• Knowing the amount of moisture that is available in the soil profile is invaluable when making nitrogen management decisions.
• Previous crop history (particularly hat of pulses) can have a very large impact on the levels of nitrogen required in following seasons. 

The data received from the 2007 trial year proved similar results to 2006. Although we received an extra 50mm more growing season rainfall than 2006, it was still 50mm short of the Corrigin average rainfall. With yields over 3t/ha, no-one can complain though, especially with barley prices around $480/t cash, at harvest in 2007. In terms of the trials’ aim – to find which stubble treatment better suits downhill tramlinning, the jury is still out as for the two years that the trial was run; 2006 & 2007, with limited rainfall we can only draw conclusions on the results that have been found; and for both years it was found that the burnt stubbles had higher yields over all. The burnt plots [having barer ground to seed into] collected more runoff than the other treatments in 2007. Removing the stubble can allow for light falls of rain to be more useful for a crop in such years, hence the better yield whereas having high levels of stubble in such cases can often intercept this moisture making it not available to the crop; rainfall that ponded on the stubbles evaporated before the plant could acess it [Jeff Russell pers.comm]. Subsoil moisture could have played a part in the earlier establishment of the burnt stubbles too as these plots would have got away sooner having no surface restrictions [stubble or organic matter] and therefore these plots would have had a chance to tap into the summer rainfall earlier than the other treatments [Glen Reithmuller pers.comm]. According to Dan Carter [DAFWA], burning stubbles removes valuable nitrogen, soil carbon and other nutrients and leaves the ground vulnerable to damage from wind erosion. In most cases, retaining stubbles will contribute to long-term soil fertility, through both preservation of nutrients and better moisture-holding capacity.

 

In saying this however, we found in 2007 [as we did in 2006] that the burnt [bare] stubble treatments yielded higher than any of the other stubble treatments as seen in trials. To compare against the control treatment, which has the least runoff, we use the 5%LSD = 2.14*3.94 = 8.4, which suggests that the burnt/bare and raked are significantly higher than the control since the difference between the means is higher than the LSD.

 

Key achievements were getting the trial in the ground, harvesting and collection of results. Also successful application for 2nd & 3rd years of funding Project 053042 – Precision Agriculture Systems – Impact on zone management, soil health and surface water management (Years 2 & 3).

Key findings from the trial in 2006 were that the most run off was collected from burnt stubble tramline which suggests that bare ground with tracks, can potentially aid the channelling of water more than with stubbles where water can ‘dam’ with the interference of stubble and foreign matter. As this was the first year of the trial at Corrigin it raised many more questions which will hopefully be answered in the next two years.

Late notification of project approval combined with difficulty in employing a suitable coordinator resulted in the project starting 6 months late (February 2006).

Farmer with tramlining capability easily identified.

Paul Blackwell’s (DAFWA) assistance proved beneficial, were able to combine two trial sites into one paddock to better utilise the farmers controlled traffic system. Minor issue occurred when fire from burning chaff heap destroyed original stubble trial site. New site established.

The biggest issue for the trial in 2006 was lack of heavy rainfall events, while a crop was taken off, there were very few rainfall events greater than 10mm.

Several issues occurred with the design, construction and collection of water from the water traps. After consultation with Paul Blackwell on trap design and a visit to his Pindar site (Liebe project) to visually assess the traps, we had a better understanding of how to construct the Corrigin traps. To bury 20 chemical containers into hard soil it was decided to hire local contractor to use his backhoe/digger to dig them out.

Collection of water from the water traps was a major issue too. A range of equipment and methods was trialled and found to be inadequate. After consultation with the local businesses in town, a powerful suction pump that could be screwed to a battery pack for power and ease of moving was order. The pump proved to be the right combination for the job required. A further issue arose over the 2006 trial year with water traps chemical drums becoming

slimy and animals getting trapped resulting in  blocking and clogging of the pump. To overcome this problem in 2007 we decided to a) place gauze over the hole from the trap to the pipe leading to the drum, so large matter cannot enter the drum. This has worked well so far, however it has restricted some trap’s water from entering the pipe. We are currently working on rectifying this problem. and b) a second filter was put on the water pump so now it has a main filter and a hose filter to sort though the ‘gunk’ before allowing it to enter the water pump.

 

Using precision agriculture (PA) to apply variable rate of fertilise is an easy way to test new idea on farm. Precision agriculture can be used to apply different rates of fertiliser to different areas of a paddock. Wheat responded to applied phophorus, even though soil tests indicated it had a high level of Colwell P (56mg/ka).

• Precision soil mapping for pH and nutrients can result in significant cost savings for producers.

• Mapping soil pH has greatest value if the paddocks are into their second or third rotation of lime.

• Consider including sulphur in the testing if mapping phosphorus.

• Establish several sites across the farm to monitor the ongoing pH, P and S status.

The important message from these trials is that any post seeding treatment is better than none at all.

Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for crop growth. Insufficient plant-available P, ultimately results in reduced yield. 

Crops, particularly cereals require a high amount of P for crop production, and P can often be depleted over time if optimal rates are not applied. Given P is an immobile nutrient historical application rates can bank P within the soil profile. 

Variable rates of starter fert were applied over a 4 year period, to assess the cumulative yield effect and P balance, to determine an optimal rate for crop production.

The control rate of 100kg/ha of MAPSZC:MOP (15.8kg/ha P), produced identical cumulative yields across the time span of the project to the 140kg/ha luxury rate. 

The 80kg/ha application provided sufficient P levels to maintain the phosphorus balance for cumulative yields achieved since 2017. However lower P rates will consume stored soil P reserves. 

• Previous BCG results indicated that higher plant densities achieved by increasing seeding rates provided many benefits including stable or increased yields (never a yield penalty), reduced screenings, increased access to moisture, nutrient and light and better competition against weed populations.
• The results of this trial support the findings of previous BCG research.
• For many growers seed of their preferred variety may be in relatively low supply following the 2002 drought but it will be important to maintain or increase current seeding rates in 2003.

• From soil tests we knew that P was going to be the limiting factor.
• This trial shows that there is no substitue for keeping your P rates up. For example a ~$90/ha investment achieved a return of $483/ha.
• It also show the importance of soil testing.
• Plant analysis did not show any improvement in P uptake from either product enhancer and neither of these'enhancers' improved crop yeilds.

Two significant weather events that had an important influence over the results in this project, in 2016, frost and 2017, summer rain. In 2016, there were multiple severe frost events during the critical, flowering stage of the growing season. Oats being a relatively frost tolerant species proved to be the best performing species for yield and gross returns in 2016. The broadleaf crops, both legumes and canola were severely impacted by frost.

