• The moisture results indicate that canola uses more water at a greater depth than wheat. There is less water remaining in the soil profile below 40cm under canola sown at 1 and 6 kg/ha than for the same depth under wheat. There will be less moisture accessible to a wheat crop in 2012 on the canola plots than on the fallow plots.
• The use of fallow for moisture storage alone is unlikely given the volume of stored soil moisture at the beginning of May 2011. Indications for the use of a break crop were positive from early April. Summer rainfall had refilled the soil profile, fol-lowing the wheat of 2010, giving some surety to crop yield. Only a small rainfall event was required to break the season and join the soil moisture fronts.
• Season length and consistent rainfall has favoured yield of canola regardless of its plant density. A very plastic species as the yield from 22 plants/m2 is only 200 kg/ha less than that from 68 plants/m2. The canola plots received all required inputs as a result was a more expensive crop to grow than either the wheat or fallow.

• ATR Stringray was the highest yielding variety, even though it showed the least crop canopy and vigour of all varieties tested. This trait suggests it puts more resources into grain production than into crop biomass and leaf area.
• The TT hybrid varieties exhibited the greatest leaf biomass and canopy closure by 21st July. However, due to a higher than ideal plant density, this heavier crop canopy did not translate into higher grain production.
• The 2 new varieties from Nuseed – Stingray and Snapper, were the most profitable varieties in this trial and may re-place areas of Cobbler plantings in the future.

• The season was characterized by above average rainfall conditions which provided good growing conditions for crops and also ideal conditions for weed establishment, particularly medic which was difficult to control at the site and may have masked variety differences from crop topping application timings in the trial.
• Crop topping lentils 10 days prior to the recommended ARG milky dough stage led to a significant (>50 %) yield loss when compared to the respective Nil treatments across all lentil varieties. This indicates that correct timing of this practice in critical in this crop and may be difficult to achieve in long favorable growing seasons like 2016.
• Grain yield of lentil varieties was affected similarly across the crop top timings in 2016. This conflicted with previous findings, which had shown that varieties like PBA Blitz were better suited to this practice, and highlights the large effect seasonal conditions have on this agronomic practice in lentil. Further varietal development work is required in lentil before the industry has a robust variety which is well suited to effective crop topping of ARG across environments and seasons.
• All varieties of field peas showed a high level of adaption to the agronomic practice of crop topping in the long and favorable season of 2016 which is consistent with previous findings in this crop (Southern Pulse Agronomy Results Summary, 2015)
• A significant grain yield loss was observed from crop topping chickpeas 10 days earlier and at the recommended ARG milky dough stage highlighting the poor relative suitability of this crop to the agronomic practice of crop topping. PBA has developed early maturing chickpea varieties which may be better suited to crop topping in some environments and seasons. Further evaluation is required with these lines as the ability to reduce ARG seed set in this highly uncompetitive crop is essential for its continued uptake in southern farming systems.

• The 2016 season saw higher yields than the previous two seasons in field pea, lentil and faba bean. Chickpeas however performed better at Minnipa in 2014 due to adequate rainfall during the growing season and warmer temperatures during critical flower and pod fill stages. A virulence change in the ascochyta blight (AB) pathogen in southern Australia now means that all current chickpea varieties are rated as either susceptible or moderately susceptible. Although often relatively lower yielding in low rainfall regions, moderately susceptible varieties GenesisTM090 and PBA Slasher will have a reduced production risk and require fewer fungicides than the higher yielding susceptible varieties such as PBA Striker. Chickpeas are generally less suited than other pulse options in many cropping regions in SA due to their relatively late maturity and increased sensitivity to cold temperatures during the flowering and pod filling phase.

• Crop species were blocked and not randomized for ease of management and this experiment was only aimed at obtaining a general understanding of rhizoctonia susceptibility in different crop species. As such results will require careful interpretation and crops cannot statistically be compared with each other. Only comparisons between varieties and treatments within a crop species can be statistically compared.
• Results do however indicate a trend in increased susceptibility of some crops and varieties to Rhizoctonia than others with faba beans appearing to show a reduced ability to decrease rhizotonia levels when compared with the other crop species. This finding backed up field observations throughout the year for both crop growth and root health.
• Further work is required in this area to understand if pulse crops vary in their ability to offer a ‘break crop’ benefit in terms of rhizoctonia root disease levels to the following cereal crops..
• Initial results also suggest variety variability for reducing or hosting rhizoctonia in pulses may exist and also requires further understanding.
• An improved field screening methodology is required to achieve the above due to the patchy and random nature of this disease in the soils of SA. An associated project by SARDI root diagnostics group is underway to try and develop such a methodology.

• There were no significant yield differences in this trial with all of the new chickpea lines producing equivalent yields to Kaniva under low disease pressure.
• Flip94-509C and Flip94-508C were very dark in colour compared to Flip94-090C and Kaniva.
• Improved ascochyta resistance will make management of these new varieties a lot easier than over the past five years, however quality and marketing will be the key to profitability with many of Australia’s markets for desi chickpeas now supplied by alternative sources.

The theoretical N contribution from faba stubbles is 20 kg N/tonne of stubble. However this assumes all residue is mineralised. 

Stubble retained on the soil surface is broken down more slowly than residues present in the soil.

A 6 t/ha bean crop resulted in approximately 140 kg N/ha being released for the following season. 

• The waterlogging event affected all treatments, such that both the chlorophyll content index (CCCI) and normalised difference red edge (NDRE) were similar for all treatments immediately after the water-logging event.
• The topdressed treatments recovered better after the waterlogging event than the mid-row banding (MRB) treatments.
• MRB showed an acceptable yield and apparent nitrogen recovery efficiency (ANRE) in both waterlogged and non-waterlogged conditions, but similar or less than N topdressing treatments. The topdressing treatments had surprisingly high ANRE.
• The mid-row banded nitrogen declined during the season, presumably with nitrification and uptake. Some mid-row banded nitrogen was still evident 131 days after sowing.
• The majority of the mid-row banded nitrogen was present as ammonium during the season, which allowed it survive the waterlogging event

• Unfortunately, crop was only sown at 40kg/ha, half the intended seeding rate. Low seeding rate and sever sub-soil compactions resulted in relatively low yields.
• There were only low levels of yellow leaf diseases.
• The site responded to N and K. With fungicide applied, there was a 0.7t/ha response to 85 kg N/ha (trt 3 v 4), and a 0.5t/ha response to 68kg K/ha (trt 2v9).
• There was a significant response to fungicide at the high rate of N, but only with K applied. This suggests the benefits of fungicide are greatest where nutrient deficiencies are overcome.
• Hectolitre weights were 74-77 kg/l and screening less than 5%
•  

• There was a strong response to P but no response to N
• Plant tests showed that the crop was unlikely to respond to N
• 0N 24P was nearly $300/ha more profitable than 80N 16P!
• Profitability is driven by getting the N and P balance AND application rates right.

