• In dry years, sow faba bean and chickpea as early as possible in the recommended sowing window.
• Grain yield declined significantly as sowings were delayed from 30th April through to 7th July.
• Faba bean was far more sensitive to delays than chickpea –they lost on average 21 kgs seed/ha/day over this period compared to only 7 kgs seed/ha/day for chickpea.

There was a small but significatn yield penalty for desi chickpeas treated with P Pickle T compared to the nil treatement (the control).

• Results of this trial need to be treated with caution due to the low yields and adverse environmental conditions experienced throughout the season.
• Growing season rainfall was extremely low (190mm c.f. 265mm long term average) and there was no subsoil moisture due to low summer rainfall. Only 9mm rainfall was recorded in October (a critical period for crop growth and yield determination). There was an extremely hot day October 13 (37OC) followed by a frost (Oct 16, -3.4) which resulted in almost complete flower and pod abortion. Approximately 80mm rain fell in November and December, ensuring that we achieved grain yields up to 400kg/ha.
• Emergence was similar to target plant densities.
• Results highlight the yield potential of the new lines Flip 94-090c and Flip 94-509c.
• Low plant densities and later sowing tended to be higher yielding due to the late rainfall. This is the opposite trend of 2003 and needs further investigation.
• There was a greater proportion of large seed (>8mm) of Flip 94-090c at low plant densities compared with high plant densities (25% c.f. 5%).

• In 1997, due to dry conditions, there was little effect of Simazine and Trifluralin on chickpea yield.
• On lighter soils it is still advisable to sow chickpeas relatively deep (7-8cm) when using Trifluralin and Simazine for weed control.

• Treat all chickpea seed with a fungicide seed dressing when preparing seed for sowing in 2011.
• All chickpea varieties require fungicide pod sprays to protect pods and seeds against ascochyta blight infection.

• New varieties have improved ascochyta resistance, but still need careful management.
• Avoiding early infection is critical to managing ascochyta effectively.
• A two spray fungicide strategy will provide reliable control.

• There appeared to be little difference in yield between applying fungicide and nil fungicide. 
• The fenugreek variety Power gave the best yield results as expected as Power is the variety for seed production and Might is a fodder variety.

These results are only preliminary and should not be used on their own. The effects of the different fungicides will require greater investigation before significant interpretation can be made.

These results are only preliminary and should not be used on their own. The effects of the different fungicides will require greater investigation before significant interpretation can be made.

Despite a dry finish, ascochyta blight progressed well, causing stem breakages and significant grain yield losses in most varieties. The new variety, PBA Royal had 45% of the plot with stem infections early in the season but recovered and had little grain yield losses compared to the full control treatment (Table 4). The breeding line CICA1454 had 15% less ascochyta blight infection compared to the closest named variety, offering hope of better ascochyta blight resistance.

The trial faced numerous problems such as poor emergence in several lines, selective grazing by rabbits/hares and spray drift that confounded the fungicide applications. This trial was abandoned.

• The treatments resulted in highly significant differences in nodulation assessments.  The best treatments included peat applied to the seed or Tagteam or Nodulator granules applied in the seed furrow.  No inoculation or applying the product Alosca in furrow produced very few nodules.  
• Grain yield was very low (<150 kg/ha) due to the dry season and poor establishment, therefore data has not been reported. 

• There is a benefit in inoculating chickpeas where there are limited rhizobia present in the soil. Granular inoculants present an opportunity to potentially improve nodulation under dry sowing conditions and assist with sowing logistics, with no reduction in nodulation or grain yield. It is important to understand how your seeding system may impact on efficacy of inoculants, including liquid placement, seed dressings and seed box. 

Chickpea ascochyta blight infection was low due to dry seasonal conditions, which were not conducive for high levels of disease infection at Hart, 2019. Harvestability, in terms of plant height, was not reduced where chickpea was intercropped with canola. However, intercropping chickpea with linseed in a mixed row arrangement decreased the plant height of chickpea. Grain yield of chickpea as a sole crop was greater than all intercropping treatments. Further work is required to determine if the costs of disease management, weed management and crop desiccation can be reduced by adopting mix species system.

• As in 2007, dry seasonal conditions did not favor chickpea production in 2008 and consequently early maturity and low grain yields were observed.
• Ryegrass competition of 33 plants/m2 at maturity reduced grain yields of chickpeas by 48%, and 120 plants/m2 reduced grain yields by 82%.
• Genesis079 was the highest yielding variety and is well adapted to short season environments.
• These results confirm previous findings showing chickpeas as a poor competitor, and the unsuitability of control measures such as weed-wiping and crop-topping.

• Positive crop production responses still remain at Cadgee five years after amelioration treatments were applied.
• Application of clay improved establishment and flowering biomass, regardless of incorporation depth (shallow, 10 cm and spaded, 30 cm), compared to the control and the spaded lucerne treatments (see Fig. 1 in attached trial report).
• Grain yield response to clay application increased with the depth of incorporation, and were doubled in the spaded clay + Luc treatment compared to the control, adding 1.58 t/ha in 2018.
• Over the long term, this treatment has produced an additional 95 % grain (4.5 t/ha) since 2014 (four years grain data; Fig. 2). 
• Changes in soil chemical, hydrological and physical characteristics as a result of spading and lucerne and clay addition were the focus of 2019 soil measurements at the site.
• A full report detailing temporal trends and long term soil fertility changes will be released soon.
   