For barley in 2016 the accumulated gross returns for two years was higher in rotation, fallow 2015; barley 2016 when compared with wheat 2015 barley 2016. This supports previous work by CFIG that including fallow in the rotation can increase gross returns over a two year period.

In season 2017 frost damage was minor when compared to 2016. Season 2017 was dominated by heavy summer rainfall and a very dry start to winter. The fallow plots were impacted by the summer rain due to lack of soil cover. The loamy, morrell soil set hard at the surface as a result of the heavy summer rain which severely impacted penetration of the seeding equipment and subsequently, crop establishment was poor. The very dry start to the season likely exacerbated the poor establishment on the fallow plots.

Oats performed well again in 2017 in terms of yield but barley produced higher gross returns. Chickpeas and lentils were the best performing of the broadleaf crops in 2017.

When the gross returns in 2017 were compared by rotation (2015-2017), it is interesting to note that 2017 cereals grown in rotation with legumes in 2016 generally performed well.

The gross returns for every rotation tested in the trial were compared on an accumulative return over 3 years (2015-2017) and the rotation with the highest accumulative return was year 1; wheat year 2; chickpeas and year 3; barley. This demonstrates the value of a legume in a rotation which contributed to the highest yielding plot, which was barley in 2017.

The top two highest total gross return rotations over three years had a legume crop in one year of the rotation. The third highest return rotation had a fallow phase which confirms fallow as a rotation option. In the top 10 highest returning rotations, 4 had fallow in one year of the rotation.

•  Legume break crops reduced populations of RLN (Pratylenchus neglectus) in the soil while canola increased the population.
• RLN levels increased across the site after one season of Scepter wheat (a susceptible host) to medium risk levels on legume plots and high risk levels where canola had been a break crop.
• A single break crop in the rotation may be insufficient to effectively reduce disease inoculum beyond the season following a break crop year.

• Crops can be established and grown in 6.6 t/ha of retained stubble in the HRZ without compromising establishment
• Stubble retention in the HRZ requires careful systems based planning and attention to detail
• Seasonal conditions will strongly influence outcomes of stubble retention through factors such as pest pressure and conserving soil moisture
• Burning may not be an option in the near future because of unacceptable risks of litigation 

• The standard treatment in this trial, namely Sencor (metribuzin) 750WG plus TriflurX, provided no more that weak suppression of brome allowing substantial seed set.
• The trial demonstrates a new option for brome control in barley crops now available to growers, namely growing Scope barley and using Clearfield herbicides such as Intervix or Midas. Both products provided excellent to absolute control of brome, as well as silver grass.
• The trial also demonstrates that while the pre-emergence treatments alone provide only modest control of brome, their use in combination with Clearfield herbicides has the potential to improve the overall Clearfield performance. Their use is recommended for resistance management purposes and as a means of securing yield by reducing early weed competition.
• Achieving absolute control of brome grass by treatments that pay for themselves and deliver a surplus to users (of $45 – $150 per hectare) should make most Clearfield treatments highly attractive. Atlantis, Crusader and Monza each only provided strong suppression that in the long run cannot be expected to overcome brome. Regardless of their return on investment, they failed to deliver satisfactory brome control (i.e.. >90% so that the seed bank is not dramatically reduced) and are useful only in terms of managing brome within the current crop at best.
•  

• Proximal sensing reflectance data predicts soil moisture with reasonable accuracy at depths (0-10, 10-30, 30-90 cm) on upper Eyre Peninsula in 2018.
• Reflectance data may also be useful for predicting the amount of soil nitrogen and crop macronutrients, including but not limited to nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur.
• Further experimental data is required to use soil and crop reflectance as a means to predict nutrient content because environmental parameters can confound results.

• Proximal sensing reflectance data predicts soil moisture with reasonable accuracy from samples taken at depths (0-10, 10-30, 30-60, 60-100 cm) across 46 Eyre Peninsula locations.
• Moderate relationships were found between % organic carbon, pH(water) and soil spectral data.
• Reflectance data have been proven useful for predicting the amount of crop macronutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur.
• Further experimental data is required to test the reliability of the existing predictive models of soil absorbance and crop reflectance as a means to predict nutrient content.

• The use of pulses in the southern regions show some potential- further trial work needs to be done to examine this fit.
• Follow up Sub soil and Deep N tests need to show +/- effect of N in system
• Pulses could be economically viable as a crop, disease and weed break.

The potential advantages of growing pulse crops are well recognised, such as: increasing soil nitrogen,
breaking disease cycles for cereal crops, providing a high nitrogen feed grain and being a cash crop in their
own right. Field peas are well suited to the Central West and other pulses are useful, depending on pH,
drainage and weed control.

• A range of pulse agronomic and variety trials were sown across the Medium Rainfall Zone of the South
East in 2018

• New faba bean PBA Bendoc, may be an option for growers in the Medium Rainfall Zone of the South East

• The use of Gaucho®600 on lentil to reduce the occurrence and impact of Alfalfa Mosaic Virus was evaluated at Keith
• Chickpea yields of over 1.0 t/ha were obtained at Sherwood
• At Keith average field pea yields were similar between a May sowing and a July sowing
• Average lupin yields of 2.68 t/ha at Sherwood, show it is a productive pulse option on suitable soil types

 

• Chickpeas were consistently amongst the highest yielding pulses at this site across all soil types and EM39 ranges.
• They produced the highest gross margins on both the deep sand and the mid-slope soils.

Grain quality results showed very little variation between all treatments with test weights between 60.8 and 63.6, protein between 13 and 13.9, moisture between 11 and 11.2 and screenings between 7.6% for Jockey and 9% for Dividend © 130 mI/l 00kg.

Weeds external to a cropping area (ie; along fence lines and roadways) are a known problem. They impact negatively upon a cropping operation in a number of ways; ie,

• Pest insects - Weeds can provide refuge for insect pests and act as a point source of distribution into a cropping area.
• Diseases - Weeds can act as a host for crop disease. When an infected weed is fed upon by a pest insect (e.g. aphid) and the pest insect then feeds upon a plant within a cropping zone the disease is transferred to the crop.
• Seed - Weeds external to a cropping zone provide a source of seed that can enter and infest a cropping area.
• Mice - Weeds external to a cropping area provide food, moisture and refuge for mice.
• Herbicide resistance - Weeds external to a cropping area do not generally receive the same levels of control as weeds within a cropping area, which can assist in the development of herbicide resistance.
• Green bridge - Weeds that perpetuate external to a cropping season provide what is termed as a “green-bridge”. This green bridge is known to enable pest insects and diseases to survive as well as provide a source of weed seed for future in-crop infestations.

