• In the presence of disease, fungicide application increased grain yield (kg/ha).

• Grain quality improved with fungicide application.

• In conjunction with a fungicide management strategy, growers should aim to select resistant barley varieties, using up-to-date disease guides for varietal choice.

• Applying Insecticide Seed Treatments to the Wheat variety Brennan showed a significant increase in yield compared to the untreated control in 2011.
• There was a yield response to using Cruiser Opti however was not significantly different to other insecticide seed treatments in 2011
• The use of Ambush did show a yield response but was not significantly different from other seed applied Insecticide. Treatments and would not be economical or practical for commercial farming operations.
• Aphid and Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus Management Starts from Day Zero.

• It was cost effective to apply an insecticide for the control of BYDV in wheat.
• The best treatment was the split application of insecticide at approximately 4 weeks and 10 weeks post sowing.
• Chara was a superior variety to Kellalac for yield at the Gnarwarre site. 
   

An extremely highl level of barley yellow dwarf disease was recorded in Victorian cereal crops in 2013; 40-70 per cent infection.

A high number of aphids flying into crops from neighbouring vegetation reduced the effectiveness of the insecticides.

Regular crop monitoring is essential to maximise yield while minimising the effects of aphids and BYD spread.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

All labs had their results back to us within a two-week period, which is highly desirable. We have had numerous comments over the years of extremely long turn around times experienced – this test has highlighted that it can be done within an acceptable time.

• Increasing plant density resulted in increased plant height, pod height and subsequent yield. 
• Early sowing resulted in an increase in bottom pod height and total plant height, however the plants were more liekly to lodge. 

• The Middle East human consumption market prefers Australian faba beans, but competition from France and the UK for market share occurs.   
• For further information: Variety Management Packages (VMP) for all varieties, except Aquadulce, are available on the Pulse Australia Website http://www.pulseaus.com.au/Search_Result_ Publication.aspx 

• NVT yields ranged from 0.39 t/ha at Wolseley to 2.70 t/ha at Millicent.
• New PBA Zahra was the highest performing variety in the high yielding environment of Millicent and has the highest long-term yield for the south east region.
• 2015 seed sizes are smaller than previous years; need to adjust seeding rates in 2016 accordingly to avoid excessively high plant densities.
• Disease guides should be consulted when selecting varieties to ensure correct management to maximize yields.

• Water use can be estimated easily with the (IrriSAT 2017) app.
• First flower, cut out and defoliation can be predicted.
• Cotton water productivity could be up to six bales per hectare below its potential.

• The Minnipa self replacing merino flock is being included in the national “Sheep Genetics” database with the aim to provide Eyre Peninsula sheep producers with a benchmark to judge their flock performance at a national level.

• Irrigation resulted in a 60% and 400% increase in grain yield for broad beans and marrowfat peas respectively.
• Irrigation resulted in a 17% and 3% increase in seed size in broad beans and marrowfat peas respectively. This is critical in producing for markets requiring large seed size.
• It is likely that the dry finish to the season (decile 1) enhanced the positive effects of irrigation particularly for the marrowfat peas and other spring sown crops.
• In addition to the capacity to irrigate and a cool seasonal finish, Tasmania has other advantages in marrowfat pea production that can be capitalised upon ie - excellent adaptation of overseas spring germplasm and freedom from pea weevil.

• Crop germination was poor on the mouldboard plots and compaction is still a big issue on these plots.
• Bentonite clay has shown no effect on organic carbon %.

 

• The treatment plots with low or no potassium were observed to have less vigour (visual assessment) and plant density from emergence.
• High potassium treatments had lower screenings and higher yields independent of the rate of nitrogen applied.

 

• This site was unresponsive to nutrient treatments in 2017
• Treatments were adjusted to reflect grower standard practice due to drier than normal conditions at the beginning of winter.

 

• Wheat yields were low, around 1 t/ha, as a result of low growing season rainfall in 2017.
• Treatments were adjusted to reflect standard grower practice due to drier than normal conditions at the beginning of winter.
• This site was unresponsive to nutrition treatments in 2017.

 

• The Mooneys Gap phalaris site has shown that productive perennial grass and sub clover pastures can double the carrying capacity of a paddock when compared to a rundown annual pasture. The Mooneys Gap phalaris pasture has had an average increase in carrying capacity of 157% compared to the control annual pasture over the three years of the trial.
• The introduction of deep rooted perennial pastures has environmental as well as production benefits. Perennial pastures are more efficient users of water as they are able to access available moisture at deeper levels and for longer periods than annuals and therefore assist in lowering water recharge reducing the risk of salinity. Perennials slow the soil acidification rate by the increasing nitrogen uptake thereby reducing nitrate leaching. Well managed phalaris pastures maintain a level of ground cover well in excess of annual grass based pastures reducing the risk of wind and surface water erosion. The Mooneys Gap phalaris site clearly demonstrates the enhanced environmental outcomes that come with well managed perennial pastures.
• Soil testing is important to test for nutrient deficiencies and pH prior to phalaris establishment. Adequate lime and fertiliser should be applied to address deficiencies prior to establishment. Particular attention must be paid to ensuring that aluminium levels are suitable for phalaris production prior to sowing.
• Weed control is of critical importance before and during the establishment phase of phalaris pastures. Periodic annual weed control measures enhance the production of phalaris based pastures after establishment.
• A suitable fertiliser regime needs to be implemented to replace nutrients removed by the enhanced production of the phalaris based pasture.
• Rotational grazing increases the persistence of the phalaris pasture.
• The addition of phalaris pastures extends the period of available green feed when compared to an annual grass system.
• The recent availability of the Holdfast GT Phalaris variety is an important addition to the perennial grasses that can be established in the region.
• The claims that Holdfast GT will persist as well as Australian phalaris have not been tested due to the time required to obtain results from a new variety.
• PPS will continue to test the persistence of Holdfast GT in the PDS trials as well as other pastures in the project.