• Good growing conditions produced wheat yields of up to 5.0t/ha and canola yields of up to 2.6t/ha.
• There was no response to P in either crop where N was applied.

Only medic based systems from 2008 and 2009 resulted in higher wheat yields in 2011.

• Growers need to be aware that glyphosate, trifluralin and diflufenican residues, plus the glyphosate metabolite AMPA, can accumulate to agronomically significant levels in certain soils.
• These findings suggest that the current risk of damage to crops in NSW is minor compared with some sites in WA that have lower rainfall and sandy soils with low organic matter.
• The risk to soil biological processes is generally minor when herbicides are used at label rates and given sufficient time to dissipate before re-application.
• However, given the frequency of glyphosate application and the persistence of trifluralin and diflufenican, further research is needed to define site-specific critical thresholds for these chemicals to avoid potential negative effects on soil function and crop production.

• Natrakelp applied to the foliage showed no yield advantage in any of the crop types.
• At this stage this product needs further evaluation before it is widely used.

The results confirm some suspicions of some observant farmers that a small amount of compaction, or 'firming' can be beneficial to crop yield.

• Richmond produced an average yield 7% higher than Soya 791 in advanced variety evaluations at early sowing dates (first week in December) over six seasons.
• Richmond produced an average yield 7.7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in advanced variety evaluations at late sowing dates (mid January) over eight seasons.
• In on-farm experiments, Richmond yielded 16% higher than Soya 791 in a wide-row system on the northern slopes, and 7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in a narrow-row coastal system.
• In addition to higher yield potential, Richmond is tolerant to lodging and pre-harvest weather damage, has clean leaf drop, large seed size and high protein, and is resistant to powdery mildew. This combination of traits provides greater crop security and a full range of market options for growers, and high quality grain for buyers and processors.

Conclusions:

The Australian soybean variety RichmondA produces large grain (22 g/100 seed) with a clear hilum and high levels of protein (42% dry matter), which is suitable for all markets including human consumption and export. The traditional variety, Asgrow A6785, has small grain (<16 g/100 seed) with a brown hilum and protein levels less than 40%, which limits the range of markets to which it is suited. The traditional variety, Soya 791, has average sized grain Agronomy(19 g/100 seed) with a light brown hilum and high levels of protein (42%). Both A6785 and Soya 791 are prone to excessive vegetative growth, especially at an early sowing date. However, this is not necessarily converted into grain yield as demonstrated in the on-farm experiment at Harwood.

RichmondA is superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in terms of grain yield, tolerance to lodging, tolerance to pre-harvest weathering and clean leaf drop. RichmondA offers a summer legume option with high yield and high grain quality for early, mid or late sowing windows in northern New South Wales. The variety’s performance was not adversely affected by the range of soil types and farming systems reported in this paper; it was superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in all situations. RichmondA is resistant to powdery mildew. This package of traits represents a significant advance in soybean varieties for the North Coast, Tablelands, Northern Slopes and Liverpool Plains production regions of northern New South Wales.

The results of the on-farm experiment of RichmondA versus Soya 791 in a wide spacing, single row system at Oakwood demonstrates the variety’s ability to compensate for wide rows and the associated lower plant populations in dryland systems. Row spacing and plant population interactions of new soybean and mungbean varieties are being investigated in the current NSW DPI–GRDC project DAN00171

Key messages: 

• Richmond produced an average yield 7% higher than Soya 791 in advanced variety evaluations at early sowing dates (first week in December) over six seasons.
• Richmond produced an average yield 7.7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in advanced variety evaluations at late sowing dates (mid January) over eight seasons.
• In on-farm experiments, Richmond yielded 16% higher than Soya 791 in a wide-row system on the northern slopes, and 7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in a narrow-row coastal system.
• In addition to higher yield potential, Richmond is tolerant to lodging and pre-harvest weather damage, has clean leaf drop, large seed size and high protein, and is resistant to powdery mildew. This combination of traits provides greater crop security and a full range of market options for growers, and high quality grain for buyers and processors.

Conclusions:

The Australian soybean variety RichmondA produces large grain (22 g/100 seed) with a clear hilum and high levels of protein (42% dry matter), which is suitable for all markets including human consumption and export. The traditional variety, Asgrow A6785, has small grain (<16 g/100 seed) with a brown hilum and protein levels less than 40%, which limits the range of markets to which it is suited. The traditional variety, Soya 791, has average sized grain Agronomy (19 g/100 seed) with a light brown hilum and high levels of protein (42%). Both A6785 and Soya 791 are prone to excessive vegetative growth, especially at an early sowing date. However, this is not necessarily converted into grain yield as demonstrated in the on-farm experiment at Harwood.

RichmondA is superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in terms of grain yield, tolerance to lodging, tolerance to pre-harvest weathering and clean leaf drop. RichmondA offers a summer legume option with high yield and high grain quality for early, mid or late sowing windows in northern New South Wales. The variety’s performance was not adversely affected by the range of soil types and farming systems reported in this paper; it was superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in all situations. RichmondA is resistant to powdery mildew. This package of traits represents a significant advance in soybean varieties for the North Coast, Tablelands, Northern Slopes and Liverpool Plains production regions of northern New South Wales.