• In glasshouse trials, which grew normally and produced grain when soil dressings of copper sulphate replied to surface soil from the field sites.
• There is therefore no inherent characteristics of the soils which makes fertiliser copper unavailable for plant uptake.
• The pattern of rainfall at each field site was compared with the rate of development of the wheat. When symptoms of coffered deficiency appeared in negligible grain yields occurred despite fertiliser application no effective rain fell in the 20 days before the plants reach the boot stage of growth.
• When soil dressings improved grain yield effective rainfall occurred within 14 days prior to booting.
• It is postulated that wheat cannot absorb sufficient copper for normal growth and development from a dry fertiliser zone.
• When the zone is dry just before booting wheat suffers an acute deficiency of copper during a critical phase of pollen formation resulting in infertile pollen.

Soil type and topography/drainage will be the major factors that determine the effectiveness of the raised bed system.

• Phillip Adams has been working on raised bed farming for the past seven years and is convinced the system has significant benefits.
• Raised beds increase the quantity of organic matter in the soil which is of great importance in improving soil structure and promoting germination and growth.
• All land is suited to raised beds, however paddocks where excess water is a problem (eg. sodic soils prone to waterlogging) will benefit the most. The aim of raised bed farming is to produce loose soil beds where water can drain off to prevent waterlogging in the root zones, to provide adequate drainage, and to store excess water for use when conditions turn dry.

The trend to higher grain yield and deeper root growth in the deep rip treatment suggests that in heavier soils deep ripping may be beneficial to encourage deep rooting and deeper infiltration of water following rainfall events. While the observations relate to responses in the year in which the treatments were imposed, it will take further cropping cycles to determine the stability and sustainability of these responses. The pattern of rainfall distribution and the overall soil water dynamics may have also had an impact on the yield responses. While the initial response is promising, further testing would be required before recommendations could be made. 

The first-year response of a shallow cultivation treatment (as bed renovation) was not significant and barley yield was marginally superior in the control.  This is in contrast to the results at Gnarwarre where opposite trends were observed, but on a lighter soil. In the heavier Lismore soils, it may be worth looking at the deep ripping option as the higher rainfall compared to Gnarwarre may result in a different soil water use pattern. The shallow cultivation treatment also should be monitored for a further year or two until the system achieves equilibrium. 

• Raised beds increase productivity on saline, waterlogged land along with fertiliser and fencing our wildlife.
• Potential issues: uneven bed formation can make seeding difficult, saline soil may be brought to the surface, leached salts may cause damage.

• In 2004 the organic system had the lowest wheat yield and the highest screenings.
• The 2004 gross margin showed that the Albrecht, Soil Management Riverina and BioAg systems made a small profit.
• The Conventional, Soil Management Riverina and Organic systems have the best long-term (2000-2004) average gross margins, although they are all negative.

• Liming and spading had a significant effect on soil pH. The untreated plots (no spading and no lime) had a soil pH that declined from 5.5 to 4.3 down the soil profile.   Simply spading the soil, without lime application, lowered the soil pH of the topsoil to because acidic subsoil is mixed with the top soil.  Liming, without spading, has significantly increased pH levels on topsoil to 5.8 but no effect at depth. Liming together with spading has improved the soil pH at depth.
• Due to variability at seeding and weed control the impact of soil amelioration on productivity of the wheat varieties is not conclusive (CV = 16%). Liming (averaged across variety and spading), reduced yield from 3.2 t/ha to 2.9 t/ha (p=0.009, LSD =0.2). Spading treatments affected seeding depth. This resulted in variable and poor emergence in the spaded treatments. Wheat plant  densities established were 85 plants / m2 in the spaded treatment and 105 plants / m2 in the un- spaded treatment.  Brome grass control was not highly effective and variable across the site. These factors will have influenced the large variability in treatment effects. However future cropping across the trial area may indicate the treatment effects.
• Corack and Mace were significantly higher yielding than Emu Rock, however black point is a risk factor for Corack. The other varieties performed similarly.
• Spading treatments were carried out within a short period prior to seeding and plots were not rolled. This will have had a large influence on the variability of grain yield at the site. To improve future trial research liming and spading need to be carried earlier in the year for soil to settle before seeding or roll soil after spading to prevent machinery from sinking in soft soil.

• Benefit cost analysis using the small yield benefit (up to 100kg/ha) found on shallow ironstone areas in this paddock (0-3cm topsoil over ironstone sheet) showed a nil to negative return on investment.
• In 2019, the season was too dry to measure a yield response.
• In 2020, in-season data was collected but the season was dry with a hard finish (0.7t/ha paddock average) and no yield difference was measured. While the Reefinator may increase plant available water capacity, recent seasons have provided very little moisture.
• Yield maps are critical for ongoing monitoring of paddock machinery-scale treatments where soil variability can confound treatment effects.

Key findings

• Yield loss from crown rot ranged from not significant in five of the bread wheat varieties, the barley variety CommanderA and the durum variety JandaroiA up to 12.9% in the bread wheat variety EGA GregoryA.

• The recently released durum variety DBA LillaroiA produced a protein level of 15% which was over 1% higher than the two other durum entries JandaroiA and 190873.

• Crown rot infection did not significantly impact on the level of screenings in any of the entries due to limited expression under the wet seasonal conditions at this site in 2016. However, genetic differences were evident with screening levels which ranged from 3.2% in the durum line 190873 up to 17.6% in the bread wheat variety BeckomA.

Conclusions

Cereal crop and variety choice affected yield in the absence and presence of crown rot infection, which differed by 2.26 t/ha and 2.24 t/ha, respectively between the best and worst entries. The three durum entries were higher yielding relative to bread wheat and barley entries in both the added CR and no added CR treatments at this site in 2016. This was likely due to seasonal conditions (near full soil water profile at sowing plus 472 mm of in-crop rainfall), which limited crown rot expression.

Cereal crop and variety choice still provided a 9% to 35% yield benefit over growing the susceptible bread wheat variety EGA GregoryA under high levels of crown rot infection at Tamarang on the Liverpool Plains in 2016. This can maximise profit in the current season but will not reduce inoculum levels for subsequent crops, because all winter cereal varieties are susceptible to crown rot infection. Winter cereal crop and variety choice is therefore not the sole solution to crown rot, but rather just one element of an integrated management strategy to limit losses from this disease.