This research highlights how important a tactical approach to STNB management is in the medium rainfall zone.  In dry seasons there is lower disease pressure, resulting in a potentially expensive fungicide strategy which can be marginal in returns.  Conversely, where there is high disease pressure usually from wet conditions early in the season, then a double spray strategy can improve grain quality, yield and returns to the grower.

Where growing barley on barley, growers should budget for a fungicide spray at Flag-1 every year to protect the top 3 leaves in the canopy.  Where conditions are wet early post emergent (especially if stubble is retained) allowing early disease pressure and high yield potential then a fungicide spray at Z31-Z32 can reduce disease pressure and protect the canopy until the Flag-1 spray is applied.

Under high disease pressure situations (wet conditions early post emergent) removing stubble prior to sowing barley on barley can reduce inoculum levels and the build up of early disease pressure.  This will also help to reduce the selection pressure for fungicide resistance.

Where there is a dry start to the season and a slow build up of disease then stubble management has minimal impact on the buildup of STNB levels.

Burning barley stubble prior to planting barley on barley has shown to increase yield buy between 325 and 400kg in 2017 and 2015. While removing stubble can reduce early disease pressure, not all the yield increase can be accounted for by disease.  Other factors are involved that may require additional work to understand (N mineralization, allelopathic impacts of stubble or improved seed bed).  Where erosion risk is low growers should consider burning to remove barley stubble if planting consecutive barley crops.

We feel that there is no further work required to investigate the hypothesized link between STNB levels and pre-harvest head loss.

Growers, advisors and the wider barley industry are the key beneficiaries of this research.  Being able to manage disease to maintain grain quality, yield and economic returns to the grower is critical for a competitive barley industry.

This research highlights how important a tactical approach to STNB management is in the medium rainfall zone.  In dry seasons there is lower disease pressure, resulting in a potentially expensive fungicide strategy which can be marginal in returns.  Conversely, where there is high disease pressure usually from wet conditions early in the season, then a double spray strategy can improve grain quality, yield and returns to the grower.

Where growing barley on barley, growers should budget for a fungicide spray at Flag-1 every year to protect the top 3 leaves in the canopy.  Where conditions are wet early post emergent (especially if stubble is retained) allowing early disease pressure and high yield potential then a fungicide spray at Z31-Z32 can reduce disease pressure and protect the canopy until the Flag-1 spray is applied.

Under high disease pressure situations (wet conditions early post emergent) removing stubble prior to sowing barley on barley can reduce inoculum levels and the build up of early disease pressure.  This will also help to reduce the selection pressure for fungicide resistance.

Where there is a dry start to the season and a slow build up of disease then stubble management has minimal impact on the buildup of STNB levels.

Burning barley stubble prior to planting barley on barley has shown to increase yield buy between 325 and 400kg in 2017 and 2015. While removing stubble can reduce early disease pressure, not all the yield increase can be accounted for by disease.  Other factors are involved that may require additional work to understand (N mineralization, allelopathic impacts of stubble or improved seed bed).  Where erosion risk is low growers should consider burning to remove barley stubble if planting consecutive barley crops.

We feel that there is no further work required to investigate the hypothesized link between STNB levels and pre-harvest head loss.

Growers, advisors and the wider barley industry are the key beneficiaries of this research.  Being able to manage disease to maintain grain quality, yield and economic returns to the grower is critical for a competitive barley industry.

• The average yield response to TM21 for the three replications was 26%.
• Yield response from N application also recorded a significant yield increase between 7.5% and 35% but the cost benefit was significantly more for the TM21.
• The highest rate of N without TM21 gave a lower yield response than the TM21 without N. The above graph shows the comparative return from the treatments of urea and TM21. It should be noted that this paddock has a very soft history having only grown oats as a crop prior to this year’s wheat. It has rarely been treated with fungicides or harsh chemicals.
• Worm activity was obvious throughout the trial area with higher worm counts in the treated areas.

• Widening row spacing reduced established plants per area for a given seeding rate.
• At a yield of 1.5 t/ha there was no yield difference between 19 and 42 plants/m2 or between 18 and 30 cm row spacing in 2008 • At a yield of 0.44 t/ha the low plant population (28/m2) yielded best in 2009
• In the Victorian Better Canola trial farmer-saved hybrid seed reduced crop uniformity (variable plant height), delayed maturity and increased blackleg infection

• We have identified a small group of material with excellent agronomic performance exceeding our benchmark strand medic cultivars, Herald and Angel, by up to and over 30% for dry matter production and seed yield.
• The lines are bred from a cross between Angel strand medic and a line originally selected for powdery mildew resistance. They also have SU herbicide tolerance, aphid resistance and larger seed size.
• If the level of agronomic improvement can be confirmed at regenerating sites, there are good prospects for a future commercial release.
• Unexpected responses to Rhizobium inoculation confirm some grower observations of poor medic nodulation in the Mallee, but the reasons for this remain unclear.
• Root lesion nematode number was substantially reduced following a season of medic growth.

