/ha applied at 8-leaf stage and at pod setting on main stem of narrow leafed lupins caused statistically significant yield loss across all the lupin varieties. Triclopyr use on narrow leafed lupins is not registered.

Note: Always follow label recommendations. The Department Primary Industries and Regional Development, does not endorse the use of herbicides above the registered rate or off-label use of herbicides or off-label tank mixes. Crop tolerance and yield responses to herbicides are strongly influenced by seasonal conditions.

All the lupin varieties tolerated the registered pre and post-emergent herbicides at the label rates and timings with good safety margin.

A new herbicide Ultro® 900 WG at 2.3 kg/ha applied before seeding was tolerated by all the lupin varieties.

For blue lupin control/suppression, Garlon® 600 (triclopyr) at 30 mL/ha applied at 8-leaf stage of narrow leafed lupins was tolerated well by all the varieties, whereas its application at pod setting on main stem of narrow leafed lupins caused statistically significant yield loss across all the lupin varieties (18-24%). Triclopyr use on narrow leafed lupins is not registered.

Note: Always follow label recommendations. The Department Primary Industries and Regional Development, does not endorse the use of herbicides above the registered rate or off-label use of herbicides or off-label tank mixes. Crop tolerance and yield responses to herbicides are strongly influenced by seasonal conditions.

In this trial Simazine, Diuron and Brodal were quite safe when used post sowing preemergent. However, Brodal has been known to cause crop damage when used at this stage. There are no safe early post emergent herbicides available in vetch for the control of broadleaf weeds. It appears that Morava is less tolerant of pre-emergent and in-crop herbicides compared to Blanchefleur or Languedoc.

The best overall herbicide options for controlling the most common broadleaf weeds in the southern Mallee are Simazine alone or Simazine plus Diuron, applied post sowing pre-emergent.

• Field Peas - There were no differences in pea yields from the applied post sowing pre-emergent herbicides. However, Tough at 2L significantly reduced pea yields in the post emergent herbicide applications.
• Lentils - Simazine alone (1.5L) or in combination with Lexone (1L + 100g respectively) significantly reduced lentil yields. The best options were post sowing pre-emergent Lexone (180g) or Diuron (Diurex at 1.1 kg) or post emergent Broadstrike (25g, no wetter) or Brodal at 150ml.
• Chickpeas - the chickpea yields in the control plots were significantly reduced because of weed competition. The best options were post sowing pre-emergent Simazine and Atradex (1L + 275g respectively) or Spinnaker and Simazine (125ml + 0.75L respectively).
• Lupins - there were no significant differences found in lupin yields between the different herbicides applied.

• Infrequent rainfall events, poor weed germination early and dry conditions at seeding resulted in challenging conditions for early weed control and crop establishment in 2018.
• In a high Barley grass weed situation herbicide mixes containing Sakura provided good weed control.
• Trifluralin (1.5 L/ha) IBS followed by Lexone (metribuzin) (180 g) post emergent caused significant crop damage due to rainfall events following the metribuzin application.
• Use as many options as possible to lower grass weed seed banks including two-year breaks.
• Regularly test grass populations for herbicide resistance.
• Aim to prevent 100% of seed from setting in all phases of the rotation.

• All herbicides provided effective control of brome grass and barley grass in wheat this season.
• Crop safety in wheat was achieved by all herbicide mixes in 2008.

Chara sown 13th June gave a small but significant responses to applied nitrogen, despite a soil N reserve of 176 kg/ha N (0‐90cm) pre planting. With this later sown trial there was no significant difference in nitrogen timing, though there was a trend for seedbed/GS31 (50/50 split of N) treated crops to be slightly higher yielding than GS31/37 (50/50 split of N) treated crops.

• All defoliation treatments reduced grain yield relative to the “ungrazed” crop except the light graze treatment in Trojan.
• Those defoliation treatments that removed larger amounts of dry matter at stem elongation (GS30-32) invariably reduced grain yield more.
• The concept of “resetting” Trojan at GS32 was unsuccessful in maintaining or increasing yield.
• In Trojan “light grazing” (as opposed to hard grazing) did not reduce grain yield and was the only treatment that showed canopy compensation by flowering (GS61) when assessed by canopy reflectance (NDVI).
• With Trojan “light grazing” at GS30 which removed only 240kg/ha on July 7 increased margins by the value of the grazing $60/ha plus a small increase in grain output (not significant) of $53/ha.

• Grain yields and lowest pod height of chickpeas were generally higher in no-till wider row systems sown inter-row (30 and 60cm) compared with conventional system (20cm).
• Herbicide damage in both lentils and chickpeas were significantly more severe in conventional systems where herbicides were applied post sowing pre-emergent.
• In lentils, despite showing significant early growth and good biomass production, yields were generally less than 0.2t/ha.