This year's site, being responsive to nitrogen, fits with the other responsive sites at the lower end of the range of deep nitrogen test results. However, as the site with the highest deep nitrogen test result recorded a response to nitrogen in another year, more sites are required to further clarify the relationship. 

Lime increased soil pH and decreased the exchangeable aluminium percentage (Alex%) significantly.
• Organic amendments could be used to ameliorate soil acidity, but they were not as effective as lime.
• Crops responded more to nutrient addition than amelioration of soil acidity with organic amendments in the short term.
• The long-term effect of organic amendments on soil acidity and crop yield response needs further investigation.

• Lime is the most effective amendment to increase pH and reduce exchangeable aluminium (Al).
• Deep placement of organic materials had a limited effect on soil pH, but reduced exchangeable aluminium percentage (Al%) significantly.
• The combination of lime with organic materials could facilitate alkalinity downwards in the soil profile in the short term.
• However, applying a large amount of organic materials could acidify soil over a longer term due to nitrification.
• No crop response was observed over the past three years due to severe drought conditions.

• Deep placement of organic amendments (e.g. lucerne pellets) did not increase soil pH as high as measured in laboratory/glasshouse experiments, but it did reduce exchangeable aluminium (Al) significantly at 10–20 cm and 20–30 cm, indicating that the organic amendment would relieve Al toxicity by combining Al3+ to form insoluble compounds, hence reducing toxicity to plant growth.

• There was a large crop yield response to deep organic amendments in year 1 due to extra nutrients supplied from the lucerne pellets, but no crop response was detected in year 2, partly due to lack of soil moisture during the crop growing season. To date, soil treatments have had little effect on soil water.

• Soil chemical, physical and biological properties will continue to be monitored to understand the soil–plant interactions, the factors driving the differences in crop response to the various treatments, and the residual value of the amendments over the long-term.
 

In 1978, a residual value trial in which it is possible to compare the effectiveness of previuos applied Mn with cuuently applied Mn.  The Mn sulfate at 15, 30 & 60 kg/ha in 1978 produced maximum seed yield. The 15 & 30 kg Mn sulfate applied in 1982 produced the same maximum seed yield as Mn applied in 1978.  However, the 15 kg/ha of Mn sulfate applied in 1978 & 1982 still resulted in 11 - 16% split seed compared to the nil Mn that had 40% split seed. THe 30 kg Mn sul /ha reduced split seed to <5%.

The Mn concentration in whole shoot was 34 mg/kg; indicating Mn deficiency The Mn concentration in whole shoots with 15 kg Mn sul/ha was similar (80 mg/kg) for 1978 and 1982 applications.

THese results suggest that the residual value of soil applied Mn is greater than originally thought 

• Tested effect of rates, methods of application and residual effects of zinc oxide on hybrid maize XL45.
• Zinc was either broadcast or drilled at initial rates of 0, 5.6, 11.3 or 38 kg Zn/ha and 0 or 5.6 kg Zn/ha in subsequent seasons.
• In most seasons, treatment with zinc almost doubled grain yields.
• Broadcasting and working in was more effective than drilling zinc with the fertilizer.
• Residual effects of the initial 5.6, 11.2 and 38 kg Zn remained evident throughout the 6 years and the higher rates continued to produce highest yields.

Rates nil to 5 kg Zn/ha applied in 1970. Results for 1977.

Zn applied in 1970 barely detectable although application of plain super at 250 kg/ha /yr since 1970 maintain Zn levels for near maximum yield of pasture..

The author indicated the following:  

Suggestion that results indicated need to reassess the Zn requirement of a wide on inherently Zn deficient soils. This is particularly so in the absence of Zn via the Zn impurities in super from traditional sources of rock phosphate. It maybe highly likely that some future date we may have to rely on low Zn containing Zn phosphates .  Unless more information is obtained in advanced there could be serious losses due to Zn deficiency some time in the future.

Residual effects from soil nitrogen can be observed in the following cereal crop whcih makes a good case for utilising pulse innoculants

1. Terbyne® Xtreme® and Valor® provided the best residual control of common sowthistle as stand-alone residual herbicides and as mix partners with ‘grass active’ herbicides.
2. Group K, Group D and Flame® provided the best residual control of grass weeds as standalone residual herbicides and as mix partners.
3. Herbicide mixtures provided improved control over individual products and are likely to provide more wide-spectrum control of a range of weed species.

• P fertilisers applied in 2006 did not improve grain yield in 2007, even at the high P rate (18 kg P/ha).
• In terms of residual value, there was no difference between granular and fluid P.
• 2007 applied fluid P (TGMAP) at 6 kg P/ha increased dry matter at GS30 from fresh granular P and control treatments.
• Soil testing is a useful tool for estimating P status in the soil.

• It was not surprising that no response to sulphur was obtained, when we consider that the KCI sulphur level in the soil rose from 5-7 mg/kg before bed forming to 16 mg/kg after bed forming. 
• For further discussion please see the attached trial report.

  Key findings:

Yield in the presence of crown rot was generally barley > bread wheat > durum across both sowing times, but significant differences were evident between varieties.

• Barley, bread wheat and durum varieties differ in their extent of yield loss from crown rot and their actual yield and grain quality (screenings) in the presence of this disease.
• However, all varieties are susceptible to crown rot infection and will not significantly reduce inoculum levels for subsequent crops. Variety choice is not a sole solution to crown rot.

Conclusions

• Sowing date and variety maturity choice is a balance between frost risk and terminal heat stress in the northern grain region. Both can have a significant impact on grain yield. No frost damage was evident at this site in 2014 with either sowing time but terminal heat stress did occur which was more severe during grain filling with the second sowing time. A three week delay in sowing time resulted in an average 24% reduction in yield across the winter cereal entries.  Later sowing pushed grain-fill too far into hotter conditions. This can reduce yield by itself but if there is also an underlying issue with crown rot then delayed sowing significantly exacerbates the expression of this disease with negative impacts on both yield and grain quality.

  Varieties do differ in their extent of yield loss from crown rot and in their relative yield in the presence of high levels of infection, which is often referred to as tolerance. This is a function of a varieties level of partial resistance to infection but appears to also interact with its environmental adaptation and maturity relative to the timing of stress (moisture and heat) which exacerbates the expression of crown rot. Generally quicker maturing barley, durum and bread wheat entries were higher yielding in the presence of crown rot infection in this trial. This does not necessarily mean that these varieties have improved levels of resistance to crown rot infection but rather their quicker maturity allowed them to minimize stress during grain filling relative to longer season entries, reducing the expression of crown rot.