• Rhizoctonia solani AG8 inoculum levels were reduced over summer and this may be associated with summer rainfall events.
• Crop rotation does affect Rhizoctonia inoculum levels, i.e. levels were lowest immediately after canola compared to that after wheat.
• The incidence and severity of Rhizoctonia bare patch disease in cereals depend on the amount of pathogen inoculum, soil microbial community activity and crop/root vigour.
• Seed treatments did not reduce rhizoctonia levels in 2009 trials undertaken on EP and the Mallee.
• To reduce risk of yield loss caused by Rhizoctonia:

Control summer weeds to stop build-up of inoculum,

Encourage early seedling vigour, sow early,

Cultivate deep sow shallow (avoid disc seeders).

• Canola can help reduce inoculum for the following wheat crop.
• Barley and wheat are the most intolerant crops.
• Minimise N deficiency at seeding, particularly for cereal on cereal rotations where summer rainfall has been low, by deep banding N and minimising stubble incorporation at seeding.

Intensive cropping systems rely on a high level of production management and prudent financial mangment to be successful, particularly in such a variable climate. Furthermore, such systems are increasingly reliant on agricultural chemicals. As well as being costly, the flow on effects of this reliance such as herbicide resistant weeds and changes to pest populations invokes thoughts about the long term environmental and financial sustainability of such a system.

• A study was made of various factors influencing the microbiological assay of available iron, zinc, copper, manganese, and molybdenum.
• Aspergillus niger was the test organism.
• The availability of 15 micronutrients was determined by bioassay from 278 surface and 164 subsoil samples from eastern Australia.
• The commonest deficiency detected was that of zinc, followed by copper, then by molybdenum, but deficiencies of iron and manganese were rarely found. Usually surface soils with a well-developed root zone were less deficient than subsoil.
• There was a fair correlation between the availability of zinc, copper, and molybdenum to A. niger (M.) and availability to plants, but none for iron and manganese • The fungus was able to obtain adequate amounts of micronutrients from a variety of insoluble salts or oxides of iron, zinc, copper, manganese, and molybdenum, some of which were known to be unavailable to plants .
• A number of soils inhibited the growth of the mould in complete medium. This effect was due to active fixation of added micronutrients, especially in soils rich in calcium carbonate and in "red loams".
• No evidence was obtained that microbial fixation of trace elements occurred in deficient soils; but most major and minor elements were fixed by microorganisms in very deficient, acid-washed, quartz crystals, with the exception of calcium, which was not significantly affected, and of iron and zinc, which were released by microbial activity from the minute amounts of contaminants present.

The trial was dogged by non-wetting and kangaroo grazing problems and so the bioassay of the residual effect of the original source of P treatments was poor..

Recoveries of applied phosphorus in the surface layers was poorest for the water soluble, plant available source superphosphate which had large leaching losses below 50 cm.  the less immediately available but citrate soluble source retained more P in the surface layers while the very insoluble C ore source produced poor growth but had only very low P leaching to depth.  The compromise in choice of source, between plant availability and leaching into the ground water and subsequently the waterways, is  well illustrated by this trial

As a rule, soil fertility factors (non-wetting, organic carbon, CEC, soil organic nitrogen, acidification etc were all more affected by length of pasture ley than by pasture composition and cumulated production.  Cross plot transfer of surface soil may well have affected this finding..

• Plant density counts were estimated on the 3rd August 2012 by counting 8 x 1 metre rows along each treatment.
• The treatment without Bio Char, there were counted 126 plants per square metre
• Where Bio Char was applied, there were 130 plants per square metre. 
• There were no replications of the treatment applied, so it is difficult to conclude if biochar application was beneficial in plant establishment.
• Subsequent visual observations and ratings were done on the 25th September 2012 with no difference noticeable.  The inherent variation across the site mad it difficult to gain adequate measurements at this site.
• We were not able to detect any difference in grain yield between untreated (nil) and the biochar plot.

The laboratory results suggest that the inoculum load of the crown rot pathogen, which is normally stubble-borne, may be significantly reduced in the soil within 3-6 months of application of the control fungus to the stubble.

The West Midlands site had an average yielding year for the Moora area. The Liebe Long Term Research Site had a good growing season in terms of rainfall and seasonal distribution. The average yield was about 50% higher than previous wheat trial years. This was similar to Forrestdale which also had good rainfall and seasonal distribution.

On average, all Bioprime treatments combined resulted in a 4% yield increase. Treatment 2 (foliar Bioprime and granular fertiliser) performed best, achieving a 10% yield increase averaged across the three sites). At the WMG site, five Bioprime treatments resulted in positive yield responses whereas this number was lower at the Liebe site (2 treatments). With data corrected for outliers, all Bioprime treatments resulted in a positive yield response. Given that the Liebe site, relative to the WMG site had a higher soil pH, and higher pre-seeding phosphate and exchangeable cations concentrations (Table 2), an average higher yield was expected and achieved here compared to the WMG (3.36 t/ha and 2.15 t/ha, respectively in unamended control treatments). Thus, the higher soil quality and soil health present at the Liebe site combined with the good 2016 season in terms of rainfall likely narrowed the yield gap.

As such any management options aiming to close the gap between actual and potential yield, would have had less scope to achieve this at the Liebe site in 2016. In contrast, the lower soil fertility at the WMG allowed Bioprime to more consistently improve crop production. The 2016 data suggest the opportunity to improve yield on a poor soil in a poor year is greater than on good soil in a good year.

Ongoing research will continue to further develop Bioprime technology as a tool to improve soil biology and maintain plant health and yield. There is a substantial database of microbiological and yield results which continues to expand with the expectation of understanding the links between root and plant colonization by beneficial bacteria and fungi with Bioprime application and growth improvements.