• Paraquat Treatments provided 100% control of all sizes of onion weed.
• Ally treatments (metsulfuron) were slower than paraquat, however provided 100% control.
• Double knocks improved the speed of burn off and control.
• Glyphosate does not provide complete control of onion weed and recovery can occur.
• Glyphosate mixed with Pyresta or Starane Advanced showed reduced glyphosate efficacy.
• Glyphosate mixed with Valor and Sharpen showed no increase in control compared to glyphosate applied alone on all sizes of onion weed.
• Local seeding machines successfully established canola into a heavy barley stubble and there was no benefit in pre-sowing cultivation or burning.

• Fathom barley was more competitive than Hindmarsh barley, bread wheat and durum.
• Increasing seeding rate and seed bed utilisation improved crop weed competition (by up to 60%) without a yield penalty or quality downgrading.
• Tjilkuri and Mace sown at 300 seeds/m2 with a spreader boot achieved similar ARG suppression as Fathom barley sown at 150 seeds/m2 .
• Pre-emergent herbicide application offered the best control of ARG in this trial across all varieties and agronomic management factors. 
• Non chemical strategies can significantly enhance crop’s competitive ability with weeds and should be integrated with herbicide use.

While water volume and droplet size were the focus of this study there are further measures that can be taken by the spray operator to increase herbicide penetration in stubble. In a recent paper by Gordon (2017) some of the strategies highlighted were:

• Reducing spraying travel speeds can generally improve the penetration into stubble and improve the evenness of the application.
• Narrower nozzle spacings can also be of benefit, provided the spray quality and boom height are suitable. 
• Alternately, many operators have plumbed machines with nozzle spacings to match the crop row width. Where nozzles are positioned in the centre of the inter-row gap between standing stubble lines, the nozzle height may be lowered to obtain an overlap close to the base of the stubble. This may improve soil contact and reduce interception by the stubble, provided spraying speeds and wind speeds do not excessive.

• This three year research project aims to increase the yield and reliability of field pea under water deficit and is a major pre-breeding target of Pulse Breeding Australia.
• Key traits being monitored include phenology, canopy and yield traits and the adaptive value of these traits will be explored.
• The trade-offs between adaptation to stress and yield in good environments will be investigated.
• Improving the reliability of yield of field pea in water limiting environments will help to provide a robust break crop option for growers in low rainfall regions.
• Preliminary results from the second season and summary of first season experiments are presented with more detailed trait data currently being analysed, with one more year to follow.
• Correlations between yield and canopy traits such as greenness and growth rate have been identified.
• We have also used APSIM to model the seasonal soil moisture stress for all environments.

• This three year reserch project aims to increase the yield and reliability of field pea under water deficit and is a major pre-breeding target of Pulse Breeding Australia.
• Key traits being monitored include phenology, canopy and yield traits and the adaptive value of these traits will be explored.
• The trade-offs between adaptation to stress and yield in good environments will be investigated.
• Improving the reliability of yield of field pea in water limiting environments will help to provide a robust break crop option for growers in low rainfall regions.
• Preliminary results only from the first season of experiments are presented with more detailed trait data currently being analysed, with two more years from different seasons to follow.
• Correlations between yield and canopy traits such as greenness have been identified.

• Pre-emergent herbicides can cause crop damage. Separation of the herbicide from crop seed is essential for crop safety, which is more easily achieved in knife-point & press wheel seeding systems but considerably more difficult with low soil disturbance single discs.
• Crop stubble can intercept & bind pre-emergent herbicides, which affects crop safety & herbicide efficacy. Low solubility herbicides such as trifluralin have a tendency to bind strongly to crop residues, which reduces the potential for crop damage but also limits its ability to provide effective weed control in situations with heavy stubble load.
• Choose the right herbicide for the job – not all pre-emergent herbicides behave the same so follow label recommendations closely.

• Frost significantly influenced flowering date and grain yield in 2017.

• High grain yields can be achieved from a range of genotype × sowing date combinations.

• Whilst flowering time is important in maximising grain yield potential, timing pre-flowering phases was also found to significantly influence grain yield.
 

• Pre-emergent weed control with Sakura reduced annual ryegrass populations by 85-97% compared to the control

• Combining Sakura pre-em with Boxer Gold at GS11 resulted in 97% weed control 180 days after sowing

• Sakura provides robust pre-em weed grass control and can be used as one element of an integrated weed management approach

• Other practices that can form part of an IWM strategy include paddock selection, cultural control, grazing, land fallowing and chemical rotation

• Continuous cropping and a reliance on pre-sowing weed control measures is not an effective way to manage herbicide resistant annual ryegrass over the long term.
• The increase in weed numbers over time can be limited by adopting an intensive and high cost herbicide strategy, but this will not deplete the seed bank.
• Increasing annual ryegrass density was associated with decreased grain yield.