The results of the on-farm experiment of RichmondA versus Soya 791 in a wide spacing, single row system at Oakwood demonstrates the variety’s ability to compensate for wide rows and the associated lower plant populations in dryland systems. Row spacing and plant population interactions of new soybean and mungbean varieties are being investigated in the current NSW DPI–GRDC project DAN00171

 

KEY MESSAGES:

• Richmond produced an average yield 7% higher than Soya 791 in advanced variety evaluations at early sowing dates (first week in December) over six seasons.
• Richmond produced an average yield 7.7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in advanced variety evaluations at late sowing dates (mid January) over eight seasons.
• In on-farm experiments, Richmond yielded 16% higher than Soya 791 in a wide-row system on the northern slopes, and 7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in a narrow-row coastal system.
• In addition to higher yield potential, Richmond is tolerant to lodging and pre-harvest weather damage, has clean leaf drop, large seed size and high protein, and is resistant to powdery mildew. This combination of traits provides greater crop security and a full range of market options for growers, and high quality grain for buyers and processors.

CONCLUSIONS; 

The Australian soybean variety RichmondA produces large grain (22 g/100 seed) with a clear hilum and high levels of protein (42% dry matter), which is suitable for all markets including human consumption and export. The traditional variety, Asgrow A6785, has small grain (<16 g/100 seed) with a brown hilum and protein levels less than 40%, which limits the range of markets to which it is suited. The traditional variety, Soya 791, has average sized grain Agronomy NORTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2017 | 53 (19 g/100 seed) with a light brown hilum and high levels of protein (42%). Both A6785 and Soya 791 are prone to excessive vegetative growth, especially at an early sowing date. However, this is not necessarily converted into grain yield as demonstrated in the on-farm experiment at Harwood. RichmondA is superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in terms of grain yield, tolerance to lodging, tolerance to pre-harvest weathering and clean leaf drop. RichmondA offers a summer legume option with high yield and high grain quality for early, mid or late sowing windows in northern New South Wales. The variety’s performance was not adversely affected by the range of soil types and farming systems reported in this paper; it was superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in all situations. RichmondA is resistant to powdery mildew. This package of traits represents a significant advance in soybean varieties for the North Coast, Tablelands, Northern Slopes and Liverpool Plains production regions of northern New South Wales. The results of the on-farm experiment of RichmondA versus Soya 791 in a wide spacing, single row system at Oakwood demonstrates the variety’s ability to compensate for wide rows and the associated lower plant populations in dryland systems. Row spacing and plant population interactions of new soybean and mungbean varieties are being investigated in the current NSW DPI–GRDC project DAN00171

• Barley is a valuable rotation crop as it is not susceptible to many wheat foliar diseases (yellow spot, stripe rust, septoria), suffers less yield loss from root diseases, and competes well with weeds.
• Schooner and Gairdner have been the preferred malting varieties in central NSW. Gatrdner has proved to be the highest yielding malting variety, but is prone to high screenings under dry conditions, late sowing and excessive nitrogen or seeding rates.
• Buloke, a new potential malting variety for the mid-lower rainfall parts of the region performed well in 2005.
• Fitzroy, Baudin and Cowabbie yielded well in the mid-higher rainfall areas.
• Tilga and Tantangara are high yielding feed varieties with Tilga better suited to drier areas. Binalong, Mackay and Grout are new feed grain lines particularly suited to the northern half of the State.
• Seeding rates of 70-120 seeds/m2 are likely to be a good compromise for yield and grain quality for barley; the higher rate should be used with late sowing and in wetter areas, but care is needed with Gairdner which is prone to high screenings.

• Disease pressure in the trial was low however, there were measurable differences in SFNB and scald for all treatments compared to the control.
• Systiva (seed treatment) provided similar control compared to all in-season applied foliar fungicides.

• Early disease control is important for reducing initial AB infection levels in field pea crops with a yield potential above 1.5 t/ha.
• A late fungicide spray is important to control AB in spring when rainfall is conducive to disease spread and pod and seed infection.
• Early sowing into a high disease risk window with new fungicide actives evaluated in this project, were demonstrated to have improved yield benefits over later sowing in the 2017 season.

• Early disease control is important for reducing initial AB infection levels in field pea crops with a yield potential above 1.5 t/ha.
• A late fungicide spray is important to control AB in spring when rainfall is conducive to disease spread and pod and seed infection.
• Early sowing into a high disease risk window with new fungicide actives evaluated in this project, were demonstrated to have improved yield benefits over later sowing in the 2017 season.

The application of nitrogen increased grain yield by 0.5t/ ha, but there was no benefit from additional sulphur. At this site, money was better spent on nitrogen than on sulphur.

Grain protein was very low (7-10% protein) which is becoming an issue on sandy country despite adequate nutrition.

The timing of nitrogen and sulphur applications made no difference to crop yield or quality. Consequently, growers could reduce production and financial risk by delaying some applications and adjusting rates to the seasons.

• Data support a negative relationship between yield and protein.
• Season will always play a major role in determining protein content of grain in low rainfall areas.
• Producers should aim to maximise the opportunities to increased grain protein.

The faba crop contributed a significant amount of N, resulting in less symptoms of waterlogging during winter, reduced N applied through the season but insignificant yield effects and changes to barley grain quality.

• The 2014 wheat crop at Karoonda had a harvest index of 0.4 and fertilizer N recovery was 35%.
• Wheat stubble from the 2014 crop contained 16 kg N/ha and had a C:N ratio of 95 which is common for cereal crop residues in these environments .
• Mineralization during summer resulted in the accumulation of 18-33 kg/ha of mineral N to 50cm depth across all the treatments at sowing in 2015.
• Incorporation of 2014 cereal stubble increased microbial biomass and N supply potential at sowing in the surface soil when compared with standing stubble.
• The management of cereal stubble affects the microbial activity that influences the cycling and supply of nutrients (nitrogen (N) and phosphorus) to growing crops.
• There was no significant effect of management of 2014 stubble on subsequent wheat grain yield in 2015.

• Grain yield was driven by biomass production rather than harvest index.
• Timing of nitrogen had relatively little impact on yield or nitrogen response.
• Nitrogen rate had little effect on total crop water use.
• Nitrogen use efficiency and water use efficiency were improved with additional water availability (irrigated treatment).