• Incorporating clay into the sand has led to yield increases that are improving with time.
• Yield response to clay application increased with the depth of incorporation; a cumulative increase of 0.74 t/ha (23%) over the control was achieved when clay was incorporated in the top 10 cm (Fig. 1 Shallow clay), increasing to 1.41 t/ha (44%) when the clay was incorporated to 30 cm (Fig. 1 Spading + clay).
• A similar response was achieved when 10 t/ha of Lucerne hay (organic matter (OM)) was spaded in, resulting in a 1.62 t/ha (50%) increase in yield (Fig. 1 Spading + OM).
• The combination of OM plus clay gave the best grain yield result in all years, with a cumulative 2.95 t/ha (92% increase) achieved across the 2014, 2015 and 2017 seasons (Fig. 1 Spading + Clay + OM).
• Spading alone led to cumulative decreases in yield of 0.39 t/ha (-12%), which is in contrast to results on Mallee sands, where the effect of spading has remained positive over time.
• Changes in soil chemical, hydrological, physical and biological characteristics as a result of clay and OM addition are the focus of 2018 soil measurements at the site.
• The response to deep disturbance and placement of OM and nutrition, in contrast to spading, is the focus of future research conducted by PIRSA at Murlong on the Eyre Peninsula in 2018.

A summary of the main results from the first season at the Moora trial are presented in Figures 1 and 2.  Due to technical issues, the trial was not seeded at the same time as the rest of the paddock, which was supposed to be used as an untreated control. For this reason, a comparison of the treatments to a control treatment without tillage and clay spreading is not available.  A statistically significant effect of tillage on early plant establishment was found when analysing the plant counts measured about four weeks after sowing (Figure 1, left). All the treatments with the off-set disc (in combination or not with clay spreading) had more plants per linear meter in comparison to the one-way plough treatments. This is likely due to uneven seeding depth following tillage with the one-way plough (deep tillage) compared to the shallower tillage with the off-set disc. Surprisingly, incorporation of subsoil clay at any given rate did not show any significant effect on early plant establishment although this result could be explained by the wetter than usual weather in April-May reducing the severity of soil water repellence.

Again, when looking at the tiller counts recorded 8 weeks after sowing (Figure 1, right) the addition of clay at different rates did not affect the number of tillers. However, the wheat growing in the one-way plough treatments overcame the initial delay in germination giving higher tiller number than those recorded in the treatments with the off-set disc (except for the treatment with 250 t/ha of clay). This trend continued at harvest, with the one-way plough treatments producing higher yields (4.5-4.6 t/ha on average) than the off-set disc treatments (4.1-4.3 t/ha on average) at any given rate of subsoil clay.

Due to the low rates of clay spreading and the low cost of the incorporation methods, all treatments provided a positive return of investments in the first year (ROI= ($/ha gain – $/ha total direct costs) / $/ha total direct costs), based on mean values in Table 1. Not surprisingly, the best ROI in the first year was obtained by the one-way plough treatment without clay spreading (1.42 $/ha), followed by the off-set disc without clay spreading (1.22 $/ha) and the treatments clay spread at 50 t/ha incorporated with one-way plough (1.17 $/ha). These estimates are indicative only, as indirect costs and interests on the initial capital investment are not included in the calculations. For more accurate estimates of ROI, yield results from multiple seasons and crops will be collected in the next 3 years.

 

A summary of the main results from the first season at the Moora trial are presented in Figures 1 and 2.  Due to technical issues, the trial was not seeded at the same time as the rest of the paddock, which was supposed to be used as an untreated control. For this reason, a comparison of the treatments to a control treatment without tillage and clay spreading is not available.  A statistically significant effect of tillage on early plant establishment was found when analysing the plant counts measured about four weeks after sowing (Figure 1, left). All the treatments with the off-set disc (in combination or not with clay spreading) had more plants per linear meter in comparison to the one-way plough treatments. This is likely due to uneven seeding depth following tillage with the one-way plough (deep tillage) compared to the shallower tillage with the off-set disc. Surprisingly, incorporation of subsoil clay at any given rate did not show any significant effect on early plant establishment although this result could be explained by the wetter than usual weather in April-May reducing the severity of soil water repellence.

Again, when looking at the tiller counts recorded 8 weeks after sowing (Figure 1, right) the addition of clay at different rates did not affect the number of tillers. However, the wheat growing in the one-way plough treatments overcame the initial delay in germination giving higher tiller number than those recorded in the treatments with the off-set disc (except for the treatment with 250 t/ha of clay). This trend continued at harvest, with the one-way plough treatments producing higher yields (4.5-4.6 t/ha on average) than the off-set disc treatments (4.1-4.3 t/ha on average) at any given rate of subsoil clay.

Due to the low rates of clay spreading and the low cost of the incorporation methods, all treatments provided a positive return of investments in the first year (ROI= ($/ha gain – $/ha total direct costs) / $/ha total direct costs), based on mean values in Table 1. Not surprisingly, the best ROI in the first year was obtained by the one-way plough treatment without clay spreading (1.42 $/ha), followed by the off-set disc without clay spreading (1.22 $/ha) and the treatments clay spread at 50 t/ha incorporated with one-way plough (1.17 $/ha). These estimates are indicative only, as indirect costs and interests on the initial capital investment are not included in the calculations. For more accurate estimates of ROI, yield results from multiple seasons and crops will be collected in the next 3 years.