Herbicide strategy 1 (HS1), which was based on atrazine pre-sowing followed by clethodim (Select) post-emergence reduced ryegrass plant density relative to the untreated control by 57%. However, use of propyzamide pre-sowing, followed by atrazine and Select + Factor (HS 2) increased ryegrass control to 77%. Canola variety had a significant effect on ryegrass spike density (P=0.002). When averaged across the sowing dates and herbicide strategies, ryegrass growing in HyTTec Trophy produced 52 spikes/m2 as compared to 78 spikes/m2 in Bonito (33% reduction). HyTTec Trophy is a new hybrid triazine tolerant variety from Nuseed, which is known for high early vigour. Herbicide strategies also had a significant effect on ryegrass spike density (P<0.001). Ryegrass grown without any selective herbicide treatment (control – HS3) produced 128 spikes/m2 as compared to 40 spikes/m2 in HS1 and 29 spikes/m2 in HS2. This works out to 69% reduction in HS1 relative to the control and 78% reduction in HS2. Herbicide strategies had the largest effect on canola yield (P<0.001). HS1 and 2 produced canola yield of around 0.8 t/ha, which was almost 50% greater than the yield obtained in the control.

KI’s 7 golden rules for successful establishment

•  Good weed control is absolutely critical – it’s a waste of time seeding if you don’t get weed kill.
•  Apply broad spectrum insecticides pre-seeding.
• Seed in early Spring.
•  Seed at 2kg/ha.
•  Ensure good seed soil contact.
•  Allow the plants to become well established before grazing.
•  Continually monitor the paddock, after seeding for insects and pests and during the first graze to ensure stock are not pulling up runners.

• It is no longer a question of whether ryegrass will become resistant; it is when! 
• Double knock was the most effective treatment for managing this ryegrass population  (98% control).
• Alternative crop options should be integrated into the rotation to manage weeds and reduce the reliance of glyphosate. 
• High water rates, spraying closer to evening and no later than 7-10 days after the initial knockdown are essential when using Paraquat.

• New post emergent broadleaf herbicides Torpedo, Conclude, Precept and Velocity generally gave good control of pulses or canola.
• Pre-emergent grass herbicides had no effect on the growth of pulses or canola.

2018 Season 

• While growing season conditions were dry and grain yields were low and therefore not profitable, both Bolt lentils and Gunyah field peas yielded highest of the 5 break crop species grown at the Salmon Gums demonstration site. Soil boron levels were relatively high at this site.
• Following waterlogged conditions in August, Bonito canola out yielded the 4 four legume break crop species grown at the Gibson demonstration site, with Samira faba beans a close second.
• The addition of an extra 72 Units of nitrogen (171L Flexi-N delivered in 3 incremental applications) to the 5 break crops at the Gibson demonstration site resulted in significant increases in yield and earnings before tax profit in both Bonito canola and Samira faba beans but made little difference to the performance of PBA Strikers chickpeas, Morava vetch and Jurien lupins. The addition of extra nitrogen to Faba beans lifted yield by an average of 0.763t/ha taking it to 2.473t/ha which was close to the average yield of un-topped-up canola (2.169t/ha).
• In terms of earnings before tax, the faba bean crop was the most profitable of the 5 break crops grown at Gibson. It is important to note though that the $800/tonne price seen for faba beans in February 2018 was well above both the five and ten year average for this crop.