• Where blackleg disease pressure is low, fungicide application is not necessary.
• The greater the amount of canola grown, the more likely is an infestation of blackleg.
• Consequently, in 2012, blackleg disease pressure may increase in the Wimmera and Mallee.
• A buffer of 500m from the previous year’s canola stubble is desirable when selecting canola paddocks.
• Growers should utilise the “Blackleg Risk Assessor” and the current “Blackleg Ratings” on the GRDC website.

• Blackleg internal infection was found in many varieties inclding some varieties that had higher levels than would be expected. 
• Due to teh good winter and spring, the level of yield loss as a certain level of internal infection was much lower than measured in 2008.
• Farmers need to cut canola stems at windrowing time to assess the level of blackleg. 

• WA2211 had lower disease severity and slower build up of blackspot than Kaspa and Alma,
  however this was not reflected in final grain yield due to dry spring seasonal conditions.
• P-Pickel T slows the blackspot epidemic during the early stages of the crop growth. The effect of P-Pickel T wears off and disease levels are no different to untreated controls beyond 12 weeks after sowing.
• The blackspot epidemic spreads further in the crop during flowering and podding, by spore
  splash (demonstrated by trap plants placed at Kingsford trial). Fungicide sprays at this stage, to stop the infection on upper foliage and stems, may be beneficial in higher rainfall regions. This needs to be tested in trials by timing spraying with spore release.
• Concept trial methodology was successfully developed to assess wether field pea lines with
  improved blackspot resistance levels can be sown at earlier sowing dates than currently
  recommended. However further evaluation is required on WA2211 to assess wether its black spot resistance improvement is significant enough due to the dry seasonal conditions which prevailed in 2007 . This will occur again in 2008.
• The importance of an additive effect of varietal improvement, seed dressing and foliar sprays in allowing earlier sowing is not fully understood and requires further evaluation in a year more favourable for disease infection and spread.

• Early sowing plus large numbers of airborne spores caused severe blackspot infection in pea crops in 2009.
• Winter and spring rain increased severity of blackspot in the pea crops.
• Airborne blackspot spore numbers are expected to be high in 2010 since pea stubbles have severe disease loads.

• Acidic soil layers below 5 cm adversely affect root growth and architecture, nodulation, plant vigour, N2
fixation and yield potential of acid-sensitive pulses.
• Moderately (pHCa 4.6–5.0) and severely (pHCa <4.5) acidic layers in the 5–20 cm soil profile are not detected using soil samples collected over standard profile depths of 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm.
• Finer sampling at 5 cm intervals is recommended to detect pH stratification.
• The current standard industry practice of spreading lime with no incorporation and sowing with knife point press wheels or disc seeders confines the lime effect to the surface layers.
• Careful paddock selection and forward planning is required to correct pH stratification in the topsoil (0–10 cm).
• Lime application and incorporation with a full cultivation operation at least 6–12 months before sowing acid-sensitive species could be necessary.
• Appropriate lime rates should be used to ensure pHCa >5.5 in the entire top 10 cm layer.
• The effect of pH stratification on more acid-tolerant species, including canola, lucerne and cereals, should also be monitored.

• Application of nitrogen based fertilisers will increase both feed quality and quantity.
• There is limited evidence of any nitrate leaching occurring.
• Encouraging responses from the slow release forms of Nitrogen – if a commercially form becomes available it may be worth considering – depending on price.
• Most economical responses come from urea @25 and 50 kgN/ha.

Green manuring canola or mustard has not been proven to be beneficial following wheat crops in the southern Mallee.

• Brassica juncea has the potential to be grown on a substantial area of low rainfall cropping country in South Australia with a likely area of up to 165,000 ha per year.
• Production may be expected to vary from year to year based on the timing of the seasonal break.
• Previous trials have shown that under low yield conditions, B. juncea can produce higher grain yields than canola.
• In the past two years with mild, wet conditions canola has performed relatively better than B. juncea.
• We are starting to see more blackleg occurring in low rainfall regions as the area sown to canola increases. It is not yet enough to cause problems but we need to keep our eye on it.
• Even more canola varieties have been released that may be good options in low rainfall areas.

Wheat yields were highest when grown after chickpeas or lupins at both low and moderate phosphorus (P) sites. Benefits provided by the previous chickpea or lupin crops could not be attributed to an increase in residual P sources alone.

From the sequences gathered from the survey group, 70% of the hectares planted were to cereals, with the balance to break phases. This appears to be a little higher than the average at around 60% to cereals. All growers surveyed noted flexibility as important to each rotation. Meaning longer sequences were often subject to change. Rotational changes are predominantly driven by weeds burdens and seeding conditions/seasonal outlook.  
 

• Two Clearfield varieties, Pioneer 44Y84 and Pioneer 45Y82, exceeded 2.5 t/ha at Mt Cooper.
• There were no standout varieties in the Triazine Tolerant (TT) and Conventional canola varieties at both Minnipa and Mt Cooper.
• Juncea canola and Biodiesel canola produced lower yields than in the past compared to traditional napus canola due to above average rainfall year.
• No significant difference between the newly released pea lines at Mount Cooper.
• Break crops were successfully grown at Penong in 2010.