The topsoil sand at Yanda was severely repellent (Figure 1, left), as measured by the molarity of ethanol droplet test (MED). Clay spreading and tillage (either combined or separated) significantly reduced the severity of water repellency. When the subsoil clay was not incorporated by tillage or was incorporated using an off-set disc, the soil water repellency generally decreased with an increasing amount of subsoil clay. However, low-repellency (MED<1) was obtained only at rates over 150 t/ha of subsoil.

In contrast, spading (either at standard speed of the tractor or at half speed) was the most effective method for the alleviation of soil water repellency. In these treatments, the MED values were completely reduced to zero (non-repellent soil) and, most importantly, this was achieved independently from the presence, or not, of clay-rich subsoil. The significant reduction of the soil water repellency however did not convert to better plant establishment measured five weeks after sowing (Figure 1, Right).  This result could be explained by the wetter than usual weather recorded during April-May 2016 that reduced the impact of the soil water repellency on plant establishment. Nevertheless, tiller counts collected five weeks after plant counts showed a significant effect of tillage on the number of tillers. In particular, the spader treatments (standard and ½ speed) had the most tillers while the control had the fewest.

This trend was repeated with the barley grain yields at harvest time (Figure 2). Both tillage and rate of clay spreading, significantly improved grain yield in comparison to the control treatments (no clay and no tillage). The lowest yield were recorded in the control treatments and in the off-set tillage only (no clay) with an average of 1.41 t/ha and 1.36 t/ha respectively. The shallow tillage (or incorporation) using off-set discs did not yield significantly differently from the treatments with no incorporation at any given rate of subsoil clay. Clay spreading at 250 t/ha followed by spading at standard speed produced the highest yield on average (2.93 t/ha). Nonetheless, all treatments with spading (standard and ½ speed) were able to yield over 2.5 t/ha, even without the addition of subsoil clay (Figure 2). 

Field observations showed that the trial was also affected by frost, which explained the lower than expected yields. Head samples were collected in early November 2016 from all the treatments (except spading at ½ speed) for the assessment of frost induced sterility (FIS= number of sterile florets / total number of florets) and the results are shown in Figure 3.

The results on FIS showed that frost damage might be one of the main reasons of low yields and responsible of the large yield differences between treatments. The control treatments and the off-set treatment (no clay) had over 60% frost induced sterility. Even though increasing amounts of subsoil clay significantly reduced FIS (Figure 3c), the treatments with no incorporation or with incorporation by off-set discs still recorded FIS values above 50%. Spading was the most effective treatment to significantly reduce frost damage to below 40%, regardless of the presence or not of subsoil clay (Figure 3a and b).

Spading was the most successful treatment in this first year of the trial at Yanda. Most importantly, spading was able to produce the highest yields and significantly reduce the frost damage regardless of the addition subsoil clay. This was particularly evident when estimating the simple return of investments on the first year of the trial (ROI= ($/ha gain – $/ha total direct costs) / $/ha total direct costs), based on the mean values presented in Table 3. Because of the high crop-specific costs with barley at Yanda (500 $/ha) and the yield reduction due to frost, spading alone at standard speed was the only treatment that gave a positive ROI on the first year (+0.4 $/ha) followed by negative ROI with spading at ½ speed (-0.18 $/ha) and the control (-0.35 $/ha). These estimates are indicative only, as indirect costs and interests on the initial capital investment are not included in the calculations. For more accurate estimates of ROI, yield results from multiple seasons and crops will be collected in the next 3 years.

 

• Due to unreliable crop establishment, accurate data could not be generated.
• Oil data was however obtained which is given in the following table. 

• Janz significantly outyielded both Jnz CL and Declic.
• Janz CL was also significantly higher yielding than the Declic. 

• Clearfield chemistry significantly increased brome grass control, at this timing compared to the SU's.
• Clearfield offers control, not suppression.
• There are many factors that must be weighed up before deciding upon the weapon of choice for brome grass control.

• In the absence of stripe rust but the presence of leaf and stem rust and powdery mildew, an integrated fungicide strategy is critical for maximising yield and grain quality.
• Early application of fungicide (e.g. seed treatment or in-furrow) alone is insufficient to optimise grain yield and quality.

• The trial results from 2009 demonstrate there may be a number of options for companion annual legumes for perennial grass based pastures.
• The results need to be verified over a number of years with different seasonal conditions.

• Double knock applications of group H containing herbicides followed by paraquat seven days later appear to be very effective in controlling early flowering common sowthistle.
• Paraquat and Velocity were also very effective as standalone treatments in controlling early flowering common sowthistle.

• Double knock applications of some group H containing herbicides followed by paraquat seven days later appear to be a viable alternative to double knocking with Tordon 75D followed by paraquat for the control of early flowering flaxleaf fleabane.
• The most effective group H containing herbicides in combination with paraquat as double knock treatments were Precept, Balance and Velocity in order of effectiveness of their control of early flowering flaxleaf fleabane.

• All of the double knock treatments were very effective in controlling mid-late tillering awnless barnyard grass (BYG).
• Herbicides, apart from haloxyfop or glyphosate, have the potential to be used as the first spray in double knock treatments to control mid-late tillering awnless BYG.
   

• Balance and haloxyfop, followed by a double knock application of paraquat seven days later produced excellent control of mid-late tillering feathertop Rhodes (FTR) grass.
• Atrazine and paraquat, followed by paraquat, was slightly less effective than the Balance and haloxyfop double knock treatments.
   

Yield increases were the result of stripe rust control and the associated green leaf retention achieved with fungicide treatment.