2019 Season 

• Annual rainfall was well below average in 2019 at all 5 demonstration sites in the Esperance Port Zone and an unprecedented frost event in September affected crop flowering at the Ravensthorpe, Salmon Gums and Beaumont sites. It’s important these seasonal conditions are factored to in to interpretation of legume crop performance at these sites.
• Poor growing conditions at the Ravensthorpe demonstration site resulted in very low yields and none of the break crops grown were profitable. The State Government declared part of the Ravensthorpe Shire as water deficient on 7th May 2019 and further parts of the Shire on 13th February 2020.
• Reasonable rainfall in August stimulated germination of broadleaf weeds resulting in a higher than ideal weed burden in all break crop species strips at the Ravensthorpe site. This highlights the limited control options available for late weed germination in legumes.
• At the Coomalbidgup demonstration site while lupins yielded highest of the break crop species grown, they were not profitable, making an EBT tax loss. Chickpeas were the only profitable break crop species grown at this site; lower seasonal rainfall meant the waterlogging conditions that commonly prevail at this location were not a constraint on chickpea yield. An average rainfall year would likely result in chickpea yield losses due to their susceptibility waterlogging.
• Dry conditions at the start of the season at Coomalbidgup reduced herbicide efficacy but the site did not have a high background broadleaf weed pressure so competition was unlikely to have greatly reduced crop yield.
• Poor growing conditions at the Beaumont demonstration site, which entailed a dry start, a severe frost at flowering and a very dry finish resulted in none of the 5 break crops grown performing profitably. The dry start at this site affected plant establishment of the chickpeas and faba beans in particular. Seeding equipment issues handling the large seed size of the faba beans also reduced establishment of the beans.
• Poor growing conditions, which entailed 2 dry preceding years resulting in very low subsoil moisture at the start of the season, a dry start, a dry growing season, a severe frost at flowering and a dry finish meant that Scepter wheat yields were below average at the Salmon Gums demonstration site. There was no significant difference in wheat yields achieved between the 2018 break crop species treatments. Scepter was profitable after each of the 2018 break crop species except in those replicates following vetch. Wheat after lentils were most profitable with an EBT return of $50/ha, followed by wheat after field peas at $34/ha.
• At the Gibson Demonstration Site wheat following vetch grown in 2018 yielded highest and was therefore the most profitable. Wheat following faba beans and lupins grown in 2018 yielded next highest; their yields being statistically similar. Wheat in replicates following 2018 canola and chickpeas were similar and yielded lowest of the 2018 break crop species treatments.
• Wheat yield in replicates that received an additional 171L/ha of Flexi N in 2018 yielded higher than those that did not and as such were more profitable.
• Tissue test data and wheat yields achieved at the Gibson site suggested nitrogen carryover from 2018 to the 2019 cropping season had occurred. This was not reflected in the pre-seeding soil test data demonstrating the significance of low soil moisture in impeding soil nitrogen mineralization. These results emphasise the importance of understanding mineralization when interpreting soil test results in dry conditions and the merits of coupling autumn soil testing with in-crop tissue or soil testing to support in-crop nutrition decisions.

• A high level of crop safety exists in PBA Herald XT to both post-sowing pre-emergent (PSPE) and post-emergent (PE) applications of imazethapyr. This high level of crop safety was shown to most but not all of the group B herbicides (e.g. Imi-4).
• Nipper showed up to 100% yield loss in some treatments where tolerant lines showed no yield loss. Nipper incurred yield losses from all herbicide treatments at Pinery but not all at Arthurton. Flumetsulam and single rates of Imazethapyr and Imi-2 were less damaging at Arthurton, but other treatments generally caused similar yield losses between the two sites.

• Interactions between herbicide and application rate did not have differing responses for grain yield, biomass yield, or gross margin at Minnipa, 2018.
• Combined herbicide and application timing treatments did show differences in grain yield, biomass yield and gross margin.
• Metribuzin and Diuron treatments indicated increased safety levels (58-466% higher biomass and 6-161% higher grain yield) and lower economic risk compared to Terbuthylazine treatments.
• For herbicide applications incorporated by sowing, Metribuzin was of lower economic risk (45% higher gross margin) than Diuron.

Key message: Herbicide damage symptoms were not observed in PBA Hallmark XT due to herbicide treatments at Wudinna and Warnertown, 2019. This is likely due to the dry seasonal conditions, which lowered herbicide mobilisation within the soil. Consequently, effects of zinc sulphate on herbicide damage recovery were not visible. Average grain yield of PBA Hallmark XT was 0.71 t/ha at Wudinna and 0.93 t/ha at Warnertown.

Key message: Herbicide damage symptoms were not observed in PBA Hallmark XT due to herbicide treatments at Wudinna and Warnertown, 2019. This is likely due to the dry seasonal conditions, which lowered herbicide mobilisation within the soil. Consequently, effects of zinc sulphate on herbicide damage recovery were not visible. Average grain yield of PBA Hallmark XT was 0.71 t/ha at Wudinna and 0.93 t/ha at Warnertown.

•  All results need to be treated with caution, due the dry conditions, frosts and weed burden at the trial site. Similar to previous research PBA Hurricane XT showed tolerance to imidazolinone herbicides and improved tolerance compared with PBA Jumbo2 to sulfonylureas and sulfonamide herbicides. Flowering applications, as expected generally had the most significant reduction on grain yield. The improved weed control in several of the herbicide treatments meant that significant yield gains were commonly observed in the herbicide treatments. 
   