• Wheat grain yield can be expected to be reduced by around 0.5 t/ha for every tonne of in-crop grass weed dry matter present in spring.
• Wheat following break crops were consistently more profitable than wheat on wheat. This in part reflected the  relatively low wheat grain prices experienced during experimentation, and the high returns for canola, but was also related to the efficacy and costs of ryegrass control.
• Growing pulses for brown manure (Bm) lost money in the year that they were grown, but achieved excellent weed control, provided high inputs of N and a residual carry-over of soil water, and more ground cover than if they had been cut for hay.
• In the presence of a high density of herbicide resistant ryegrass a ‘single break’ was not adequate to reduce weed seedbanks and subsequent in-crop weed competition. ‘Double breaks’ (two broad leaf break crops, or break crop - cereal hay sequence) reduced ryegrass seedbank numbers to manageable levels and were amongst the most profitable sequences.
• Break crop choice and selection should be based on individual farm management and ability to manage the various break crops options in the rotation. If growers remain flexible in break crop and end-use decisions, and make suitable choices, risks associated with producing them can be greatly reduced.
• A cropping program that includes break crops is likely to be more sustainable in terms of N inputs and risk of build-up of root diseases than continuous wheat, and provided cheaper, more effective strategies for controlling herbicide resistant grass weeds.

• Crop sequence experimentation undertaken in Central West NSW in 2011 and 2012, has demonstrated that crop sequences which include a brassica or legume break crops can be as profitable as, and in many instances more profitable than, continuous wheat.
• Growing pulses for hay was found to provide high quality feed as good as from cereals but hay from canola was less nutritious. However, canola hay provided an alternative option in cases where a possible crop failure is likely due to adverse weather.
• Growing pulses for hay was found to be profitable across a range of season types, achieves excellent grass weed control and provides greater N inputs and higher carry-over of soil water than when the same crop is grown for grain.

• Average wheat yield gains were approximately 0.6 t/ha in the first year after a break and the size of this yield gain was similar in high and low yielding seasons.
• Second year break effects were generally in the order of 0.3 t/ha and third year break effects 0.1 t/ha, resulting in a total of approximately 1 t/ha more wheat being produced following a break compared to continuous wheat.
• The effect of breaks on subsequent wheat yields is usually more consistent across soils, seasons and break type than the yield of break crops.
• Cumulative gross margins from wheat following legume, brassica and legume-based pasture breaks were generally much higher than continuous wheat, but the overall profitability of including breaks is strongly determined by the high variability in the relative profit from the different break options on different soils in the year that they are grown.

• Canola produced the highest gross margin of all break crops grown in 2010.
• Wheat grown following peas and vetch had the highest grain yields and protein concentrations.
• Crop sequences of canola, pea grain or hay and vetch following by wheat have gross margins equal to or higher than wheat-wheat and fallow-wheat on both sand and clay soils.

Wheat consistently yields more following a broadleaf break-crop than following wheat or a long-fallow. Wheat yields more when grown after legumes (peas and vetch) than after brassicas (mustard, canola). Wheat yields are consistently higher following vetch than all other break crops. Canola, pea hay or vetch hay followed by two wheat crops were more profitable than continuous wheat or fallow followed by two wheat crops.

Brassica or legume break crops can be as profitable as wheat. In most cases, the higher the legume dry matter produced, the greater the amount of nitrogen produced. Strategic timing of operations such as hay cutting and brown manuring provide an opportunity for improved weed control.

Wheat yields in 2012 were higher following hay, brown manure or fallow in 2011, probably due to extra water conserved in these treatments. Crop sequences including a break crop are at least as profitable as continuous wheat, with some examples of substantial profit gain. Where continuous cereals are grown, cutting wheat for hay can provide substantial yield and profit benefits to subsequent wheat in seasons with low growing season rain.

Wheat yields in 2012 were higher following hay, brown manure or fallow in 2011, probably due to extra water conserved in these treatments. Crop sequences including a break crop are at least as profitable as continuous wheat, with some examples of substantial profit gain. Where continuous cereals are grown, cutting wheat for hay can provide substantial yield and profit benefits to subsequent wheat in seasons with low growing season rain.

• Highly winter active lucerne varieties had better establishment than the winter active or semi dormant varieties.
• Many of the breeder's lines showed better establishment than the commercial cultivars.

Chickpeas have not been widely grown in the Brim district since the outbreak of ascochyta in 1998. This trial has shown it is possible to grow chickpeas in the district and newer lines with improved disease resistance show promise for the future and would eliminate the need for a fungicide in this district. Improved disease resistance may also allow newer lines to be sown earlier, which is likely to have a yield affect – especially in shorter growing season districts such as Brim.

Trial conducted to continue evaluation into the use of chemicals to manipulate broad been plant architecture without decreasing yields.
• Unseasonably dry and warm conditions and resulting poor yields were not conducive for conclusive results.
• In three years of trials Ethephon reduced plant height without a significant yield penalty.

• Agronomic or chemical assisted canopy management could have significant benefits to fungicide penetration and efficacy, disease intensity, grain yield and harvestability.
• Four treatments reduced height without a significant yield penalty: Clomazone, Paraquat + Diquat (High), Ethephon (applied 26 Aug) and Ethephon (applied 9 Sept).

Post-emergent herbicide was scored for visual damage on 26th September 2012. These results have been combined with yield data and the results will be discussed with Pulse Australia to look at future work in determining herbicide permits for Broad Bean crops.

• Liming to help reduce some of the inherent nutritional problems of low soil pH.
• Application of Molybdenum pre seeding to assist with nodulation.
• Improving nodulation by either increasing the number of rhizobia applied, ensuring rhizobia survival in those acid soils or ensuring both collar and lateral nodules develop.
• Early tissue testing and subsequent nutrient correction with foliar applications to overcome some of the deficiencies associated with lower soil pH.
• Raised beds for water logging control in wetter areas, or sowing the beans into a ‘hill’ rather than a ‘furrow’.
• Retention of cereal stubble to improve soil moisture status prior to and at sowing may assist with improving germination and nodulation.