• Incorporation of the lower subsoil application rates (50 and 100 t/ha) with offset discs resulted in increased canola plant establishment compared with the offset disc control plots without subsoil. However, at the higher subsoil application rates (360 and 450 t/ha) establishment was reduced due to inadequate clay incorporation (Fig. 1). Visually it was clear that the high rates of subsoil application resulted in surface sealing due to the poor incorporation by offset discs and this sealing was sufficient to reduce canola establishment. Incorporation of 50t subsoil/ha using a spader appears to have resulted in a reduction in canola establishment (Fig. 1) but there is no apparent reason why this should the case. Apart from this anomaly there is a trend towards improved plant establishment when higher rates of applied subsoil are spaded (Fig. 1).
• Comparing grain yields between subsoil incorporation using offset disc and rotary spader is not valid on this trial as the offset disc treatments are situated on pale deep sand which has less water holding capacity and lower potential than the sandy gravel on which the spaded treatments are situated. Canola grain yields in 2010 showed trends not dissimilar to those obtained for wheat on this trial in 2009. For the offset disc treatment there was no impact of the lower subsoil application rates on yield but a trend towards lower yields at the high application rates (Fig. 1) again most likely due to inadequate subsoil incorporation. For the rotary spader there was a trend towards higher yields as the subsoil application rate increased (Fig. 1), indicative of the capacity for the spader to achieve good subsoil incorporation. Overall canola yields were increased by more than 300 kg/ha when either 360 or 450 t/ha spread subsoil was incorporated using a spader (Fig. 1).
•  In both the 2009 and 2010 seasons the trends in crop establishment and grain yield have demonstrated the principle that when claying the subsoil application rate needs to be ‘matched’ to incorporation method that will be used to incorporate the clay. The results suggest that offset discs are only likely to be successful at incorporating lower subsoil application rates, probably of the order of 150 t/ha or less while rotary spaders are more appropriate for incorporating higher subsoil application rates of 250 t/ha or more.

• All of the herbicides examined appear to work well when tank mixed with paraquat to control early flowering common sowthistle.
• However, paraquat alone also provided excellent control of early flowering common sowthistle which questions the value of tank mixes with other herbicides.

• Tank mixing group H and H/I herbicides with paraquat (Group L) for the control of early flowering fleabane generally only provided moderate efficacy in this experiment.
• Tordon 75-D (Group I) mixed with paraquat and Velocity (Group H/C) mixed with paraquat, however, provided reasonable control at 89% and 81%, respectively.
   

• Tank mixing systemic herbicides and paraquat appears to be an effective tactic to control mid to late tillering awnless barnyard grass (BYG).
• Tank mixes could be a viable alternative to double knocking for BYG control, although further investigation is needed.

• Tank mixing systemic herbicides and paraquat for mid-late tillering feathertop Rhodes (FTR) grass control resulted in one potentially useful treatment (paraquat + haloxyfop).
• Haloxyfop tank mixed with paraquat, provided excellent control at 35 days after treatment (DAT), which was the only treatment to reach 100% efficacy.
   

• Results from experimentation undertaken in southern NSW in 2011 and 2012, have demonstrated that crop sequences which include a brassica or legume break crops can be as profitable as, and in many instances more profitable than, continuous wheat.
• Canola was consistently the most profitable break crop option. However, the rotational benefits of canola were usually restricted to just the first subsequent wheat crop whereas additional wheat yields can occur for 2 years after a legume.
• Growing pulses for grain maximises profit, particularly in favourable seasons, but compromises grass weed control and (depending upon species) reduces N available to subsequent crops compared to brown manuring.
• Growing pulses for hay was found to be profitable across a range of season types, achieves excellent grass weed control and provides greater N inputs and higher carry-over of soil water than when the same crop is grown for grain.
• Growing pules for brown manure loses money in the year they are grown, but achieves excellent grass weed control, high N inputs, residual carry-over of soil water, provides more ground cover, and requires less labour than when grown for hay or grain.

The Gross Returns (Income less Input Costs) for this demonstration using 2016 wheat prices for APW1, APW2 and ASW1 indicate that farmer practice (control) had the highest return of $443.61/ha (Figure 7 and Table 3). The second highest return was the spaded treatment at $442.11/ha.

All the treatments made a profit during 2016 between $303.13/ha to $443.61/ha. For a season such as 2016 where there was sufficient rainfall for plant establishment and growth, wetters may not be required at seeding which would reduce input costs.

Results generated using an average wheat price of $250/t over all treatments indicates that farmer practice (control) would still have the highest return of $465.81/ha, whilst the ploughed treatment would have the second highest return of $462.52/ha (Figure 8 and Table 4). All treatments would make a profit over $353.11/ha.

Over both scenarios the Gross Return ranking trend remained similar, with the soil amelioration treatments bringing a greater return than the wetters and DBS knife point at depth.  There is a larger $/h return difference between the two wetter treatments when comparing the 2016 wheat prices due to the grade of the grain (Table 2); $52.55/ha for 2016 wheat price and $22.67/ha for average $250 price.

It would be interesting to see how all plots at this site perform under a range of seasonal conditions. A multi year Gross Returns analysis could indicate a change in the $/ha return ranking trend in seasons where wetters have a greater influence on plant establishment. This analysis may also present significant return on investment for the soil amelioration treatments in the second and third year crops.

The wheat following brown manure contained higher numbers of the listed weeds. However, numbers were not critically high in the wheat treatment.