  If forced into planting a cereal crop in a high crown rot risk situation then some barley varieties may provide a yield advantage over bread wheat in that season, as long as early stress does not occur. Some of the newer bread wheat varieties do appear to be closing this gap to some extent. Barley tends to yield better in the presence of crown rot infection due to its earlier maturity relative to bread wheat, providing an escape mechanism which reduces its exposure to moisture stress during the critical grain filling stage. However, a key message is that this decision is only potentially maximising profit in the current season. Growing barley over bread wheat will not assist with the reduction of crown rot inoculum levels as barley is very susceptible to infection. Significant yield loss is still occurring in the best of the barley and bread wheat varieties in the presence of high crown rot infection. Variety selection can improve yield in the presence of crown rot, though all varieties still suffer yield loss, which can maximise profit in the current season but this will not reduce inoculum levels for subsequent crops. Winter cereal crop and variety choice is therefore not the sole solution to crown rot but rather just one element of an integrated management strategy to limit losses from this disease.

• 10 chickpea genotypes were grown in the field with and without added zinc.
• Zinc sulphate was applied to the soil at sowing and later as a foliar spray at the start of flowering.
• Zinc fertilisation increase shoot dry matter by 13% at maturity.
• There were differences between cultivars in zinc efficiency.
• Gains in yield by improved to sink efficiency are possible in chickpeas.
•  The ranking of cultivars was consistent between sites and in pot studies in the glasshouse.
•  Significant responses to zinc fertiliser confirmed that zinc deficiency was a limitation to chickpea yield.

• The critical zinc concentration in shoots ranged from 22 to 29 mg /kilogram across the 5 durum varieties.
• There was no difference in shoot zinc concentration of the 5 varieties within any of the zinc treatments, ranging from 0.025 to 5 mg / kilogram of soil.
• There was some evidence that zinc sensitive genotypes were more likely to suffer from crown rot.

• The Italian ryegrass responded well to phosphorus additions in the range of 15-60 kg P/ha and required the higher rates to be applied unless nitrogen, potassium and sulphur were also included.
• In regard to the addition of potassium, the relatively wet year meant there was unexpectedly no negative affect on plant establishment by banding potassium fertiliser in the soil at sowing which is generally not recommended.

Potassium levels are low in this soil and this site should have been responsive to applied potassium, however due to seasonal and soil conditions there where no differences between treatments in this trial. The very dry June-August had a marked impact on crop growth, particularly tillering. This can be seen by the lack of differences in the head counts taken in September. Very hot conditions in early August also affected flowering in wheat and limited any response in grain yeild with later rains. Soil penetrometer readings in the paddock near the trial site showed hard pan and this in conjunction with the pH and Aluminium levels below 10cm would have restricted root growth and limited the wheat plants ability to access soil miosture at depth during the dry winter period. Without yield responses to applied treatments, crop return decreased as fertiliser rates increased.

• Five representative sites with no history of copper application were selected on each of five main soil types in the district.
• Four treatments (replicated 4 times) were established; Nil and 75 g/ha of foliar copper applied at Zadox scale 23, 41 and 23 + 41.
• Anthesis and harvest dry matter production and grain yield were determined by quadrat cuts of 3mL/plot. Al, A2 and 81 horizon soil samples were taken for chemical analysis • Copper application resulted in a significant increase in grain yield on soil types 2 and 5, attributable to significant increases in grain weight on soil type 5, and grain number per head on soil type 2.
• These soils were geologically the oldest of the five tested and had the lowest average level of EDTA copper.
• Time of application was not important and a second application did not increase yield further.
• There were no early symptoms of Cu deficiency on any sites and foliar application of copper at tillering produced no change in either visual appearance or anthesis dry matter production.
• Deficiency symptoms only became apparent at stem elongation when two sites displayed minor wilting.
• In addition to identifying the two soil types with suboptimal copper supply to wheat, this experiment highlights the pitfalls of relying on visual detection of copper deficiency.
• Areas of subliminal but significant copper deficiency may go undetected by farmers who rely on this method.

• Trial sowing at 11 June was later than optimal but plant growth was showing strong response to nitrogen (N) and some response to potassium (K) at 28 August.
• By harvest, Mace wheat showed significant grain yield response to nitrogen application but potassium response had moderated.
• No significant differences were seen from Cu application.
• Late sowing decreased yield potential from the start. Harvest yields ranged from 2 to 3 t/ha, with maximum yield and $/ha return at 80 kg N/ha and 12.5 kg K/ha.

There was a significant difference in response to irrigation on the flat ground and raised beds (Table 2). Grain yields on the flat ground only increased slightly with irrigation and this was not significant. On the raised beds there was a progressive increase in yield with increasing irrigation although there was not statistically significant difference between the two irrigated treatments. Initial examination of data from Gopher tubes shows greater drying of the soil profile on raised beds.

1. Wheat at Condamine and late barley at Jimbour West both had yield increases with starter and deep-P independently.
2. Chickpea at both Roma sites had no effect of starter or deep-P on grain yield, with little in-crop rain restricting yield potential.
3. Potassium (K) had no yield effect on late barley at Jimbour West.

• Wheat yields in the poor, medium and good zones in response to low, medium and high inputs respectively did not differ significantly in 2011.
• Over a 3 year wheat-canola-wheat rotation there has been no measured production benefit from applying 6 kg/ha of P on the good soil type as opposed to nil P on a shallow constrained soil.

• 4 kg/ha of P as a blanket application increased grain yields and gross margins over nil P in all 3 soil zones, however applying a variable rate to the medium soil zone of 8 kg P/ha improved gross margins over the 4 kg/ha rate.

• In a good growing season, wheat performed equally well in zones identified as good, medium or poor however they achieved only 50% of their yield potential water use efficiency.

• Annual medic plant establishment density limited by 2008 drought, mice and possibly a false break.
• Pasture production restricted by low plant numbers but increased by 2010 P applications.

• In an above average season a high input system was the “best bet”.
• Variable rate had reduced production but at a lower risk.

• Sowing in early June 2009 resulted in wheat yields on 3 soil types being similar but only achieving 50% of potential water use efficiency.

• The profitability of VRT, excluding capital outlay, was just better than standard practice over the last two seasons at Minnipa.
• The long term impacts of reducing inputs and any consequent yield reductions in above average seasons are yet to be determined.

