• Even when sowing in April, into drying soil, establishment of canola was better at 1 cm compared to 3 or 7 cm.
• Sowing small OP seed deeper, at 3 and 7 cm, resulted in the poorest establishment and yield.
• In difficult conditions hybrid seed was better able to establish than OP canola.

• Seed quality: Check the germination and vigour of seed harvested in 2000, or other weather damaged seed.
• Nitrogen: Soil nitrogen levels are likely to be lower in 2001, but will vary depending on summer rainfall, fallow weed control and paddock history.
• Screenings: Pinched and small grain can result from drought stress and high temperatures, foliar disease or inappropriate input levels such as excessive early nitrogen, late sowing or poor soil water extraction.
• Black Point: Black point in wheat is now thought to result from enzyme reactions during ripening, brought on by environmental stresses.

There are numerour interactions between soil type, mineralisation level, PAWC and tiller response inthis trial. Generally speaking the trial showed that applying more nitrogen resulted in increased protein but not necessarily yield

• Growers should check the grain weight, germination of retained seed and calibrate accordingly to achieve consistent plant establishment from season to season.
• Correct seeder calibration amounted to a 0.3t/ha yield or $60/ha gain.
• If phosphorus (P) soil reserves are low, consider increasing P fertiliser rates to achieve optimal yields.

This trial showed considerable infection of striperust at flag leaf stage through to grain filling stage.There were visual differences in stripe rust levels between the control and stripe rust treatments at flag leaf stage. A foliar fungicide application would have undoubtedly protected the plant in the later growth stages, thereby providing higher yields. The soil root disease test showed no
problem with the root diseases listed above. One disease, which cannot be commercially tested for at this stage, is pythium. Dividend does not claim to have any effect on stripe rust so the increase in yield in the Dividend treatment could be attributed to pythium. The other treatments have clearly had a yield benefit from stripe rust suppression, as this was the only visible foliar disease in the trial. The trial will be extended in 2005 to include foliar fungicide applications and other combinations of products used in this trial.

• The trial had to be seeded a little deeper than we anticipated in order to chase moisture.
• There was no significant differences to come out of this trial as shown by LSD (least significant difference).
• This trial, like many other seed treatment trials, has provided not real differences between treatments.

• A critical level of zinc is required in the soil before roots will either grow into it or function effectively.
•  It is likely that this requirement is frequently not met in deep sandy in fertile soils.
• This paper presents arguments for breeding cereal varieties with root system is better able to mobilise zink from soil sources of low availability.
• Significant genetic variation for this character is described for wheat, barley and oats.
• Linkage to other efficiency traits for example manganese, is poor suggesting independent mechanisms and genetic control not linked to gross root system geometry.
• Zinc efficiency traits for sandy and clay soils are appear be genetically different.
•  Zinc inefficient genotypes absorb more zinc from deficient soils.

• Nutrient deficiencies and toxicities develop under acid soil conditions.
• At mild molybdenum deficiency nitrate can accumulate in plants because of decreased nitrate reduciton.
• Manganese toxicity might effect legumes, nodulation and microsymbionts all equally.
• There is wide variation between legume species and cultivars in tolerance for manganese toxicity.

In the field the ability for the QST713 strain to colonise the root zone and improve the active interface between the soil, plant roots, bacteria and some of the exudate biochemical has been widely recorded. This delivers benefits across a wide range of crops (in WA benefits have been recorded in avocado, citrus, potato and leafy greens trials to date) with increases in nutrient levels in leaves and fruit to assist quality and shelf life among the improvements recorded. The application timing of the product is vital across crop type in order to achieve effective root colonisation. Generally timing should coincide with root flush timings for the respective crop but will also be influenced by the following factors:

Crop type and season length

Application method

Irrigation frequency and volume

Pests to be targeted

As a crop health product in horticulture, more research must be done and as grower experience increases with the product we will find out its BMP and how to best apply within different systems to get the optimum results.

Benefits to look for in potatoes are:

Yield consistency

Tuber size and grade %

Skin finish

Shelf life

The defining element that governs $ROI/ha in the trial is the pack shed pricing for various potato grades. This will fluctuate as will the demand for various grades which can see some of the results above skewing the $ROI. An example is a higher price for gourmet, chats and plain grade in 2016 due to shortages on the east coast which would cause the lower three grades to lose money in the trial as compared to the treated but overall the GM would still be positive.