• Group B herbicide application timing significantly influenced the level of herbicide damage and subsequent yield loss in lentil varieties. PBA Jumbo2 incurred significant herbicide damage and a subsequent yield loss of 33-100% from all the treatments except PSPE application of SU1 and incrop application of Sulf at 4 node, 8 node and flowering stages. In contrast, PBA Hallmark XT had significant herbicide damage and yield loss only from application of SU1 at flowering and SU2 at 8 node and flowering stages. PBA Hallmark XT was able to recover from damage caused by some of the herbicide treatments and produce grain yield equivalent to the nil treatment.
• Establishment and Plant growth: Establishment was favoured by adequate soil moisture at sowing and good rainfall conditions after sowing. Assessment of establishment about 7 weeks after sowing showed significant difference between the varieties, however the impact of the PSPE herbicide treatments on establishment was not significant. Averaged across herbicide treatments, PBA Hallmark XT had about 18 more plants/m2 than PBA Jumbo2 (Table 2). Plant growth was average despite drier spring conditions and a few frost events during vegetative and reproductive growth stages.

• Key Messages: SP1333 and PBA Hallmark XT showed little to no signs of herbicide damage at x0.25 gai/ha and 376 gai/ha. At higher herbicide rates SP1333 showed lower herbicide damage than PBA Hallmark XT, but grain yield results were unreliable due to shattering in SP1333.

• Establishment and Plant Growth: Application of ‘Gp C’ PSPE had little or no impact on emergence and early plant growth. Lentils had optimum establishment and growth as a result of adequate soil moisture at sowing and favourable conditions during the rest of the season. Growth, development and yield were not affected by the few frost events, which occurred in the spring.

• Herbicide Damage: Both varieties did not show symptoms of herbicide damage at lower rates (x0.25 and x0.5 gai/ha) irrespective of the time of application (Table 1). However, at higher rates (x1 and x2 gai/ha) the new variety SP1333 showed less damage than PBA Hallmark XT. At x2 gai/ha, PSPE damaged SP1333 more whereas application at 4 node stage was more detrimental for PBA Hallmark XT.

• Number of weeds: Better control of weeds were achieved when ‘Gp C’ was applied as PSPE or 4 node applications at rates above x0.5 gai/ha (Table 2). Almost full weed control was seen in the x1 gai/ha and above for both PSPE and 4 node treatments. Weed densities were not different between varieties.

• Biomass at flowering: At flowering varieties were not significantly different in biomass. In PBA Hallmark XT biomass improved when low rates (x0.25 and x0.5 gai/ha) were applied as PSPE spray but decreased at the highest ‘Gp C’ rate (x2 gai/ha) applied as PSPE or 4 node stage spray, compared to the plants which did not receive herbicides (Table 3). This indicates that application of ‘Gp C’ at lower rates as PSPE sprays in PBA Hallmark XT can effectively control weeds without the crop damage or biomass loss, as oppose to higher rates. However, rates or times of herbicide application did not cause any biomass change in SP1333.

• Seeding systems did not affect wheat grain yield, averaging 5.3 t/ha.
• Good rainfall and cool temperatures during grain fill increased yield potential and the higher N rate resulted in a 1.2 t/ha yield advantage.
• Available soil N pre-seeding ranged from 80 – 190 kg N/ha with 75 kg N/ha more accumulated under the high N rate.

• There was no significant difference between seeding systems or level of nutrition on grain yield or oil content.
• Soil available N was the same for all seeding systems pre-seeding however, the no till treat had released more available soil N.
• In-season more available N was measured in the high nutrition treatment compared to the medium.

• No till treatments have been higher yielding and more profitable in continuous cropping rotations. Cultivation has increased yield and profit in 18 month fallow rotations.
• Two cereals followed by a break crop of either fieldpeas or canola no till has been the most profitable rotation. Interestingly 16 years continuous wheat has not been too far behind.
• Weed spectrum and numbers have changed dramatically within rotations and tillage methods. Interestingly no till treatments have hosted less weeds than cultivated treatments.
• One year of no pre emergent herbicide has taken the trial back 6 years and allowed large numbers of ryegrass to again become established and set seed.

• • All machines tested in this trial successfully established a no-till wheat crop after pasture
  • On average across all machines, there was no positive response to pre-sowing cultivation on yield

• Increasing row spacing reduced plant establishment and shoot densities but this was notreflected in reductionsin grain yield at widerrow spacing treatmentsin droughtstressed trial environments: there were no statistically significant differences in grain yield between any of the row spacing treatments.
• Key management decisions for optimising production were variety choice (at all sites) and nitrogen management (Curyo).
• At Curyo, barley varieties responded differently to row spacing, nitrogen timing and combinations of row spacing and nitrogen.
• Varying pre-emergent herbicide did not effect yield at Manangatang or Jil Jil.
• Variety yield performance was consistent with long-term National Variety Trial data (Hindmarsh, Buloke performing well, Commander and SloopVic performing poorly in dry environments).