In 2007, wider row spacings (400mm vs 200mm) significantly (P<0.01) reduced yield (4.36t/ha vs 4.69t/ha) when averaged across five barley varieties and two nitrogen timings, suggesting that the benefits of wider row sowing for crop residue management practices are coming at a significant financial cost ($100/ha+, using current prices). However, the barley variety WI with nitrogen applied at
sowing (GS00) achieved the opposite result, as wider row spacings (400mm vs 200mm) significantly (P<0.05) increased yield (5.15t /ha vs 4.31t/ha).

Overall the fallow without tillage contained higher weed densities than all the other treatments with fleabane at 0.57 plants/m2. The brown manure peas had very low levels of marsh mallow and milk thistle. Both speed tilled treatments were very clean.

Using the highest label rate of either Aviator Xpro or Prosaro in the first application for sclerotinia lowered the level of sclerotinia infection and recorded a higher $ROI/ha in this trial. Increasing the rate of fungicide increases early activity on active disease but will also increase the length of protection from reinfection. 

The use of higher rates under high sclerotinia disease pressure is recommended not only in a single spray application to extend the window of protection but as recorded in this trial it can provide benefits to a two spray strategy. Improvements in length and strength of sclerotinia control from the use of a higher rate in the first application have been recorded across multiple commercial trials conducted by Bayer Crop Science across Australia in the 2016 season.

Study Conclusions

Potential nitrogen contributions are assumed to be 40% of the total nitrogen contribution, assessed from the dry weight and nitrogen content (N% tissue) of the green manure crops measured at anthesis. Legume crops provided the most potential nitrogen of all treatments, due to high tissue nitrogen and moderate to high biomass production. Oats had the highest biomass but were low in tissue nitrogen and potential nitrogen benefits were therefore negligible. Any benefits from this type of crop, would be largely associated with the contribution of organic carbon to the soil. Emergence of both canola and mustard was poor, whilst the lathyrus and vetch competed poorly with weeds due to slow initial growth.

The percentage of undecomposed material remaining on the soil surface at seeding in 1999, varied from approximately 35% for oats down to 10% for lathyrus. The general pattern was that the crops with higher tissue nitrogen content broke down quicker. This indicates the microbial degradation of legume crops is likely to be faster than for brassica or cereal crops.

Differences in water infiltration observed may indicate the potential for treatments to increase the initial sorptivity of soil (ability for more rapid entry of rainfall) and decrease the flow rate through the soil (effectively increasing moisture retention). This may allow earlier sowing after summer rains, increased moisture availability during the growing season and potentially longer availability under dry finishing conditions. These results are variable and subject to trial/operator error. Further evaluation of these attributes is required prior to evaluation of renovation techniques.

The high cost of seeding and maintenance of the green manure crop, can significantly influence the gains or losses experienced over this three year period. It may be most economic, to green manure legume crops in seasons with low potential returns (poor yield potential or price).  The cost of harvesting a lupin crop for example may prove less beneficial than using it as a green manure to improve wheat yield and quality, where prices are depressed or where disease/season has reduced yield potential. Strategic use of green manure crops as a tool in integrated weed management or potential productivity gains through addressing specific problems may result in little or no short term economic gain where employed in better performing paddocks and must be viewed as a long term strategy to overcome yield constraints. However, strategic use of these techniques for poor performing paddocks, or paddock that would have otherwise been ‘rested’, are likely to result in economic responses, particularly where using low cost crops or pasture has been employed as there is no requirement to recover the cost of foregone yield – only those associated with growing a crop and the implementation of techniques.

Data supports the hypothesis that a green manuring:wheat:wheat rotation, may be as profitable as a legume:wheat:wheat rotation using either a field pea or Lathyrus crop. Given this assessment does not include any additional benefits that may be gained from green or brown manuring in terms of additional weed control and potential improvement of soil characteristics such as the addition of organic material, improved soil structure and longer term productivity gains, these techniques are likely to prove both economical and sustainable by providing additional benefits that may be observed in lower herbicide costs through better weed management, improved soil health and a more flexible farming system.

You need to reduce the use of grass selective herbicides in pastures; however, if it is necessary to use grass selectives, make sure there is a 'mop-up' treatment later in the year to control resistant annual ryegrass and silvergrass.

• There are no significant differences in yields between east-west crop orientation and north-south crop orientation.
• As the paddock has good weed control, the results were primarily influenced by water availability and evaporation within the crop.

Over all four trials both Sakura treatments maintained a positive $ROI/ha with Sakura + trifluralin ($78.50) slightly ahead on average $ROI/ha to the standalone Sakura ($73.48)

Sakura 118 g/ha recorded a $55.08 increase in $ROI/ha over Boxer Gold across the four trials. Boxer Gold $ROI was generally in line with that of the prosulfocarb treatments in three of the sites, except from Waddy Forest where prosulfocarb 2.5 L/ha recorded a higher yield. Why this occurred is not clear as results were cross checked back with the contractor to ensure there was not a transcription error.

Trifluralin, due to its poor weed control, especially at Cunderdin, returned a slight positive $ROI/ha ($7.20) across the four trials.

All four sites to some extent were affected by frost which may have affected yield outcomes.

Getting weed control right is the key to ensuring the longevity of any herbicide but it also allows the crop it’s best possible chance of achieving its yield potential. Using a program of effective knockdowns and a product with a long residual activity like Sakura can deliver higher yields and returns across a variety of soil types and locations as seen across the four trials conducted during the 2016 season.