Legumes are an important tool in a perennial sward to supply a nitrogen source and maintain production. Serradella can be successfully established and persist in an established perennial pasture; this includes persisting as part of a crop/pasture rotation in perennials.

In the more favorable year of 2013 serradella biomass and pod production was higher. There is a yield penalty for serradella when sown into perennials, the penalty though will vary depending on the seasonal conditions. Perennials are still actively growing in March and April before the cooler weather starts to suppress their growth and they become less competitive. An indecisive Autumn break can allow active perennials to deplete moisture reserves that would normally allow germinating serradella to survive. These results clearly demonstrate the advantage of a successful early germination and establishment, although an indecisive break and low rainfall year will exaggerate the yield penalty when serradella is sown into perennials. Additionally, the suppressive effect of a grass selective on perennial growth may reduce competition with annual pasture species and can be used as a tool to increase annual legume production.

For the fourth year in a row grain yield was increased by controlling summer weeds. There has been a return on investment in all years of this trial, by controlling summer weeds. Retaining or removing stubble has only a minor effect on yield.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction; sheep’s mouths cause damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface; natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this.
• Grazing of stubbles and crops appears to make more N available to crops, which can increase yield; the mechanisms by which this is achieved remain uncertain.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this.
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this. 
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this.
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this.
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this. 
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this.
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Sheep grazing on stubbles and crops do not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds are controlled and at least 70% stubble cover (2-3 t/ha cereal stubble) is maintained.
• Reduced water infiltration and yield from grazing are due to removal of cover rather than compaction – it is sheep’s mouths that do damage, not their hooves.
• Sheep do compact soil, but only at the surface and natural shrinking and swelling of soils and sowing with knife points alleviates this.
• Grazing of stubble and crops appears to make more N available to crops which can increase yield, although the mechanisms remain unclear.

• Grazing crop stubbles makes more mineral N available to crops which increases grain N uptake and is perhaps an overlooked benefit of keeping livestock in stubble-retained farming systems.

The gravel content of a soil certainly affects soil physics and chemistry as well as crop growth processes.

In terms of nutrient management, currently increased gv% is assumed to reduce the amount of nutrients available to the crops, but not to concentrating the effect of fertiliser inputs. Adjustments for gv% are made in systems which use soil test calibration curves to produce recommendations when in fact those adjustments are probably not justified. All of the adjustments which are made, lead to higher fertiliser recommendations.  Even so, no attempt is made to better sample for or estimate gv%.

Whether it is worth investing further resources to confirm or refute the importance of the questions raised in this study is open to question. The complexity of the effects of gv% in real farming systems is such that there may well be no way to improve the predictive power of the models (both regression and mechanistic) to any great extent.

If resources are found to fund future work then it would be best to start with direct measures of whether gravel is inert or not – particularly with respect to water.  Experimental work used in parallel with ROOTMAP model runs to study the effect of gravel on nutrient uptake could also be worthwhile.

• Acid soils from southern New South Wales were analysed for manganese.
• Manganese was measured using ammonium acetate, ammonium acetate with hydroquinone or on a barium chloride leachate.
• There was no relationship between exchangeable and easily reducible manganese ( ammonium acetate plus hydroquinone extractable).
• As easily reducible manganese relates most closely to plant available it is suggested that manganese be measured on ammonium acetate plus hydroquinone extracts.

• Grazing perennial native shrubs are being trialled on Eyre Peninsula.
• Three sites established, Elbow Hill, Streaky Bay & Minnipa.
• Perennial native shrubs could potentially help fill the summer-autumn feed gap while providing other benefits such as drought management, nutritional value, reduced soil erosion, carbon sequestration and in some species fodder production in a saline environment.
• Increasing ground cover in low-medium rainfall farming systems.

• On average in the Mediterranean Mallee environment, sub-tropical grasses grow best during late spring and early summer when soil temperatures are rising and soil moisture is available.
• Unless significant rain occurs after December, the growth rate of sub-tropical grasses is typically low in the period December to April.
• Subtropical grasses are dormant in the winter months, so weed control measures are relatively easy and the inclusion of annual medics may be possible.
• The standing fodder of sub-tropical grasses can potentially be carried over for grazing later in summer.

After six years of running the Systems Site comparing farming systems it has become clear that the critical issues are as follows.