• With a soil nitrogen (N) content of 103 kg N/ha at sowing, Mace wheat yielded 3.1 t/ha with no N fertiliser applied and contained 6.6% protein.
• Optimum gross margins were recorded with 75 kg N/ha, though none of the N levels up to 100 kg N/ha reached 9% protein.
• Yield response was greatest for N application timings at sowing, GS31, or a split application between GS31 and GS39.
• A crop sensor was used to measure in season nitrogen responsiveness and was able to predict the optimal N rate.

• At Minnipa the late sown (resown due to mice damage) wheat gave a yield response to 20 units of up-front N, but not to N applied in-crop in 2010.
• At Mudamuckla there was no response to applied N above base rates on soil with adequate N content in 2010.

Four nitrogen fertiliser products were compared for efficacy in relation to providing the crop with sufficient N to optimize production at two sites, Birchip and Marnoo. The products compared were: granular Urea, granular Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN), liquid Urea Ammonium Nitrate (UAN) and liquid Urea. The products were applied three times (pre-sowing; at the five leaf stage and at the end of tillering).

• Grain yields of wheat were higher when additional nitrogen was applied at sowing compared to when applied at GS31.
• Timing of nitrogen application is essential to maximise plant growth and achieve yield potential.
• Grain protein was only higher when delayed nitrogen application was applied, which resulted in reduced wheat yield.
• Starting soil moisture, paddock rotation history and potential yield of crop are important factors to consider when deciding amount of nitrogen to apply and timing.
   

• Grain yields of wheat were higher when additional nitrogen was applied at sowing compared to when applied at GS31
• Timing of nitrogen application is essential to maximise plant growth and achieve yield potential
• Grain protein was only higher when delayed nitrogen application was applied, which resulted in reduced wheat yield
• Starting soil moisture, paddock rotation history and potential yield of crop are important factors to consider when deciding amount of nitrogen to apply and timing

For further information see Payne, RA and Ladd, JN (1993) Soil organic matter and nitrogen management in dryland cropping systems, Part II: Nitrogen requirements for dryland cereal crops. Dept Primary Industries of SA. Technical Report No. 212 (Agdex 536).

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits. The grower mentioned the usefulness of the Greenseeker map to provide a visual overview of how the crop was growing and where nitrogen was being used. This has helped with understanding how different soil types perform and allow extraction of nitrogen during a growing season.

• Paddock variance was measured across two paddocks through EM (electromagnetic) surveys. Based on this variance, high and low EM zones were identified.
• Two small plot trials compared nitrogen (N) response in a high and low EM zone of two paddocks sown to Trojan wheat, one in Yarrawonga (sown 22 April) and the other in Dookie (sown 12 May).
• • Both paddocks had high levels of nitrogen available in the soil (120–200kg N/ha 0–60cm) irrespective of zone.
• The largest response to nitrogen (1t/ha) was observed in the high EM zone at Dookie, where the highest levels of available soil nitrogen were recorded (200kg N/ha).
• Dry matter (DM) differences and normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) readings at the Dookie site suggested the crop canopy was responding to applied nitrogen; this indicates the crop did not benefit from the high levels of soil nitrogen present (possibly as a result of later sowing or subsoil constraints).
• At the Yarrawonga site there were no significant indications from NDVI readings that a response to nitrogen fertiliser was likely; this was supported by high grain yields in the nil nitrogen plots (5.8t/ha and 6.4t/ha in the high and low EM zone respectively).
• At the Dookie low EM site, grain protein of 11.9% in the lowest-yielding treatment suggested there was sufficient soil nitrogen available to meet crop yield and protein requirements; this contrasts with in-crop NDVI measurements, which suggested the crop would respond to applied nitrogen.
• At Yarrawonga nitrogen application strategies based on NDVI readings meant nitrogen application was
• delayed until third node (GS33) in the high EM zone, which resulted in only limited uptake. A slightly earlier second node (GS32) application in the low EM zone resulted in an excellent response (0.39t/ha)to the NDVI-based approach.

Key findings:

• This site was fairly unresponsive to nitrogen (N) application. Yield and screenings did not significantly change with increasing rates of N, but there were moderate responses in grain protein to all rates of applied N in all varieties.
• The 40 kg N/ha at sowing + 40 kg N/ha in crop treatment had a significant increase in grain protein above the 40 kg N/ha at sowing only treatment in all varieties, but was not significantly different from the 80 kg N/ha at sowing treatment

Results:

There were moderate responses in grain protein to all rates of applied N in all varieties. The 40 kg N/ha at sowing + 40 kg N/ha in-crop treatment showed a significant increase in grain protein above the 40 kg N/ha at sowing only treatment in all varieties, but was not significantly different from the 80 kg N/ha at sowing treatment. Screening levels were low, with only Dart above 5% in some treatments. Dart, being the quickest variety in this trial, flowered and reached grain filling ahead of the other varieties, most likely causing it to be filling grain and losing green leaf during the hotter and drier part of September. The slower varieties probably benefited more from the late spring rains in this season

Key findings:

• This site was only moderately responsive to nitrogen (N) application. Yield and protein generally increased in all varieties with the 20 kg N/ha and 40 kg N/ha rates. However, yield decreased with higher application rates.
• Protein and screening levels increased with N rates above 40 kg N/ha.
• KioraA produced the highest screening levels. The sowing date of 5 May at Nyngan is probably a bit late for KioraA, which would have exacerbated screenings.
• Varieties with comparatively lower biomass such as DartA, LancerA, SpitfireA and SunmateA maintained higher yield and lower screening levels even with the higher N application rates with a corresponding lower impact on harvest index also observed in these varieties.

Conclusions:

Conditions at sowing were very wet. There was no effective in-crop rainfall after August and combined with temperatures above 35⁰C in September resulted in a hard finish to the season.

This site had a high background starting N level (233 kg N/ha) which was surprising given the history of continuous cropping – 17 years of crop (Wheat 40%, canola 20%, barley 20%, pulse 20%) with additional N (above starter fertiliser application) only applied once in 1999. The lower rates of 20 and 40 kg N/ha gave modest yield increases in most varieties however rates higher than this tended to reduce yield and also caused screenings levels to increase in this trial. Protein levels increased with N application rates of 40 kgN/ha and above as seed size decreased.