• Increasing incidence of barley grass in cropping paddocks in southern Australia is likely to be associated with selection of more dormant biotypes by weed management practices used by growers.
• In some districts, barley grass management is now being complicated by the evolution of group A resistance. However, there appear to be several effective potential herbicide alternatives for barley grass control in broadleaf crops.
• Integrated weed management strategies are critical to delay onset of herbicide resistant barley grass.

• Two seasons of trials have demonstrated there are differences in crop vigour / biomass production within open pollinated varieties ATR Stingray (less competitive) and ATR Bonito (more competitive) relative to a competitive hybrid variety Hyola559TT.
• In 2017, at Hart and Roseworthy both OP and hybrid varieties provided similar crop competition for ryegrass control.
• A combination of effective pre-emergent herbicides with competitive canola varieties combines two tactics to reduce ryegrass seed set.

• Ryegrass seed production was reduced by more than 50% for the hybrid cultivar compared to open-pollinated.
• Pre-simazine or pre-propyzamide/simazine with post-atrazine, were more effective than herbicide strategies that relied just on pre-emergent herbicides.
• Combination of effective pre-emergent herbicides with competitive canola cultivars of canola can significantly reduce ryegrass seed set.

• March to April sown winter wheats performed comparably to main season spring wheats. Optimal time of sowing for winter wheats was late March to mid April.
• Early sowing may present opportunities to increase overall farm profitability by spreading the sowing window without excessive risk of frost and heat.
• Longsword (RAC2341) failed to perform at both sites due to unexplained sterility.

• Winter wheats sown early can match but not exceed yields of locally adapted spring wheats sown in their optimal window (eg. Scepter sown late April-early May).
• It is only advantageous to sow winter wheats early if they are replacing paddocks that would otherwise be sown too late, or used for dual purpose.
• In a very dry growing season sowing earlier than late April reduced yields when stored soil water was present after a long fallow.

• Know the risk of yield loss from eyespot before sowing a cereal - inspect stem bases (lodging does not always occur) in a previous cereal crop or take soil samples pre-sowing and submit them to PREDICTA B for analysis.
• When selecting varieties with some resistance to eyespot, check their susceptibility to leaf/stem diseases to ensure they are not very susceptible to diseases such as stem rust.
• Where eyespot pressure is low, varietal resistance alone will assist in reducing yield losses, but at medium to high level eyespot pressure, resistance alone may not be sufficient to provide good protection from eyespot.
• Varieties with weak straw strength are more likely to lodge if affected by eyespot.
• If applying fungicides for eyespot control - use the correct rate; apply before canopy closure (GS30-31); use high water rates; target the plant base (note that Aviator® Xpro® @ 500mL/ha is registered for eyespot control).

• The Yield Prophet uses the APSIM model to estimate wheat yields based on seasonal growing conditions and inputs.
• The outcomes of the Yield Prophet allow farmers to make better pre-sowing and in-crop management decisions which reduce risk and optimise returns.
• The Yield Prophet reports on crop growth during the season; availability of soil water and soil N; likely responses to N fertiliser; and calculates probabilities for yield and protein.
• The Yield Prophet is a web based service and accessible to subscribers and visitors on www.yieldprophet.com.au/yieldprophet.

The results have clearly shown that effective soil residual herbicides used in combination with timely applications of POST glyphosate in RT-canola can provide acceptable control of Group A resistant ryegrass. Ability to reduce seed set and seedbank replenishment in this initial phase of 2-year break is crucial to long-term management of ryegrass, particularly given that wheat is to follow and weed
control will rely on the few effective pre-emergent herbicides available.

• No barley varietal differences in tolerance to metribuzin applied either pre-sowing or post-emergent have been detected in 3 years of trials on sandy loam soils at Walpeup and Woomelang.
• Crop damage from metribuzin has been known to occur in some commercial situations so label advice should be adhered to.

• Growers need to be aware that glyphosate, trifluralin and diflufenican residues, plus the glyphosate metabolite AMPA, can accumulate to agronomically significant levels in certain soils.
• These findings suggest that the current risk of damage to crops in NSW is minor compared with some sites in WA that have lower rainfall and sandy soils with low organic matter.
• The risk to soil biological processes is generally minor when herbicides are used at label rates and given sufficient time to dissipate before re-application.
• However, given the frequency of glyphosate application and the persistence of trifluralin and diflufenican, further research is needed to define site-specific critical thresholds for these chemicals to avoid potential negative effects on soil function and crop production.

• Ryegrass is an increasingly significant weed in the SE of SA and Western Victoria due resistance to major knockdown, pre emergent and post emergent herbicide chemistries.
• As resistance develops to post emergent chemistry, pre emergent chemistry becomes increasingly important in managing resistant ryegrass.
• Knowing the resistance status of weeds within a paddock allows for the most cost effective herbicide to be applied....the most expensive herbicide is the one that doesn’t work.
• Incorporating alternative herbicide modes of action can improve ryegrass control especially where the presence of Group D resistant ryegrass is suspected or known.