Although there were no significant differences between herbicide treatments in wheat yield the control plots yielded the lowest.

Choice of product depends on mix, population and size of weeds, crop safety and growth of the crop.

There was no effect on crop emergence from any treatment.
Climbing Buckwheat (Fallopia convolvulus) and Wireweed (Polygonum aviculare) were the key target weed species. In this trial, no treatment provided significant levels of control of climbing buckwheat at either assessment. Low levels of wireweed were apparent at the 69 DAA assessment with no apparent difference between treatments. However significant levels of control were found from all treatments following a germination in late August and early September. The poorest treatments for wireweed suppression were Balance 50 g/ha, Diuron at both rates, Balance + Simazine and the low rate of Terbyne. All treatments provided good control of turnip weed.

There was no effect on crop emergence from any treatment.
Wireweed (Polygonum aviculare) was the key target weed species. In this trial, no treatment provided significant levels of control of wireweed at 43 DAA. Wireweed populations were dense but patchy.

The use of Lexone on both barley and wheat was quite safe in 1996, spray conditions were quite good with moist soil and some dew on hte crop, and no heavy rain occurred within a week of appying the herbicie.

• Trifluralin can provide useful control of low levels of brome and barley grass.
• No crop damage was observed this season from Metribuzin/Diuron mixes applied pre-sowing.

There was no significant difference between the lentil counts, but there was a trend evident of some of the group C herbicides causing some slowness and even plant death. Rain events in the first month post planting were below average, it is likely that those herbicides that are known to have some level of toxicity to lentils (such as Metribuzin) were concentrated in the furrow and thus negatively affected some of the germinating plants.This apparent damage  highlights the importance of understanding how herbicides interact with the soil type, stubble loading and the planted crop.

Managing Brome grass populations in wheat is a challenge facing many growers but chemical control options have increased over the past two seasons with the introduction of Clearfield wheat technology and Atlantis herbicide.

• Knockdown treatment of Gramoxone offer good control of Brome grass but must be applied before the 0.5-leaf crop stage to provide sufficient crop safety. RoundUp is also used in some situations but because it is a translocated herbicide it can do significantly more crop damage.
• Lexone offers good in-crop control of Brome grass in both barley and wheat (Lexone is not registered in wheat and only registered for broadleaf control in barley) however the window for application is both small, and critical, for safe and effective use.
• Monza offers suppression of Brome grass (at the 1 to 3 leaf stage) in wheat but has long plantbacks that need to be observed.
• The introduction of Clearfield technology in wheat appears to offer another tool against Brome grass.

• The ecology of brome grass has changed, making it more problematic to control in crops. Higher levels of seed dormancy are allowing brome to escape pre-sowing control tactics, resulting in greater in-crop emergence.
• Increased seed dormancy associated with a requirement for cold or chilling. Under field conditions this increased chilling requirement would not be met until late Autumn or early Winter.
• Knockdown herbicides are less effective in the management of highly dormant populations of brome. Therefore, brome grass management has become heavily reliant on Group A and B herbicides, especially the Clearfield(TM) technology, which is expected to increase the risk of herbicide resistance development.
• High levels of seedbank persistence from one year to the next (approximately 25%) means multiyear control of brome grass is required to exhaust seedbanks to manageable levels. Plan a three-year rotation.

• Many techniques can be employed to deplete the brome seedbank but an integrated weed management (IWM) approach reduces reliance on herbicides (ie. imi’s).
• In the best managed paddocks, two years of effective management reduce brome grass seedbank to <50 seeds/m2 (8-32 seed/m2 ).
• The most effective rotations for reducing brome populations incorporated oaten hay, break crops, legumes and CLF cereals.

• On average for the three harvest dates there were 12 brome grass plants/m2, over 1000 brome grass seeds/m2 and 88 seeds per brome plant.
• The proportion of brome grass seed retained above the 15 cm harvest height was 59, 38 and 30% for the measurements on 7 November, 21 November and 5 December 2014 respectively.
• Harvesting the crop on these dates, combined with HWSC would potentially result in 41, 62 and 70% of brome grass seed being added to the seed bank, and possibly more if seeds above 15 cm were dislodged in the harvesting operation.
• These measurements indicate insufficient brome grass seed is retained above harvest height, especially with later harvests, to expect control techniques such as seed carts and seed destructors to be effective on their own. However, when used as part of an integrated weed management program, these techniques will undoubtedly assist in achieving brome grass control.
• Research is continuing with MSF and the University of Adelaide to evaluate the effectiveness of a range of brome grass control approaches.

• If early sowing, Morava vetch is the best choice for brown manuring, particularly if brown manuring for early weed control is the objective since early desiccation will preclude any persistence of hard-seeded vetch into subsequent crops. Field peas are the preferred option for later (mid May) sowing for either brown manuring or crop topping
• TOS 1 field peas had disease problems in early winter reducing biomass.

With the cooperation and commitment of some 15 farmers, a network across the Wimmera-Mallee existed during 1994 to monitor the moth of native budworm (Heliothis punctigera) in grain legumes. This trial used the information gained to forecast the pest's development and economic thresholds for spraying. The information gained was faxed and posted weekly to some 40 agribusiness and interested farmers.

• Cereal windrow burning achieved temperatures in excess of those required to achieve high levels of weed seed mortality, except in paddocks which had 11mm of rainfall the week before.'
• The open paddock burn with a high stubble load had a quicker, faster burn but still achieved the necessary temperatures of 450 degrees Celsius for longer than 60 seconds.