• Utilising a pre-emergent herbicide of any kind significantly reduced broadleaf weed establishment overall .
• Terrain and Terrain + Avadex treatments resulted in highest control of fumitory and cleavers.
• No significant difference between pre-emergent herbicides on grass and radish control.
• There was no significant influence of pre-emergent herbicide on yield.
• Untreated and Sakura treated plots had significantly lower protein levels.

• This trial demonstrates that a good establishment result is possible using a range of different seeding configurations, provided the key steps to establishment are followed.
• These factors include:
  • scalping of non-wetting sand and weeds away from drill runs;
  • row spacing of 50-60 cm;
  • sowing into furrows to harvest rainfall (especially important in dry springs); minimizing furrow collapse;
  • ensuring sowing depth is 5-10 mm; and - using press wheels for good soil contact with seed.

• Plant emergence was greatest in the offest disc treatment and lowest in the mouldboard plough treatments. Depth of sowing is critical and difficult to control on soil ameliorated soils.

• The Hybrid CL, TT and RR canola varieties performed extremely well in this trial site in 2012.
• A combination of hybrid vigour, superior yields and superior oil content made the hybrid varieties the top performers in each of the herbicide systems tested, even in light of the higher seed costs.

• The Hybrid CL, TT and RR canola varieties performed extremely well in this trial site in 2012.
• A combination of hybrid vigour, superior yields and superior oil content made the hybrid varieties the top performers in each of the herbicide systems tested, even in light of the higher seed costs.

• The Hybrid CL, TT and RR canola varieties performed extremely well in this trial site in 2012.
• A combination of hybrid vigour, superior yields and superior oil content made the hybrid varieties the top performers in each of the herbicide systems tested, even in light of the higher seed costs.

The use of trifluralin as part of an integrated herbicide management program for the control of Group A resistant annual ryegrass populations has increased dramatically over the past decade. The requirement of incorporating Triflur 480 within 4 hours of application has imposed management issues during the busy sowing period, however, the advent of Crew (a slow release trifluralin formulation) offers greater management flexibility with an incorporation period of 24–48 hours.

Ungarra Site: No different in yields (grain or dry matter) between any of the treatments (ie seeder had no effect)

Overall the results returned from this trial were confounded by low growing season rainfall and high temperatures during spring. This was reflected in the poor seed yields and significant variation across the treatment replicates reducing the confidence with which results can be drawn from the data.

Note: This trial was an unreplicated demonstration with observations/assesments based on one plot per treatment only, and as such results may not be definitive.

• High sowing rates (120kg/ha) and narrow row spacing (17cm) had the highest yield in all wheat varieties tested.
• The results were repeatable over two dry seasons (1997 and 1998).

Increased use of grass selective herbicides in many farming systems has caused increased selection pressure for herbicide resistance in grass weed populations such as annual ryegrass and brome grass. Work conducted by Bill Roy (Agricultural Consulting & Research Services Pty Ltd, York) with GRDC support demonstrates that managing herbicide resistance requires a diversified approach using a number of different tools. Manipulating canopy through seeding rates and row spacing is one of the options being explored by the BCG.

Increased use of grass selective herbicides in many farming systems has caused increased selection pressure for herbicide resistance in grass weed populations such as annual ryegrass and brome grass. Work conducted by Bill Roy (Agricultural Consulting & Research Services Pty Ltd, York) with GRDC support demonstrates that managing herbicide resistance requires a diversified approach using a number of different tools. Manipulating canopy through seeding rates and row spacing is one of the options being explored by the BCG.

• The overall performance of Frame and Silverstar was much better than for Ouyen.
• In this very dry year, higher sowing rates at narrow row spacing gave the highest yields for Frame and Silverstar.
• Ouyen performed better at higher sowing rates at wider spacings.

Magenta yeilded higher than Mace in Both seeding systems.

• Single row yielded higher than twin row at Binnu, also looked much healthier (better) through-out the season. This has not been a consistent observation in other research trials. Likely cause is poor P nutrition due to fertiliser placemnt in twin row and low P site.
• Increasing seeding rates reduced the yield potential of Magenta. In contrast, plant desities of 150 plants/m2 were the most productive for Mace.

• The extremely late break to the season highlighted maturity differences very clearly.
• Yield varied from 2.2 -4.0t/ha.
• Protein varied from 13.9% (Mitika, Echidna) to 15.7% (Quoll). Highlighting the potential for oats in a feedlot ration. Mitika has low lignin content (hull) and Quoll has medium lignin (hull) content.
• Screenings varied from 18.0% (Quoll) to 32.1 % (Potoroo). High values were because of the short growing season.
• The test weight varied from 47.6kg/hl (Potoroo) to 54.9kg/hl (Mortlock). Relatively low seed weights confirmed the short season trend shown by high protein and high screenings values.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Weeds have the biggest impact on summer water storage.
• Over the last two summers, the method of weed control had little effect on moisture storage
• Even under adequate growing season rainfall, weed control is necessary because weeds tie up and/or prevent significant amounts of nitrogen mineralizing, which cost 0.5t/ha of the canola yield.

Controlling summer weeds conserved both water and nitrogen and doubled wheat yields in 2011 on both sand and clay soil types. Retaining or removing stubble has only minor effects on wheat yield. Complete control of summer weeds pays, and there is no excuse for weedy paddocks during summer in the Wimmera and Mallee!