• The early to mid season varieties Wyalkatchem and Mace performed well if sown early, while Axe performed well against the other varieties if sown later, facing a shorter growing season.
• Matching wheat variety selection with sowing date and soil type can help to maximise returns.

• An omission experiment was conducted with manganese, copper and zinc applied to oats grown on a limestone soil.
• Plants receiving manganese were much healthier than those not receiving manganese.
• Manganese has given good results where there have been patchy crops on sandy soils.

In 2019 ameliorating subsoil compaction and improving subsoil acidity improved barley yields by >1t/ha. 

Subsoil pH changes were observed in the first year of the trial where inclusion plates were used. 

Subsoil pH did not change where surface lime was applied, but inclusion plates were not used to invert the application. 

On-Farm sourced lime performed to equally to commercial lime when adjusted to neutralising value percentage (NV%). 

In 2020 all treatments yielded significantly better than the UTC. including ripping alone where no lime was applied. highlighting the benefits of amelioration of subsoil compaction. 

There was no benefit resulting from commercial lime compared to farm-sourced lime when adjusted to achieve the same neutralising value, however much higher rates of farm sourced lime was needed to achieve this value. 

 

• A lack of grain yield response to lime rates and products trialled at Bute is most likely due to the slightly acidic (pH CaCl2 4.8 – 6.1 in the 0-30 cm) nature of the site. However, it is important to monitor soil pH profiles similar to this for pH declines in the future.
• Grain yield response to incorporation method has been variable across the seasons. Lentils showed the greatest benefit in both 2020 and 2023 seasons, while the cereal yields have been unresponsive.
• Treatments which incorporated lime by spading, increased molybdenum tissue concentration (0.35 – 0.37 mg/kg) compared to the no-till control (0.24 mg/kg) in barley in year four.
• Predicta rNod samples taken four years after the trial commenced showed, the application of lime (regardless if surface applied or incorporated) has increased the level of group E/F rhizobia persisting in the soil.
• Both trials contained treatments which have increased soil pH since lime was applied. However, the depth where this pH change has occurred was different in the lime product compared to the lime incorporation trial.

Inoculation on a paddock that had not grown pulese for at least 10 years increased Faba bean yield by 1t/ha and shoot nitrogen fixed by 130-180kg N/ha). The numbers of rhizobia deline ini the soil over time. The improvements in wheat yield after faba beans and lupins were not associated with enhanced nitrogen supply.

• A significant variation in the rhizoctonia inoculum build-up exists between cereal crops wheat, barley, triticale and cereal rye and their varieties. Inoculum build-up was generally higher in the barley varieties compared to that in other crops. Results are in general agreement with observations in other experiments in the Mallee and on calcareous soils in Eyre Peninsula.
• Differences in inoculum levels carried through summer and seen at sowing in 2016 suggest that farmers may select between cereal crops and their varieties to limit inoculum building during the cereal phase. However, non-cereal break crops are the best option to reduce the pathogen inoculum in a cropping system.
• Soil physical (compaction), chemical (organic C and nutrients) and biological (activity and composition) characteristics and seasonal (temperature and rainfall) factors can influence the growth of R. solani AG8 fungi and the severity of rhizoctonia disease.

• Canola and medic will reduce Rhizoctonia inoculum but only one year of cereal will result in high levels of Rhizoctonia inoculum again.
• Disease suppression has not developed in this environment despite it happening within the same time frame in other environments.

The ribbon sowing provided about 137kg/ha more yield, 0.6% less screenings and an average improvement to income of $35/ha; this will be a useful benefit when the system is used for shield spraying for grass.

2018 Season

• Deep ripping to alleviate compaction and allow better water absorption has improved crop yields at 4 of the 5 EPZ Ripper Gauge demonstration sites in 2018.
• Not all ripping responsive soils required ripping to the same depth.
• While early season dry conditions were challenging and total growing season rainfall was low at the Dunn Rock demonstration site, the deep tillage treatments applied to the site’s sandy gravel over clay soil were a profitable means of increasing barley yield.
• Early season conditions were dry at the Cascade demonstration site. The results collected suggest deep tillage to 300mm or 600mm in the heavy sodic soils present at this site did not improve wheat yield. The rip to 600mm strip achieved an operating gross margin of less than half of both the control strips and the rip to 300mm treatment.
• While the mixing effect of the TopDown achieved a gain of 0.28t/ha when compared to the control, gains in yield were not as large as the effects of deep ripping, spading or a combination on the gravelly sand over clay soil type present at the Coomalbidgup site. The latter tillage treatments improved wheat crop yield by 0.51t/ha to 0.78t/ha when compared to the control strip average of 3.75t/ha, equating to a gross margin increase of between $54/ha and $174/ha.
• The loamy clay to circle valley sand over clay soils present at the Salmon Gums site showed an increase in crop yield of almost 0.91t/ha from ripping to 450-540mm depth. While both the control and shallow deep ripping (ie to 300mm depth) treatments yielded 2.5t/ha of wheat, the deepest tillage treatment yielded approximately 3.4t, equating to a gross margin increase of $316/ha.
• Tillage of the Neridup site’s sandy gravel over clay soils to 300mm increased canola yield compared to the control by 0.41t/ha which equated to a gross margin increase of $179/ha. Tillage to 600mm reduced canola crop yield by 0.35t/ha when just ripped and by 0.9t/ha when exposed to ripping to 600mm combined with a Topdown.

2019 Season

• Tillage treatments applied in 2018 to alleviate compaction and allow better water absorption (ranging in ripping depth from 100mm to 600mm) did not significantly affect crop yield when compared to site controls, regardless of the predominant soil type present at the site or the ripping equipment used. This is likely due to the much dryer than average rainfall conditions that prevailed at all sites in 2019 and the impact of severe frost at two of the demonstration sites (Salmon Gums and Cascade).
• Although the ripping treatments did not significantly improve or reduce crop yield at any of the Ripper Gauge demonstration sites in 2019, gross margin analysis did indicate tillage to 600mm depth plus use of a Topdown slightly improved operating profit at the Neridup site, when compared to the site control. Ripping to 540mm depth also improved financial performance at the Salmon Gums site when compared to the control.
• Ripping to 300mm and 600m depth reduced financial performance at the Coomalbidgup and Cascade Demonstration Sites, compared to the site controls. Two of the tillage treatments also reduced operating profit at the Neridup site compared to the site control.

Soil amelioration is a vital part of farming systems in Albany Port Zone to overcome soil constraints, which limit crop yields. 

The ripping treatments resulted in minimal yield beinifits in the Tenterden and Darakan sites, due to the high gravel content in the soil, which limited compaction.