The six business case study growers featured in this Kwinana East RCSN-initiated publication are managing complex, multi-layered farm businesses that are well set up and function efficiently. As many of these businesses grow in size and scale in the future, these growers highlight the many positive outcomes that can be achieved from having a willingness to learn and implement new ideas and a desire for continuous improvement.

• Root development on all treatments showed an improvement over the control.
• There was no difference in leave developments between the treatments and the control.
• Calcinit provided the best return on investment with a $131 increase/ha over the untreated control and a $62 increase/ha over the Calbud.

• Compared to 2008 map, rezoning based on 2009 yield monitor map improved variable rate technology (VRT) performance in 2009, 2010 and 2011 seasons.
• The highest gross margin was returned from paddock N1 as a result of zoning whereby no fertiliser was being applied to 89% of the paddock.
• A limited yield response to applied fertiliser has restricted any gross margin benefit from the VRT technology from this paddock with high soil P reserves.

• Across the trial series at Grass Patch, Ballidu, Merredin and Holt Rock the highest grain yields, oil and gross margins were from the open pollinated variety, so growers should continue to use open pollinated TT varieties in the low rainfall regions, rather than hybrid varieties.
• In the hybrid treatments, there were generally increased yields and oil from the purchased (F1) seed, compared with the retained (F2) seed.  The gross margin was only significantly better at the Grass Patch site, for the 2014 F1 compared with the retained seed. Grading to increase seed size and sowing at a target density of 40 plants/m² improved the yield and gross margins of F2 retained hybrid seed, but at Grass Patch in 2015 using F1 hybrid seed or OP seed provided better results..

• Bees have an obvious role in honey production, but their role in pollination has yet to be truly measured in broad acre cropping.
• Inclusion of bees, as pollinators, increased crop yield between two and 3-fold, with no increase in inputs.

• Incorporation of lime has not shown a yield response above that of surface applied lime in the first year with wheat or canola in a wet year.
• Acid layers exist within soils and are mainly confined within the topsoil on basalt soils and can extend deeper in other soil types.
• Sampling soil in 5 cm increments is useful for identifying exactly where acidity is the profile so that lime can be potentially incorporated within the acid area.
• Surface-applied lime takes time to move down the soil profile and ameliorate acidity.
• To minimise yield losses where acidity issues exist (pH less than 5.0), sow acid tolerant cereals (eg. wheat) following liming or look to incorporate lime. 

• Three seeding systems, disc (slot), tyne and tyne-after cultivation were tested over two  seasons in a paddock with a long history of minimal soil disturbance. Soil water repellence, plant establishment and yield were compared.
• In the wet 2016 season, the effect of soil water repellence was minimal and soil disturbance caused by disc, tyne or tyne-after-cultivation did not significantly affect plant establishment or yield.
• In the dry 2017 season, plant establishment and yield of field peas was higher in the disc seeder treatment than the tyne or tyne-after-cultivation treatment.

• Results from experimentation undertaken in southern NSW in 2011 and 2012, have demonstrated that crop sequences which include a brassica or legume break crops can be as profitable as, and in many instances more profitable than, continuous wheat.
• Canola was consistently the most profitable break crop option. However, the rotational benefits of canola were usually restricted to just the first subsequent wheat crop whereas additional wheat yields can occur for two years after a legume.
• Growing pulses for grain maximises profit, particularly in favourable seasons, but compromises grass weed control and (depending upon species) reduces N available to subsequent crops compared to brown manuring.
• Growing pulses for hay was found to be profitable across a range of season types, achieves excellent grass weed control and provides greater N inputs and higher carry-over of soil water than when the same crop is grown for grain.
• Growing pules for brown manure loses money in the year they are grown, but achieves excellent grass weed control, high N inputs, residual carry-over of soil water, provides more ground cover, and requires less labour than when grown for hay or grain.

Prior to treatments being imposed aluminium toxicity was visually identified as a constraint by digging up plants and examining the roots. It was evident from the roots sideways growth that root pruning was occurring, affecting plant growth by limiting access to nutrients and water. Compaction was thought not to be an issue as it was possible to push a 1cm rod to a depth of 140cm by hand.

When the Grizzly treatments were being implemented it was difficult to have an even depth throughout the plot due to plot size. The discs were only achieving maximum depth (30-35cm) in the centre of the plot however; the average depth achieved within the plot was 25-30cm.

At seeding it was difficult to establish an even seed bed which led to uneven germination in both the Spaded treatments and the Grizzly treatments. This resulted in these treatments having lower plant establishment numbers over the no till (Control).

Throughout the season it was visually evident that the incorporation treatments had major effects on crop growth and health. The Grizzly and spaded treatments had better vigour and larger head sizes when compared to the control treatments. This is likely due to the lower plant numbers, leading to less competition for water and nutrients in the cultivated plots. Although this didn’t translate to significant yield increases in the first year, the second year of the trial is expected to show more as the seeding bed will have settled allowing for an even germination. 

• In 2016, the soil mixing (grizzly or spader) had a greater wheat yield than the control (0.27-0.42 t/ha), regardless of product applied. The incorporation treatments are still being paid off and therefore have not produced the greatest net margin.
• Limesand/No till returned the best net margin for the 2nd consecutive year due to the low yield increases from either application of product or mixing treatment.
• The lime or dolomite treatments had greater yields (0.22-0.5 t/ha) regardless of mixing treatment.
• Care must be taken in interpretation of results due to pH variation across the site.
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• Tedera geminated well on gutless sand in Watheroo
• It is expected that the first tedera cultivars will be released to a commercial partner in 2015.
• Tedera can persist with an average rainfall of 150mm and up to 5 months in drought.