Four nitrogen fertiliser products were compared for efficacy in relation to providing the crop with sufficient N to optimize production at two sites, Birchip and Marnoo. The products compared were: granular Urea, granular Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN), liquid Urea Ammonium Nitrate (UAN) and liquid Urea. The products were applied three times (pre-sowing; at the five leaf stage and at the end of tillering).

• Urea increased wheat grain yield significantly over the nil when banded at sowing.
• There was no significant difference between urea, UAN or MAXamFLO when applied at the same rate of nitrogen and incorporated by sowing, banded or applied at pre-sow, banded and post.

• Work conducted in low and medium rainfall environments indicate that N2O emissions are low from an overall national perspective. • Results showed that there was no clear response of N2O emissions to nitrogen applied at sowing and post sowing. • High pre-seeding soil mineral nitrogen raises the possibility of higher N2O losses over the fallow period following significant rainfall.

• Work conducted in low and medium rainfall environments indicate that N2O emissions are low from an overall national perspective. • Results showed that there was no clear response of N2O emissions to nitrogen applied at sowing and post sowing. • High pre-seeding soil mineral nitrogen raises the possibility of higher N2O losses over the fallow period following significant rainfall.

• For the fourth year running, on-row sowing proved it has potential as a brome management tool on non-wetting sands, reducing brome grass seed set by 55%.
• The use of trifluralin with metribuzin reduced the brome density in July but did not reduce seed set.
• On-row sowing resulted in more soil water and nitrogen supply potential near the crop,  improved crop establishment and higher crop biomass.
• On-row sowing did increase root disease incidence, but there were low levels of disease for both on- and inter-row sowing in 2017.

• Fertilising above the optimum plant nitrogen (N) demand level reduced N-use efficiency and increased environmental impact.
• Despite receiving 8–9 irrigations as well as several intense rainfall events in a season, there were typically only 3–4 significant nitrous oxide (N2O) flux periods during the season, with most occurring early in the season, i.e. irrigations 1 and 2.
• Other significant N2O emissions events occurred mostly in response to adding in-crop N fertiliser followed by irrigation and/or intense rainfall.
• Initially, higher N2O emissions came from the beds where N fertiliser had been applied pre-sowing. Later in the season, emissions often peaked in the non-irrigated furrows after rainfall and irrigation events, particularly after additional N was added in the irrigation water.
• Farmers’ N rates were at least 25% higher than necessary to achieve the same lint yield in 2014–15, i.e. 50–100 kg N/ha. Less N fertiliser could have produced the same amount of cotton.
• Increasing N rates increased total N2O emissions, especially in prolonged wet conditions.
   

• Compared to the pre-emergent ryegrass control trial, conducted alongside, the post emergent application results were very poor, below 60% control.
• Boxer Gold applied post sowing pre-emergence at either 1.5 or 2.5 L/ha produced the greatest in-row ryegrass control (78%).

• Preliminary results have shown that post sowing use of some pre-emergence herbicides can improve control of late emerging ryegrass and could be beneficial as a late salvage exercise where ryegrass has escaped earlier control.
• Although no damage to the wheat crop was observed, these treatments present a higher risk to crop safety, depending on soil type and rainfall after application.
• Post sowing use of these herbicides is currently off label & requires further investigation before registration can be granted.

Diuron at 1L or 2L applied post sowing pre-emergent in a wheat crop was not effective in controlling fop and dim resistant ryegrass. However, Diuron with Dual Gold or Dual Gold on its own (especially at the 0.5L rate) had better control of ryegrass. The level of control was not sufficient in a commercial sense but it may be in combination with trifluralin or with other ryegrass control strategies. Dual Gold is a Group K herbicide and will not initially add to a resistance problem.

Slender iceplant exhibits a germination quality that increases its chance of survival.

Good iceplant control results were achieved with Broadstrike, diflufenican and diuron in various mixtures in these trials.

Early control of radish in both Terbyne pre-emergent plots showed great promise and gave enough early control and timento get back to spray post emergent applications with applications of Velocity or Jaguar contolling next to 100% of wild radish.

• Residual control of herbicides applied before crop emergence was not effective for short to medium term control or suppression of radish.
• It appears that in-crop control techniques are more effective.

• Group D herbicides should not be used alone – it is important that resistance to this very important group of herbicides does not develop.
• There was no difference in yield between the trifluralin in mixes with metribuzin, diuron or avadex applied; however there was a reduction in ryegrass heads at flowering due to the addition of Dual Gold (metolachlor) to trifluralin.