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Overall imposing a fallow allowed for a small amount of extra water to be stored in the soil and a small amount of extra nitrogen. As a result there was a small yield gain of 0.2 t/ha in 2012. 
• In this trial the fallow treatment was planted then sprayed out in August to replicate what is known as an ‘opportunistic’ fallow compared to a ‘strategic’ fallow where no crop is planted for 18 months. 18 month fallows would have different results to the ones reported here.
• Other benefits of fallow that were not recorded in this trial but could have contributed to the yield gain are improved weed control, disease breaks and opportunity for early sowing. 

• This is the second season in which this trial has been run and the fallow has yielded higher than continuous cropping in both 2011 (0.4 t/ha) and 2012 (0.2 t/ha). Other research indicates that fallows produce yield benefits in dry seasons which are not the case in the crop in 2011, which received 231mm for the growing season. The yield difference in 2011 was therefore more likely to have been the result of extra nitrogen in the soil, or weed or disease control rather than soil water benefits, however, these were not measured.
• Farm economics need to be carefully considered before implementing a fallow, the opportunity cost of not producing a crop needs to be weighed up, and benefits of yield, extra N, weed control and disease breaks carefully factored into the decision. 
• In 2012 the yield benefit from fallow was 0.2 t/ha and likely to be due to extra nitrogen and water being present in the soil. However, this is an unreplicated demonstration and thus it is hard to tell whether yield differences are the result of fallow or random variation in the paddock. 

• Many views exist as to whether continous cropping is sustainable.
• Results from a long term tillage trial at Condobolin indicate direct drilled crops are outperforming crops using tillage.
• Stubble retention compared to burning gives mixed results for yield, although more weed build up is evident with retained stubble.
• Wheat yields are higher when grown after peas than after wheat in succession.

• Soil and solution culture studies were conducted to examine the relative contribution of different mechanisms of zinc efficiency at the whole plant level in bread and durum wheat during early vegetative stage.
• While there are a number of mechanisms of zinc efficiency, zinc uptake appears to be the most important mechanism • Seed zinc remobilisation and root to shoot translocation do not appear to be important to zinc efficiency.
• Visual scores of zinc deficiency were significantly correlated with zinc efficiency, and they provide a useful criterion for an initial screen of zinc efficiency.
• This study was based on vegetative growth and the conclusions need to be verified under field conditions.
• The percentage deviation technique provided a straight forward means of comparing the relative effects of different components of zinc efficiency and the method could be extended to studies that use grain yield as the measure of zinc efficiency.

• Sunflower grain yield averaged 1.07 t/ha at this site with the highest yields obtained from the control and the treatments where only the bottom one third (1/3) of leaves were removed.
• The total leaf removal treatments had the largest effect on yield, at worst yielding only 0.16 t/ha.
• Removing all leaves at budding or at the start of the flowering growth stages had the largest effect on plant structures.
• Total leaf removal at the end of flowering had the largest effect on 1000 grain weight and test weight.

• Sunflower yields were greatly affected by the various defoliation treatments, ranging from 0.12 t/ha to 0.97 t/ha.
• Reductions in yield, of between 55% and 82% compared with the control resulted from total leaf removal at all three of the targeted growth stages (budding, start of flowering and flowering completion) as well as removing two-thirds of the leaves at budding.
• There was no negative effect on grain yield from removing the bottom third of leaves at budding or the start of flowering. Removing the bottom third of leaves at the start of flowering actually provided a slight yield advantage over the control treatment. The largest effect on plant height, head diameter and head arc length were caused by removing all leaves at the budding stage.

• All pre-emergent herbicides provided excellent early control of ryegrass (≥86%) & good crop safety under the knife-point press wheel system.
• Combination of trifluralin & Avadex Xtra followed by PSPE Boxer Gold provided greatest residual control, controlling more than 98% of ryegrass 12 weeks after sowing.
• Boxer Gold applied PSPE has been shown to provide some additional in-row controlof ryegrass.

• Boxer Gold alone or in combination with trifluralin and / or Avadex Xtra provided consistent pre-emergence control of ryegrass, as did trifluralin & Avadex Xtra.
• Although ryegrass control with new pre-emergent herbicide Sakura was lower than in previous years, its tank mixture with Avadex Xtra provided excellent control (86%).
• Boxer Gold & Dual Gold applied PSPE appeared to provide some additional in-row control of ryegrass.

Early application of selective herbicide (Group 1, A) gave excellent control of barley grass. While fewer barley grass plants meant less pasture biomass, it’s important to remember that the seeds on the mature barley grass would injure livestock. Further, these barley grass plants could host cereal crop disease.

Spray topping prevented viable seed set of barley grass while leaving the greatest pasture biomass.

Good barley grass control in the 2019 pasture was still evident in the 2020 and 2021 crops.

Late sowing of barley in 2020 (delayed 4 weeks) was relatively ineffective in controlling barley grass and crop yield was slightly reduced.

Late sowing of oats in 2021 (delayed 7 weeks) gave excellent weed control, but the crop yield was severely reduced.

Three years of control reduced barley grass density from over 1000 plants/m2 to 2-14 plants/m2 across the whole site.

The diverse rotation, including pasture and canola break crops, allowed a range of herbicides from different mode of actions and control of late emerging barley grass cohorts.

Two years of seed set prevention was not sufficient to remove the barley grass. Barley grass has a seedbank that lasts at least 3-4 years.

• Affinity mixtures consistently gave the best control of bifora.
• Treatments containing diuron or Buctril MA consistently produced reliable control.
• Precept was also one of the more effective treatments.