Biomass and harvest index data (data not shown) showed that increasing N rate in heavier strawed varieties such as EGA_Gregory, Viking, Kiora produced more dry matter with comparatively less grain yield i.e. lower harvest index.

Farmers in this situation can be confident that since the NDVI and the N sensor measurements complement one another, the low producing areas can be farmed differently to the high producing areas. In order to maximise profits on farm, growers ought to consider varying inputs according to productive potential of their paddocks. Soil types vary considerably throughout the Upper North and can also be quite variable within paddocks. Considerable cost benefits can be made over time by using variable rate technology in paddocks with high variability. While the upfront costs might be large, the investment quickly pays itself off, giving farmers increased confidence in using the technology. Some training is often required when using new monitors and equipment however regular use and familiarity of products improves ease of operation.

• Later applications of nitrogen (GS30 & GS37) were the most profitable with the highest yield and quality, for malt barley in 2010.
• There was no significant differences in yield of varieties between early and later sowings.
• Crop sensors provide a good measure of nitrogen response and can improve nitrogen use efficiency.

Crop growth and yield potential were severely limited by one of the driest seasons on record at this site. Hence, the very poor grain yields and no response to nitrogen applications.

Results are complex and its difficult to separate the effect of waterlogging and crop development stage.
Results not statistically significant but suggest:

• Double application of nitrogen increased the crop yield,
• Potentially there is a benefit in applying nitrogen once waterlogging abating, and
• Quality increased with late application of nitrogen but yield did not increase.

•  Delaying post sowing applications of nitrogen (92 kg/ha N) to the flag leaf stage for both Kellalac and MacKellar at the Gnarwarre site, resulted in the best grain yield and grain quality.
• Application of nitrogen (35 kg/ha N) to barley at the early jointing stage (GS32), gave the best grain yield and quality at Gnarwarre.
• Late nitrogen applications appeared to result in more flower sites (florets) filling with grain for both wheat and barley. 
• For further conclusions please see the attached trial report.

• Early sulphur application supported higher tiller numbers although this did not translate into yield
• Site was very responsive to at least 79kg nitrogen application.
• An additional 50kg urea (23kg N), resulted in slightly higher protein readings.
• Site was unresponsive to sulphur application.
• Timing and splitting of in-crop fertilisation conferred no yield advantage • Good utilisation of applied N and S in spite of high rainfall year.

To manage N2O emissions in low to medium rainfall environments, growers need to match nitrogen supply to crop demand. Lowest emissions were measured where nitrogen levels were least, while highest emissions occurred where nitrogen levels were greatest. Applying late nitrogen to increase wheat protein is not economic when segregation price differentials are small.

• Work conducted in low and medium rainfall environments indicate that N2O emissions are low from an overall national perspective. • Results showed that there was no clear response of N2O emissions to nitrogen applied at sowing and post sowing. • High pre-seeding soil mineral nitrogen raises the possibility of higher N2O losses over the fallow period following significant rainfall.

• Work conducted in low and medium rainfall environments indicate that N2O emissions are low from an overall national perspective. • Results showed that there was no clear response of N2O emissions to nitrogen applied at sowing and post sowing. • High pre-seeding soil mineral nitrogen raises the possibility of higher N2O losses over the fallow period following significant rainfall.

Preliminary results showed the level of nitrous oxide emissions did not increase over the 2013 winter as a result of near capacity soil water contents coupled with increased nitrate nitrogen levels resulting from seeding and in-crop nitrogen applications on the canola compared with a pulse crop and legume pasture.

Preliminary results showed the level of nitrous oxide emissions did not increase over the 2013 winter as a result of near capacity soil water contents coupled with increased nitrate nitrogen levels resulting from seeding and in-crop nitrogen applications on the canola compared with a pulse crop and legume pasture.

• Nitrous oxide (N2O) emission into a closed chamber was found to be linear over our standard closure time of 60 minutes in three of the four chambers tested.
• Beginning N2O sampling at 9:00–9:30 am appeared to underestimate the daily average N2O flux, although there was no significant time effect in the higher emitting treatment. The sampling time was changed for the following season to start at 10:00–10:30 am.
• The average flux from the four manual chamber locations used in the main experiments (irrigated furrow, non-irrigated furrow, fertilised side of plant bed, non-fertilised side of plant bed) were found to give a good approximation of the N2O flux averaged across 12 chambers covering all possible locations in a two metre cross section of the cotton field.
• These tests validated the assumptions made in devising the sampling strategy used in subsequent experiments.
   

• N2O losses appear to be minimal from dryland low to medium rainfall farming systems; peak emissions of only 4.0 gN2O-N/ha/day were measured following rainfall.
• N2O emissions from legume stubble over summer and with synthetic fertiliser applied in-crop were low.
• An increase in soil water was the major driver of N2O emissions.

• N2O losses appear to be minimal from dryland low to medium rainfall farming systems; peak emissions of only 4.0 gN2O-N/ha/day were measured following rainfall.
• N2O emissions from legume stubble over summer and with synthetic fertiliser applied in-crop were low.
• An increase in soil water was the major driver of N2O emissions.

• N2O losses appear to be minimal from dryland low to medium.
• Rainfall farming systems; peak emissions of only 4.0 g N2O-N/ha/day were measured following rainfall.
• N2O emissions from legume stubble over summer and with synthetic fertiliser applied in-crop were low.
• An increase in soil water was the major driver of N2O emissions.

• Chickpea and lupin failed to nodulate without inoculation.
• Inoculation formula had minimal effects on growth and yield of pulses at this site.
• Peat and liquid formulations were consistently reliable inoculants across all pulses based on nodulation and grain yield
• Differences measured in nodulation were not reflected in differences measured in crop growth and grain yield, suggesting soil nitrogen reserves were sufficient to make up most of the crop’s needs.
• Field pea and lentil rhizobia appear more widespread in this environment and better adapted to the acidic soils, while chickpea rhizobia appear less adapted.

• These results must be treated with caution, as one years results can be fairly misleading. When choosing varieties other factors (such as quality) must be taken into account besides yield. Disease resistance is critical and you should always aim to grow a variety with the best resistance you can possibly get for the type of diseases you could reasonably expect to get. 
• For further information about varieties please see the attached trial report.