Ripping treatemtns at the Bromehill site resulted in significantly higher yields in 2018 and 2019 comapared to the untreated control (UTC), however the treatments failed too yielded significantly better then the UTC, in 2020. 

The Kojaneerup sandplain trial site was highly responsive to deep ripping to 50cm in 2020 after clay spreading. 

 

There has been a major response to ripping but little response to nitrogen above and beyond the farmer dressings.  The ripping treatment markedly improved crop emergence numbers and timing.  The very dry nature of the season after seeding has meant no leaching of nitrogen and therefore no improvement in nitrogen uptake efficiency due to faster root penetration on the ripped plots. Plant counts, estimated biomass levels and yield components are shown in the table of results, above.

There was a marked establishment and growth response to ripping and variability was much more marked on the non-ripped plots than on those which were ripped.  Measures of surface soil wettability showed no difference between ripping so the better establishment was probably due to better and more uniform wetting on the rougher, more disturbed, ripped soil. 

Ripping gave better early growth but also better finishing conditions as reflected in higher harvest indices and lower screenings.  The ripped strip samplings emphasized this point so it seems that the ripping allowed better access to stored sub-soil moisture over the harsh finish to the season. Plant samples from on and off the ripped strips showed no difference in K status.

We sampled on and off visually obvious windrows north of trial (2) on 10 July and south of trial (3) on heavier country on 18th August.  Both sites showed unambiguous K deficiency which again was reflected in better grain size and lower screening measures on the K adequate windrow.  The sandy site had more severe K deficiency and bigger responses than the loamy site which had a higher soil K status.  Both areas would respond to K fertilizer applications.

The results in this years risk management trial emphasised the importance of knowing:

• the nutrient status of your soils prior to sowing, and
• potential of the soils. The starting soil nitrogen at Birchip was particularly low (55kg/ha N) resulting in a significantly lower yield for the Low Input scenario compared to the High Input and Best Bet treatments.

The Low Input scenario also resulted in significantly lower protein and significantly higher screenings. These results suggest that there was not enough nitrogen to sustain a crop even in a dry finish, eventually affecting the final gross margin of the Low Input system.

As the climate is changing to warmer conditions and the atmosphere contains more CO2 (also called CO2 fertilisation), crops grow more quickly and mature earlier. It is important to be aware of these effects on crops so that the risk of frost or heat shock reducing crop yield can be better managed. Even though the climate is warming, it is not clear whether the occurrences of frosts are reducing. In fact, there is anecdotal evidence that frost severity and frequency are not changing, which could be because there is reduced moisture in the atmosphere. If this is the case, it will have implications for sowing time and variety choice. Through the use of PA and VR, growers are able to sow different varieties on more frost prone areas. Without this technology, growers would either need to sow different zones separately, reducing efficiencies, or treat the paddock as a whole, which may see reduce yields and risk in various zones. To demonstrate the advantages of this strategy, over the past two seasons, BCG and SPAA have undertaken paddock scale trials. Two demonstrations were undertaken to compare two varieties of different maturity at two different sowing times.

• BCG risk management work between 2005 and 2008 has shown a low to moderate input approach to be the most profitable • Adopting a low input approach to managing variable inputs was the most economic at Curyo in 2008.
• No economic yield or grain quality response was achieved by adopting a high input strategy.
• Tools such as soil sampling and Yield Prophet® can support fertiliser and in-crop input decisions.

BCG research from 2005 to 2008 has shown that adopting a low to moderate approach to inputs has been the most profitable • Adopting a low input approach to managing variable inputs was the most economic at Manangatang in 2008 • Soil sampling at the start of the season is very valuable in determining soil nutrient status.

• Both rotary spading and mouldboard ploughing sucessfully overcame water repellance and both resulted in large grain yield increases mostly in the order of 500-1200kg/ha.
• Spading and ploughing of water repellant sandplain soils that have reasonable subsiol water holding capacity is more beneficial than for the pale deep sands whose low water holding capacity limits the opportunity to realise the improved yield potential, particularly is seasons with a dry finish.

• In a dry season, there was a small grain yield benefit (90kg/ha) for wheat that followed terminated vetch and field peas (1.5-2.4t/ha of biomass), compared with fallow and terminated medic.
• Soil water benefits from fallow and legume termination don’t occur with dry spring finishes.
• Using soil tests to measure nitrogen mineralisation helps you to properly evaluate the benefit of a legume crop or pasture in a rotation.

• Similar to other pulse crops growing conditions in 2011 were excellent for faba beans, due to
  extreme rainfall events during the summer of 2010/11 which resulted in soil profiles at or near field capacity at sowing.

• Research to date in Australia suggests optimum rolling time between 3-5 node and crop damage has been recorded from rolling after the 7 node stage. However this trial showed no yield penalty from any time of rolling.
• Lentil rolling is a management practice utilised to create better harvesting conditions and to lower sample contamination. The results from this trial suggests there is flexibility in rolling time and that rolling can be delayed up to the 9 node stage if other management issues are more pressing immediately after sowing. However, this is dependent on the soil and crop health conditions at the time of rolling.
• To avoid crop damage rolling should not occur within 2 weeks of a herbicide application.
• Soils at risk of hard setting or wind erosion should not be rolled PSPE.

Higher rates of Triflur Xcel can only be used in a no‐till system where a knife point and press wheel system operated at a suitable sowing speed ensures that soil throw from seeding rows does not fall into adjacent seeding rows thereby avoiding crop damage.
The high levels of ryegrass control achieved in this trial demonstrate how a concentrated band of trifluralin in the top few cm of soil is highly effective when weed seeds are also in this band. The tank mix partners used in the trial, Bouncer and Avadex Xtra, can provide cost effective control over a range of additional weeds, as well as ensuring control of any possible group D resistant ryegrass plants.

• Managing herbicide resistance in ryegrass continues to be crucial in maintaining sustainable crop production on Lower Eyre Peninsula.
• Management strategies other than herbicides need to be deployed to ensure sustainable ryegrass control into the future.
• Windrow burning proved to be an effective method in reducing ryegrass seed numbers in 2015.
• Managing ryegrass on differing soil types will prove a challenge into the future.
• Information generated by this project will provide data to simulate how different management strategies can be used to manage ryegrass in a sustainable, cost effective way.