The trial establishment was variable early due to some non-wetting soil and the crop was sown too deeply due to furrow fill from significant rain after sowing. Early crop vigour as a result was low with blackleg further reducing plant establishment; this coupled with high levels of Vegetable beetle damage also reduced the evenness of the plots.

According to the DAFWA sporacle model spore maturity occurred on approximately the 22nd May which meant this trial was at very high risk of significant disease risk as emergence coincided with high spore levels being released from last year’s stubble.

• Excellent annual ryegrass control (>85%) with propyzamide either as split application (IBS followed by PSPE) or as a mixture with tri-allate.
• Atrazine also gave effective control this season with rainfall assisting activity (>79%).
• Early crop vigour was suppressed with Outlook & the higher split rate (1 kg/ha IBS followed by 1 kg/ha PSPE) of propyzamide.
• UAN at 20 kg/ha caused some leaf burning, however the crop recovered.

• Measurements in August showed clethodim to give 82% control and pre-emergent treatments to give 85% control of annual ryegrass.
• Averaged across the trial the ryegrass still set 15 heads per square metre.

• A Predicta B sample taken from the site indicated a medium risk of rhizoctonia although patches did not express during the season.
• Early establishment across the site was severely impacted by non-wetting affected all plots across the trial with the worst of it commencing around plot 215 and increasing in severity throughout replicate 3.  Early dry conditions further staggered the crop emergence.
• Good rains through late July and into early August ensured the crop was growing well albeit patchy across the trial with high levels of disease present at both the Z31 and Z39 applications. Only 48.9 mm of rain fell from the second Z39 application to the end of October reducing the benefits to yield of the different fungicide treatments.
•  Increasing variability in the trial due to the sub-soil issues from plot 215 into replicate 3 was a significant factor. Yield data should be treated with caution due to the variability of the site with disease control is the most accurate assessment of treatment efficacy.

• Control of net form net blotch using effective fungicides resulted in yield increases of up to 1.0 t/ha compared to nil treatments.
• Two strategic fungicide applications during early-mid growth stages (before end of August) – suppressed disease development and provided control comparable to four applications made every 2-4 weeks from early August.
• Tilt, Amistar Xtra, Opera and Prosaro were effective for control of net form of net blotch.

• Control of net form net blotch using effective fungicides resulted in yield increases of up to 1.0 t/ha compared to nil treatments.
• Two strategic fungicide applications during early-mid growth stages (before end of August) – suppressed disease development and provided control comparable to four applications made every 2-4 weeks from early August.
• Tilt, Amistar Xtra, Opera and Prosaro were effective for control of net form of net blotch.

• Powdery mildew infection was observed during the 2015–16 season, although less severe than in previous seasons.
• Powdery mildew infection was found on all soybean varieties except Djakal, demonstrating its known resistance.
• Fungicide applications had no effect on the grain yield of Djakal, N005A-80 or P176-2 varieties, however, the SnowyA variety had a significant increase in grain yield when treated with tebuconazole in a split application regime.

• Boxer Gold IBS + PSPE or Trifluralin IBS + Avadex Xtra IBS + Dual Gold PSPE gave the best pre-emergent annual ryegrass control in 2009.
• Boxer Gold or Dual Gold applied PSPE significantly improved ryegrass control in the crop row.

• There was no significant change in wheat or ryegrass establishment due to sowing systems or position.
• BAY-191 produced the greatest control of ryegrass, 79%.

• A single application of Uragan (bromacil) plus paraquat in May gave complete control of all weeds at all sites over both rates. However, the additional expense, soil erosion risk and irsk to remnant vegetation need to be considered.

• A two spray or double knock strategy (including cultivation or another non-herbicide treatment) is often required for complete control in fencelines with the first application early in the season followed by another one later in the season (after the seeding and post-harvest operations are over).
• Tank mixes of residual herbicides plus a knockdown give the best control for the first application.
• A single application of a mixture of Uragan® (bromacil) and paraquat early in the season gives excellent weed control on fencelines.
• The addition of Alliance® (mixture of amitrole and paraquat) as the knockdown gives good broadleaf control.
• Glyphosate can still be used but intensive monitoring and complete seed set control is required to prevent resistance from developing.

 

• In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops.
• The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached.
• In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops. The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached. In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops. The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached. In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

Seed-applied fungicide had no significant effect on plant establishment, yield or grain quality (Refer Table 2). Visual differences in disease levels were not present between the fungicide treatments. Spot Form of Net Blotch was present at low levels in the trial and Leaf Scald was present at very low levels.

• Roundup alone will not control Flaxleaf fleabane. 
• Addition of Surpass and Ally to Roundup provided the most effective control.
• To avoid the need to use more expensive chemicals and spray more than twice, control fleabane before it begins to elongate (>40cm in height).

• Metribuzin added to Precept® gave good control of all weeds.
• Affinity Force® did not perform to the standard expected.

Summer rain over the past 3 months has been substantial in some areas; therefore summer weed growth has been vigorous. Rosinweed is a particularly strong summer weed which is very difficult to control. This trial showed that Group B (IMI) herbicides had good control of rosinweed, while Ally® having less control, offered good suppression.

• Glyphosate alone at high rates produced poor control of annual ryegrass along the fenceline.
• Spray.seed + Diuron, Round up Power Max + Diuron and Alliance all gave good control of the glyphosate resistant annual ryegrass.