1. The district practice Baseline system is the most profitable to date. However apart from the 2016 winter crop there is very little difference between the seven grain systems.
2. Water use efficiency is higher for cereals than pulses and is highest in high-yielding crops.
3. Subsoil constraints are limiting PAW extraction by pulse crops.

1. Higher soil fertility was the most profitable and highest yielding system for the 2018 sorghum crop.
2. Higher legume is cumulatively the most profitable system thus far.
3. The Baseline system is falling behind four of the six systems in the trial on most comparisons.

1. Summer break crops reduced levels of cereal soil-borne disease and allowed more even and higher yielding wheat crops in 2018, however they were the least profitable.
2. Root lesion nematodes continued to decline, even under susceptible crops due to the dry growing conditions of 2017 and 2018.
3. Higher nitrogen supply did not increase plant uptake or yield due to low in-crop rainfall, but this extra nitrogen is still available in the soil profile for following crops.

Key findings:

• Faba beans sown to target 20 plants/m2 appears to optimise yield in northern regions of NSW.
• Faba beans sown to target 30 plants/m2 appears to optimise yield in central regions of NSW.
• Faba beans sown to Doza appears more prone to frost damage than either PBA Warda or PBA Nasma get 30 plants/m2 appears to optimise yield in central regions of NSW.

Conclusions:

Limited data from the first year of trial results in 2015 suggests that for northern and western sites, 20 plants/m2 is a preferred target plant density, while in central areas 30 plants/m2 is a better option to achieve optimum yield with faba bean grown under dryland cropping conditions. Large seed does not necessarily confer higher yield, with PBA Nasma out yielding PBA Warda at only one location, Trangie, in 2015. Doza appears more prone to frost damage than either PBA Warda or PBA Nasma. Frost tolerance is a key attribute for the faba bean breeding program in northern NSW, with new releases (particularly PBA Nasma) targeted at having better tolerance than Doza, which was apparent in these trials in 2015.

Harvest contrac prices can be high, and depend on the quality of the windrows.

• Jumpstart seed inoculant did not increase the yield of treated crops in 2009.
• Jumpstart seed inoculant increased the early vigour of the crop.

The main messages from BCG work are presented in this report.

• This preliminary study suggests that both chaff carts and windrow burning removes significant amounts of nutrients from the paddock.  Most of the K left behind in the windrows remains in the paddock.  However, most harvesters now have auto-steer so these nutrients are effectively placed in the same strip each year.  Growers who make windrows and have auto-steer are advised to embark on a program of moving the windrow across approximately 1m each year.  If they do not move the header each year then all of the K is placed in the same strip each year which is essentially lost from the system which is a big cost to the grower (Table 3).
• While the Harrington Seed Destructor (HSD) may be more capital intensive and more costly to run than a chaff cart or windrow burning, all of the nutrients contained in crop residue remain in the paddock.  The true cost of all systems should be considered when deciding which method of harvest weed seed management to adopt.  For a header harvesting 3000ha at an average yield of 3 t/ha the cost of the three systems is similar (assuming the header moves across 1m each year when making windrows) (Table 3).  For a smaller area of crop the relative cost of the destructor and chaff cart increase due to the capital cost being spread over a smaller area. 

• Conventional tillage enhances soil organic carbon (SOC) turnover with the potential to simultaneously increase plant available nutrients [nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S)] in the soil compared with no-till and perennial pasture.
• Across farming management practices and under ideal soil moisture, soil organic matter (SOM) could have supplied up to 45 kg N, 16 kg P and 19 kg S/ha in the absence of plant carbon (C) input.
• Over a longer period (126 days), particularly if there is a lack of plant C input (e.g. a normal fallow period), any P or S released via native SOM turnover over a shorter period (e.g. over 30 days) would have been immobilised by microorganisms and/or adsorbed to soil minerals, hence decreasing P and S availability for crop uptake

• Grain sorghum is the staple food of lowland farmers in semi-arid tropical areas of Africa and Asia, but crop yields are commonly less than 30% of those in developed countries.
• Nutritional disorders frequently diminish yields because grain sorghum is grown in areas with impoverished soils and little fertiliser.
• This handbook describes a range of micronutrients deficiencies and toxicities of grain sorghum, drawn from field work in India and glasshouse trails in Queensland.
• The most common nutritional disorders observed in sorghum growing on alkaline soils are deficiencies of iron, zinc, and manganese.
• The major nutritional problems for sorghum growing on acid soils are toxicities of aluminium, iron, and manganese, and deficiencies of phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, molybdenum, and zinc.

There may be an opportunity to enhance phosphorus uptake in wheat following an albus lupin crop.

• Seasonal conditions of 2003 limited the yield of pulse crops, with the average yield below 0.5 t/ha.
• The highest yielding pulse crop was Field Peas. Vetch was the lowest yielding crop.
• The highest yielding variety was Dundale field peas, whilst Excel field peas were the lowest yielding variety.

• Seeding date had a greater influence on oat grain yield, oat grain quality and return per hectare ($/ha) than variety selection or seed rate in 2015.
• Delaying seeding from early May to early June reduced grain yield by 32% and return per hectare by 45%.
• In lower rainfall environments Bannister is a better option than Carrolup, Williams and Yallara.
• When released, WA02Q302-9 will be a useful oat variety in situations where low hectolitre weight is consistently a problem or with later seeding opportunities.
• Maximum return per hectare was achieved between a target density of 100 to 200 plants/m2, which is in line with the suggested target density for grain oats in low rainfall areas of 160 plants/m2.
• The return per hectare of Bannister oat was maximised at a higher density than for Carrolup, WA02Q302-9, Williams and Yallara, suggesting Bannister should be sown at a higher target density than those varieties. This is a preliminary observation and more research is needed to confirm the optimum target density for the new milling oat varieties.

• Time of sowing had a greater influence on oat grain and hay yield, and oat grain quality than variety selection or level of applied nitrogen in 2015.
• High screenings limited the ability of grain to meet Oat1 quality standards, this was due to the detrimental impact of delayed seeding and/or applied nitrogen in excess of that required in lower rainfall environments.
• Applying more than 20 kg N/ha did not improve the return per hectare ($/ha); rather, applying 80 kg N/ha consistently reduced return per hectare ($/ha).
• Screening of Williams and Carrolup were more sensitive to applied nitrogen than WA02Q302-9, Bannister and Yallara.
• WA02Q302-9 appears a suitable replacement for Yallara and Carrolup, and should achieve a better hectolitre weight than Bannister at similar or lower yields.