Trifluralin use has increased in the last decade and the threat of ryegrass developing resistance to group D herbicides (including trifluralin) is real, already occurring on some farms. In this trial a number of herbicides with activity on ryegrass were tested as mixes with trifluralin on their efficacy in controlling ryegrass as well as on grain yield.

• Seasonal conditions reduced the potential impacts of the pre-emergent herbicides evaluated in this trial with sowing taking place under dry conditions. The top 5 cm was dry with little follow up moisture although there was enough to get the crop out of the ground. The effects of pre-emergent herbicides are generally more pronounced under very moist conditions particularly under intense heavy rain events at seeding or when the top soil is saturated for an extended period at plant establishment.
• In this trial neither yield or weed density were significantly different between the herbicide treatments.
• Weed plant densities were extremely variable within each treatment so caution should be taken when comparing grass weed efficacy in this trial.

• Group A resistant ryegrass populations are becoming more prevalent across south Australia, increasing the reliance on the use of Group D (trifluralin) for ryegrass control.
• Group D resistance will develop if trifluralin is consistently used without other control practices.
• Trifluralin used in combination with other herbicides such as Avadex Xtra (Group E) and Dual Gold (Group K), may enhance ryegrass control and could prolong the onset of Group D resistant ryegrass populations.

Standard farmer practice of 'pasture topping' in the previous year, followed by a knock down around the seasons break, remain the best practice before sowing saltbush or bluebush by seed.

Standard farmer practice of 'pasture topping' in the previous year, followed by a knock down around the seasons break, remain the best practice before sowing saltbush or bluebush by seed.

Increased crop density reduced annual ryegrass density.

Herbicides offered effective weed control, and performance of Sakura® and Boxer Gold® was similar in this season.

Triflur X® provided excellent control of barley grass over the entire site, although by August, weed density was lower following Triflur X® at 3L/ha rather than 2L/ha.

In 2020, Intervix® provided excellent control in-crop, preventing panicle production. In 2021 the field was too wet to spray in-crop herbicides.

Increased seeding rate increased crop density, and resulted in a non-significant reduction to barley grass panicles.

• Continuous cropping is not an effective way to manage herbicide resistant annual ryegrass over the long term in the high rainfall zone.
• The increase in weed numbers over time can be slowed by adopting an intensive and high cost herbicide strategy, but not enough to reduce soil weed seed bank.
• Increasing annual ryegrass density by 100 seed heads per square meter was associated with a 150 kg/ha decrease in grain yield. 

• From the statistical analyses performed on this trial it is concluded that Paraquat at 1L with adjvant LI700 at 0.5% is most efficient in causing fast brownout on Paddy Melons, Wild Radish, Serradella, Mint weed, Capeweed, Couch grass and Blue Lupins.  

• Dry pre-furrowing of sandy loam pasture at Pindar in 2003 resulted in a yield benefit estimated at $26.5/ha.
• Grain quality was not changed by pre-furrowing in this trial.

• The standard treatment in this trial, namely Sencor (metribuzin) 750WG plus TriflurX, provided no more that weak suppression of brome allowing substantial seed set.
• The trial demonstrates a new option for brome control in barley crops now available to growers, namely growing Scope barley and using Clearfield herbicides such as Intervix or Midas. Both products provided excellent to absolute control of brome, as well as silver grass.
• The trial also demonstrates that while the pre-emergence treatments alone provide only modest control of brome, their use in combination with Clearfield herbicides has the potential to improve the overall Clearfield performance. Their use is recommended for resistance management purposes and as a means of securing yield by reducing early weed competition.
• Achieving absolute control of brome grass by treatments that pay for themselves and deliver a surplus to users (of $45 – $150 per hectare) should make most Clearfield treatments highly attractive. Atlantis, Crusader and Monza each only provided strong suppression that in the long run cannot be expected to overcome brome. Regardless of their return on investment, they failed to deliver satisfactory brome control (i.e.. >90% so that the seed bank is not dramatically reduced) and are useful only in terms of managing brome within the current crop at best.
•  

Post sowing pre-emergent and early post emergent herbicide applications all reduced radish numbers but not sufficiently to be commercially acceptable. High rates of triazines were more effective in controlling radish and were quite well tolerated by the broadleaf lupins in this trial. For effective control of radish in lupins, a post sowing application of triazine followed by a post emergent application of either Brodal or Eclipse is required.

Post-sowing pre-emergent treatments were not active enough to reduce a large radish population to a commercially acceptable level. Early post emergent treatments were more effective in reducing radish populations to a manageable level but did not eliminate the radish problem. Product mixes containing Brodal were the most effective in controlling to low levels quite a dense radish population.