• SAGIT funded trials over the last 3 years have shown the potential of vetch on Eyre Peninsula, leading to the selection of an early flowering (90-95 days) line with increased winter vigour (SA 34876) as a new variety for low rainfall mixed farming systems.
• The last three seasons have been particularly good at Minnipa for both grain and hay production of vetch.
• Piednippie trials have not been as successful as Minnipa, but have still shown with the right management vetch could produce good hay, fodder or grazing on the grey calcareous soils.
• On Eyre Peninsula early sowing (mid- April) can achieve good yield and hay production but is heavily reliant on either good subsoil moisture or late follow-up rain.
• Herbicide choices for vetch are very dependent on local conditions so talk to your local agronomist about the best options available.

Using an effective knockdown with broad spectrum pre-emergent grass herbicide like Sakura can deliver excellent weed control, yields and return on investment not just in the year of application but in following seasons due to a reduction in the seed bank when combined with a complete integrated weed management program across the farm.

This site received only a single knockdown on the 1st June 2010. There was a thick covering of green material present across the trial site when the treatments were applied especially on the header rows which would have compromised coverage and therefore final weed control.  The trial treatments were applied to moist soil on the 1st June. The trial was sown by the grower the following day after treatments were applied with knife point and press wheels on 9 inch row spacing. After sowing there were some clumps of trash caught up in the points particularly in the header rows across the site.

A site inspection on the 29/6/10 confirmed the effectiveness of the glyphosate application with no large weeds observed across the site.

• The sources of variation which contribute to errors associated with the assessment of soil zinc and copper were established.
• Variation between soil cores greatly exceeded variation between chemical determinations.
• Hence for a given investment of resources, errors can be more effectively reduced by increasing the number of cores per bulk sample than by increasing the analytical replication.

• In 2015 treatments with increased rates of N did not result in an increased yield in Trojan wheat or Compass and Bass barley.
• Increased N treatments tended to have increased wheat and barley protein levels.
• Seasonal conditions impacted on trial results; they should be interpreted with caution and used in conjunction with additional soil nutrition information.
• Soil testing and responding to the results is an important component in maximizing yield and profitability of farming enterprises.

• In 2015 Trojan wheat yields were greater with the highest P rate treatment.
• Bass and Compass barley achieved their highest yields with 30 units of P (kg/ha) applied at sowing.
• Seasonal conditions impacted on trial results; they should be interpreted with caution and used in conjunction with additional soil nutrition information.
• Soil testing and responding to the results is an important component in maximizing yield and profitability of farming enterprises.

• During 2014 stubble treatments imposed late in fallow generally had no impact on N response. • During 2014 generally farmers in the absence of frost or unusual rainfall events during the season were able to reliably predict final yield before sowing. Where a site was N responsive, an N fertilizer rate of 20kg actual nitrogen/ha/per tonne of expected yield produced the most profitable result. • During 2014 split N applications only improved yield and protein at Nyngan which experienced a well above average growing season rainfall. • During 2014 split N applications would have possibly reduced risk at two sites, Lake Cargelligo and Ungarie where a decision not to apply the final 1/3 topdressing may have been made due to soil moisture and rainfall outlook. • The benchmark of 20kg/ha of actual N per tonne of expected grain yield assumes unrealistic N recover rates from soil and fertilizer but never the less it continues to be a widely used “number” during the commercial decision making process to topdress crops.

• During 2014 stubble treatments imposed late in fallow generally had no impact on N response. • During 2014 generally farmers in the absence of frost or unusual rainfall events during the season were able to reliably predict final yield before sowing. Where a site was N responsive, an N fertilizer rate of 20kg actual nitrogen/ha/per tonne of expected yield produced the most profitable result. • During 2014 split N applications only improved yield and protein at Nyngan which experienced a well above average growing season rainfall. • During 2014 split N applications would have possibly reduced risk at two sites, Lake Cargelligo and Ungarie where a decision not to apply the final 1/3 topdressing may have been made due to soil moisture and rainfall outlook. • The benchmark of 20kg/ha of actual N per tonne of expected grain yield assumes unrealistic N recover rates from soil and fertilizer but never the less it continues to be a widely used “number” during the commercial decision making process to topdress crops.

• During 2015 stubble treatments involving late burning or cultivation resulted in significantly different yields in wheat and barley in 2 of 3 trials conducted at Tottenham, Weethalle, and Mumbil Creek.
• The stubble treatments had no effect on cultivar rankings or grain quality at any site.
• The effects of stubble treatments observed during 2015 were similar to the effects observed during similar trials in 2013 and 2014. The trend emerging is best summarised: “Cultivation late in fallow to reduce stubble loads for sowing is the most likely option to reduce yield unless it resolves a physical soil constraint such as compaction or established hard to kill weeds. Burning late in fallow to reduce stubble loads for sowing is unlikely to significantly improve yields compared to sowing into district typical standing stubbles. Burning may be a good last minute option where despite good planning, stubble is still interfering with sowing.”

• During 2013, in canola crops sown on time that achieved target plant populations, it appears that late burning and/or cultivation of previous crop stubbles improved yield.
• The cost of burning stubble needs to be considered both in terms of dollar labour cost and lost nutrients.
• Potential impact on fallow efficiencies following the canola crop need to be better understood. Burning stubbles may have a fit in paddocks where windrows are being burnt for grass seed control or stubbles are too heavy for seeders to get through.
• The cost of cultivation needs to account for both cost of the operation as well as the risk soil erosion, and the possibility of producing drier seedbed conditions at sowing time.
• CWFS proposes to do further trials in the next two years. Remember this report represents only one year (2013) of data from trials at Rankins Springs, Wirrinya and Tullamore.

• During 2013, in canola crops sown on time that achieved target plant populations, it appears that late burning and/or cultivation of previous crop stubbles improved yield. • The cost of burning stubble needs to be considered both in terms of dollar labour cost and lost nutrients. Potential impact on fallow efficiencies following the canola crop need to be better understood. Burning stubbles may have a fit in paddocks where windrows are being burnt for grass seed control or stubbles are too heavy for seeders to get through. • The cost of cultivation needs to account for both cost of the operation as well as the risk soil erosion, and the possibility of producing drier seedbed conditions at sowing time. • CWFS proposes to do further trials in the next two years. Remember this report represents only one year (2013) of data from trials at Rankins Springs, Wirrinya and Tullamore.

• Both higher seed manganese concentration or seed coating with MnSO4 were found to increase yield of barley on manganese deficient soil

• Even when sowing in April, into drying soil, establishment of canola was better at 1 cm compared to 3 or 7 cm.
• Sowing small OP seed deeper, at 3 and 7 cm, resulted in the poorest establishment and yield.
• In difficult conditions hybrid seed was better able to establish than OP canola.