 

• Our standard package of 100 kg 18:20/ha at seeding under the seed row (to avoid fertiliser toxicity),  and two top-ups of nitrogen during the season (50 kg N/ha as broadcast urea each time) was not the right combination for wheat at our site last year. It would appear that we were far too generous with our N inputs because we could leave out all fertiliser N and not suffer any yield loss. However, some N would appear to have been necessary to maintain high protein levels.
• In addition, our standard package of one trial spray in September did not cope with the stripe rust  infection in such a susceptible crop as Wyalkatchem. A Jockey seed dressing helped but another foliar spray of Tilt at flag leaf emergence gave the best control of the options tested.
  • This trial showed that under the high productivity conditions of Kangaroo Island, P fertiliser is still a vital requirement, even if the soil has high P reserves.
  • There was no evidence that extra management options provided any further benefits to wheat performance (ie extra seed dressings, an early aphid spray, B or K fertiliser or use of a growth regulant) under the conditions of last year’s trial.
  • All yields fell far short of the French/Schultz potential yield of 8.4 t/ha (based on the growing season rainfall in 2005 of 532 mm) which suggests that we still have a lot to learn about growing wheat under Kangaroo Island conditions, although the delayed seeding date of 28 June would have contributed to the relatively low yields.

• Reducing P inputs has a risk attached to it, but excessive use of P fertiliser is also a risk to profit making.
• After several seasons with high crop yields, reduced P inputs are not maintaining soil P fertility.
• Monitoring soil P fertility can be a cost-effective method to manage the risk associated with reduced P inputs.

Long term trial work on KI, backed up by work inter and intra state has shown that as soils acidify the portion of acid tolerant weeds increases, growth of sub clover and perennial grasses decreases and crop yields decline. In addition many nutrients eg phosphorus, moly, magnesium and calcium become deficient but some like Aluminium can become toxic.

• 1995 wheat grown on a 1994 canola a chickpea stubble yielded similarly.
• From agronomic measurements taken the wheat grown on the canola stubble had a potential to yield 15% greater than that on the chickpea stubble; however, this did not eventuate.
• From one year results, wheat grown on a disease free paddock with an immediate history of either chickpeas and/or canola will yield comparably.

Based on this year's results, there was no benefit to be gained in applying Cultar to reduce lodging in canola. The variety ATR Grace appears to have very good lodging resistance, superior to Pinnacle, the variety used in previous trials. Hopefully lodging resistance will be given a high priority by plant breeders in the future, thereby reducing the need to chemically manipulate the height of the crop. 

• The results suggest that there was no significant impact on yield or oil content of the canola following the application of growth regulators. This was again demonstrated in the economics, with only a $ 24/ha difference in the price of canola received from the plots. The only exception to this was the Cycocel @ 1.3 L/ha, which produced slightly less yield. 
• For further conclusions please see the attached trial report.

• Improved knowledge of how canola varieties develop in differing regions and the drivers behind development will assist growers in choosing the correct variety for a particular sowing opportunity.
• The development of site specific optimal flowering windows, where the balance between plant growth and frost and heat risks are accounted for, will allow growers and advisors to match canola variety selection with sowing opportunities.
• Nitrogen is an important driver of canola yields in above average seasons. Low risk techniques to ensure adequate nitrogen supply are critical to capitalise on above average rainfall in the low rainfall zone.

• As long as enough plants are established, canola can be sown at low rates as the plants compensate so well. Lodging was reduced by lower sowing rates. 
• Using retained hybrid seed for sowing resulted in lower grain yeilds and increased plant losses from blackleg.
• Winter types of canola from international sources may allow us to get increased grain yeilds in seasons when we can sow early. 

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

See trial report attached for discussion.

• An early break that allows canola to be sown in April is the best option for farmers to grow canola in the rotation in low rainfall areas. Use it as an opportunity crop rather than trying to grow it each year. Mustard is an earlier flowering option and when canola quality mustard is available it may be able to be included more frequently than canola is now.
• Conventional canola cultivars, triazine tolerant cultivars and Clearfield canola are all suitable for low rainfall areas, but the conventional cultivars have the highest yield & oil content. The other cultivars have weed control advantages.

• Amistar Xtra, Intake Hiload Gold and Prosaro provided effective blackleg control.
• No significant yield increase from these fungicides
• Need to consider economics- high cost fungicides arent justified if blackleg risk is low
• Last year’s work indicates variety selection also a good tool for blackleg control
• Blackleg is a problem in retained stubbles, fungicides and variety choice are 2 of many tools for blackleg control

Where radish is not a problem and where Simazine and Atrazine does not need to be used, then it may be useful to try some of the better yielding varieties of the non TT type, because of their higher oil percentages and early seedling vigour. If weeds are a problem then stick with the TT varieties. There was not a large amount of difference between the TT and non TT varieties with regards to yield.

• In a low yielding season canola yield reached a plateau at between 20 and 40 plants/m².
• Hybrid canola reached a plateau at lower density than open-pollinated canola.
• Canola yield held up at high density well, even though plants became severely stressed in early winter and early spring.
• Hybrid canola had a significant yield advantage over open-pollinated (OP) canola in a below average season.

• In a low yielding season canola yield reached a plateau at between 20 and 40 plants/m².
• Hybrid canola reached the plateau at lower density than open-pollinated canola.
• Optimum density ranged from 10 plants/m² for hybrid canola to over 65 plants/m² for open-pollinated (OP) Triazine tolerant (TT) canola.
• Hybrid canola had a significant yield advantage over open-pollinated canola in a below average season.