• Bogong has been the highest yielding triticale variety over the past few years
• Mitika, Possum and Potoroo have been high yielding oat varieties, Wandering produced high yields in 2009 but has some disease issues that may affect yield in other years.

When making oat varietal decisions, it is important to consider various factors. These include the environmental suitability, end use (milling, feed grain, grain and graze or hay production) and likelihood that the required grade/quality will be achieved, potential disease issues (both root and foliar leaf diseases) and yield potential.

When making varietal decisions with oats, need to take into account various factors, including the environmental suitability, end use (milling, feed grain, grain and graze or hay production) and likelihood that the required grade/quality will be achieved, potential disease issues (both root disease and foliar leaf diseases) and yield potential.

In a year with an outlook of a dry finish and lack of grain fill due to limited moisture, high temperatures or frost, the ability to take advantage of early crop growth through oaten hay is a reasonable risk management tool to consider.

Oaten hay production is an opportunity to intensify the cereal proportion of a cropping rotation without increasing root disease burdens provided a CCN resistant variety is grown. With current prices of $120-140/t oaten hay production is a viable option.

• Newer milling varieties Bannister and Williams provide a unique fit in the system, having hay yields similar to those of conventional hay varieties, while providing high yielding milling quality grain.
• Hay quality was measured at Frances, and although there was no significant difference in hay production (t/ha) between varieties, there was a significant difference in hay quality.
• NVT site mean yields were well below average, and so long-term predicted yields along with disease profiles should be utilised when making varietal decisions.

• One of the greatest risks of the deep cultivation techniques is wind erosion as a result of the burial and removal of all surface cover. In 2011 strong post-seeding wind events in mid-June resulted in significant wind erosion and sand blasting of young crop seedlings. 
• The wind erosion and sand blasting of the seedlings was a significant setback for the crop and would be partly responsible for the relatively low yields at the site. 
• Grain yields at the site ranged from 1.3 to 1.8 t/ha.
• For further results please see the attached trial report.

• For the fourth year running, on-row sowing proved it has potential as a brome management tool on non-wetting sands, reducing brome grass seed set by 55%.
• The use of trifluralin with metribuzin reduced the brome density in July but did not reduce seed set.
• On-row sowing resulted in more soil water and nitrogen supply potential near the crop,  improved crop establishment and higher crop biomass.
• On-row sowing did increase root disease incidence, but there were low levels of disease for both on- and inter-row sowing in 2017.

All tillage treatments had a little effect on the management of SWR and plant establishment in the severe water repellent gravel sand at Moora. Nevertheless, yield improvements were recorded, in particular with the “Large offsets” and the “Modified one-way with standard discs” treatments.

At this stage, it is not possible to clearly state what changes drove the yield increase. Given the little effect that the cultivations had on the SWR it is possible that improved soil structure, increased nutrient availability and nitrogen mineralisation may have played a role on the increased productivity.

The yield potential of the canola crop in 2015 was low given it was sown relatively late, plant numbers were low and there was a dry finish, this may have compromised the response to the tillage treatments. Observation of the trial in the following growing seasons and the response of a cereal crop in 2016 will help us to better understand the long term effect of the treatments on crop growth.

On deep sandy profiles subsoil compaction and acidity are major constraints. At this site the limited cropping history resulted in an expectation that the site would not be compacted but compaction was severe, indicating how susceptible these pale sands can be to compaction. For many deep sands, liming followed by deep ripping with topsoil slotting may be one of the most economical ways of effectively overcoming subsoil compaction and acidity to depths of 40-60cm.

On severely repellent sands however, it may be that deep ripping alone is inadequate and options which overcome the repellence and assist with weed control while at the same time addressing subsoil compaction and acidity may be required to get sustained productivity benefits (Davies et. al. 2017). The impact of deep ripping on highly repellent soils is variable with anecdotal reports that ripping can sometimes worsen the expression of repellence and result in poorer crop establishment. Other reports indicate substantial productivity gains can also be achieved (Blackwell et. al. 2016). Deep ripping may help overcome soil water repellence by: 1) creating a rougher soil surface allowing water to pond and infiltrate over time; 2) loosening the dry topsoil making it a more effective mulch, reducing soil moisture loss from the subsurface soil; 3) delving some seams of subsoil to the surface which act as pathways for water entry, with some ripper tine designs and attachments facilitating this more than others. Conversely the negative effects of deep ripping can include: 1) enhanced drying of the repellent topsoil from the loosening action; 2) increased expression of the water repellence when the soil is ripped when it is quite dry. Repellence severity, or expression, is increased with these negative effects which was the case for this site. For other sites where repellence is more moderate any benefits of deep ripping may outweigh the negative impacts. The mixed effects of deep ripping on repellent soils needs further research to be better understood. It is likely that rippers with C-shaped or parabolic shaped tines with broader points and wider ‘face’ plates will achieve more subsoil delving into the topsoil. Some rippers can also be fitted with wings which can also increase the degree of soil mixing. A greater degree of subsoil delving could result in development of more effective infiltration paths and longer lasting reductions in topsoil water repellence.

In this study rotary spading and modified one-way ploughing were effective in improving water infiltration on severely repellent sand even if they did not remove the deeper compaction. Second-hand one-way disc ploughs have a relatively low capital and operating cost (Table 1) and are relatively cheap to modify into a simple but robust tool for partial soil inversion (Davies et. al. 2016), although good seed bed preparation is still essential.

• Onion weed is a significant pest and competitor of medic pastures. In mixed farming systems, control in the pasture phase is often reliant on cultivation.
• None of the herbicides evaluated in this trial provided adequate onion weed control in the medic pasture phase without unacceptable reduction in medic biomass.
• The use of non-selective herbicides and their mixes, combined with strategic cultivation if required, is still the most effective short term strategy in reducing the impact of onion weed on crop/pasture systems on Eyre Peninsula (EP).

The response to nitrogen in these trials should encourge the application of urea for wheat crops in these regions when the deep soil N test shows that the soil is low in available N prior to sowing in relation to the target yield set for the crop.

Opportunistic summer cropping can make use of summer rainfall that may otherwise be lost to evaporation.

In this instance the opportunistic crop of canola in 2011 has proven the more successful rotation. At the beginning of the season, given the rainfall during harvest, the soil had comparable moisture at depth irrespective of the crop in 2011. The weed break given by the canola was significant, very few grass weeds coming through in old canola plots. The management of weeds proved telling in this trial. Much of the potential wheat yield was removed by the brome grass in the wheat on wheat plots.

Wheat on wheat this season achieved approximately 16kg/mm of rainfall. Wheat growing without the competition of weeds on the canola plots achieved in excess of 19kg/mm. Making crude assumptions that wheat on fallow grew at 19kg/mm, and the additional 400kg/ha yield was the result of additional moisture alone, then there was approximately 21mm of additional moisture in the fallow plots. Fallow had more moisture available closer to the surface than the other plots though not significantly more moisture throughout the remainder of the profile.

In 2012 wheat on fallow plots returned $100 more than wheat grown on either wheat or canola residue. This recouped the $40 loss from the 2011 fallow with additional profit. But fallow did not result in the greatest total profit over the two seasons of the trial. The extra production on the fallowed treatments was unable to make up the opportunity cost of not growing a crop in 2011. This is not unexpected given the high crop yields achieved in 2011.

In this instance the opportunistic crop of canola in 2011 has proven the more successful rotation. At the beginning of the season, given the rainfall during harvest, the soil had comparable moisture at depth irrespective of the crop in 2011. The weed break given by the canola was significant, very few grass weeds coming through in old canola plots. The management of weeds proved telling in this trial. Much of the potential wheat yield was removed by the brome grass in the wheat on wheat plots.

Wheat on wheat this season achieved approximately 16kg/mm of rainfall. Wheat growing without the competition of weeds on the canola plots achieved in excess of 19kg/mm. Making crude assumptions that wheat on fallow grew at 19kg/mm, and the additional 400kg/ha yield was the result of additional moisture alone, then there was approximately 21mm of additional moisture in the fallow plots. Fallow had more moisture available closer to the surface than the other plots though not significantly more moisture throughout the remainder of the profile.

In 2012 wheat on fallow plots returned $100 more than wheat grown on either wheat or canola residue. This recouped the $40 loss from the 2011 fallow with additional profit. But fallow did not result in the greatest total profit over the two seasons of the trial. The extra production on the fallowed treatments was unable to make up the opportunity cost of not growing a crop in 2011. This is not unexpected given the high crop yields achieved in 2011.

• Continuous cropping can be sustained for decades, but requires careful management.
• A larger proportion of N supply as fertiliser will be required over time even when grain legumes are included in crop sequences.
• Herbicide resistance develops faster under continuous cropping. Integrated management to keep key weed populations at very low levels is essential for long-term viability.
• Suitably diverse crop and end-use portfolios and flexible management help build resilience to climate and crop price shocks.

• Crop establishment, biomass, yield and harvest index of wheat was largely unaffected by break crop rotation from the previous two seasons.
• Wheat yield was above district average for both the light and heavy soil site which was not expected on the average decile 4 rainfall.
• Grain produced from wheat following a pulse-canola rotation had higher protein content compared to the canola-chickpea rotation.

There was no response to fungicide in this trial and few significant effects on grain quality. Disease levels were extremely low and a stem green area score at senescence revealed no consistent preservation of green tissue with the use of fungicides.

Again the majority of individual treatment responses to fungicide are positive but not statistically significant, indicating that there is a
trend but it is small. Barley however, poses a dilemma in that the single spray options early and late do not optimise performance against early Scald and late leaf rust infection, as such it is difficult to avoid spraying twice if both diseases pose a threat. In addition, if the rate of both sprays are cut to a bare minimum the results are inferior in terms of disease control. Triazoles are generally not as effective against Scald and diseases such net blotch, by comparison to the rusts.

Last season there were small yield increases of 6% to the Folicur treatment at GS39, with no benefit of the split application over the single dose. However though positive, these yield effects were not significantly different to the untreated. Strobilurins created no positive effects other than at the very highest rate and again these were not significant.Other than keeping a watching brief for the further spread of stripe and leaf rust strains affecting Mackellar, it does not appear to be a candidate for fungicide input.

Fungicides were cost effective provided the cost of the products were kept to a minimum. 

• Standard inoculation practices are unlikely to deliver satisfactory nodulation where pulses are sown into dry soils.
• Pea and chickpea sown late (26 June) had the higher nodulation and crop production than those sown dry. Where the soil remained dry for 20 days after sowing nodulation was poor, regardless of the inoculation strategy used.
• Nodulation of pea was low regardless of sowing time at Minnipa in 2018. Both peat applied to seed and granule formulations resulted in similar nodule numbers per plant.
• Nodulation can be improved when dry sowing if inoculation rate of peat is increased. Doubling the rate of inoculation significantly improved pea nodulation. 
• The performance the rhizobial granules was inconsistent. A granule produced at SARDI was more effective in one experiment, but not the other. Two commercial granules provided no advantage compared to peat applied to seed.

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.

• Phosphorus response trials were undertaken on barley, wheat, canola, lentils, faba beans and field peas at four sites across the Wimmera and Mallee over the past three seasons.
• There was no consistent response to the rate of phosphorus applied in wheat, barley, canola, lentils and field peas on sites that had a good fertiliser history (a positive P balance) and good P fertility (Colwell P of 15ppm or more). Faba beans were the exception responding to higher rates of phosphorus (up to 18 kg P/ha) – this was a consistent result over the 2000 and 2001 seasons.
• At the Donald sites, phosphorus rate significantly increased yield. This result was not unexpected as the trials were typically located on soils that were low in fertility (Colwell P <12ppm) and acidic (pH BBwaterB = 6.3).
• Reducing phosphorus inputs to between 6 and 12 kg P/ha will not compromise short-term soil fertility and crop production on sites with good fertiliser history and soil P fertility but further research needs to be conducted investigating the long-term implications of this strategy.