Conserving soil water into dry seasons, which can be achieved using either mechanical in a conventional system or chemical means in a reduced till or no till system (assuming there is enough stubble to protect the soil surface from evaporation).

Since the introduction of Frame and Yitpi (CCN resistant wheats) CCN has not been a problem.

Take-all and Pratylenchus neglectus appear to more closely correlate to specific areas in a paddock rather than levels changing because of crop choice or the rotation (field peas did lower Pratylenchus levels). Certainly there did not appear to be any influence of farming system on these two soil borne diseases.

Weed levels have not changed markedly over the duration of the trial and there were no differences between systems after six years. Brome grass is now present at the site at very low levels whereas it was not recorded in 1999 and 2000.

Wind erosion susceptibility and risk is lowest in the No Till plots because of good stubble cover and aggregation of soil particles. The three other systems all had plots which were moderately susceptible to wind erosion, primarily as a result of low stubble cover.

Using current technology and sampling intensity it is not possible to pick up changes in soil available nitrogen levels between different farming systems.

Soil changes in soil biological characteristics are currently being assessed and will be reported by the BCG update in February 2006.

• The laboratory analysis indicated the site would be zinc responsive.
• Zinc sulphate was no applied and no zinc deficiency symptoms were observed.
• Extensive trials in the Forbes district have never shown a response to zinc fertiliser in wheat.

• The application of lime and gypsum to a sodic soil has improved soil structure (observations) and fertility (soil test results) in the top soil (0-10cm). However, despite the lime and gypsum being applied 5 years ago, soil tests indicate there has been no change in the sub soil (10-30cm).
• Gypsum produced a greater soil ameliorant effect in the early years, but after 5 years appears to have largely 'run out of puff. In contrast, lime produced smaller benefits in the early years, but it's effects have lasted longer and are still clearly visible after 6 years.

• The application of lime and gypsum to a sodic soil has produced improvements in soil structure observable to visitors of the trial site.
•  Improvement in soil structure have been associated with variable responses in grain yield and quality across years, apparently in response to varying available soil moisture over the last 5 crop years (2000 to 2004).
• Yield increases with soil amelioration are associated with years where crop growing conditions were conducive to high yield and/or reasonable levels of sub soil moisture were available to the crop (years 2001 and 2002).
• In contrast, barley yield declines of 40% - 80% and quality downgrades have occurred in the last two very dry years (2003 and 2004). This is thought to be due to the soil amelioration treatments promoting additional early season vegetative growth but being followed by severe spring conditions leading to the crop "haying off”.
• The trial has sown no economic benefit of soil amelioration in 5 years.

No significant differences were found from either the different rates of gypsum applied in 1994 or from the tillage practices.

• Soil acidification is a natural process accelerated by high crop yields and fertilizer use. It is an unseen cost of doing business.
• To maintain a good soil pH profile, producers should aim for a pHCa above 5.0 in the 0-10cm of topsoil or 5.5 if subsoil acidity issues are present. The target in the 10-30cm zone is greater than
  pHCa 4.8.
• Correct pH is paramount when growing legumes, especially if the decision to grow them is to increase soil nitrogen levels.
• Liming needs to be thought of as a farm input, like checking and changing the oil in the tractor (maintaining capital), rather than buying urea (dollars returned per dollar invested).

• Soil acidification is a natural process accelerated by high crop yields, fertilizer use and potentially direct drilling and stubble retention. It is an unseen cost of doing business.
• To maintain a good soil pH profile producers should aim for a pH(CaCl) above 5.0 in the 0-10cm of topsoil or 5.5 if subsoil acidity issues are present. The target in the 10-30cm zone is greater than pH (CaCl) 4.8.
• Retesting during 2015 of historic soil pH datasets confirms soil profiles continue to acidify.
• Left unmanaged sub soil acidification is likely to occur in most Central West NSW soils.
• Liming needs to be thought of as a farm input, like checking and changing the oil in the tractor, (maintaining capital) rather than buying urea (dollars returned per dollar invested).
• Cost in managing soil pH are easier to quantify than returns.

• Soil acidification is a natural process accelerated by high crop yields, fertilizer use and potentially direct drilling and stubble retention. It is an unseen cost of doing business.
• To maintain a good soil pH profile producers should aim for a pH(CaCl) above 5.0 in the 0-10cm of topsoil or 5.5 if subsoil acidity issues are present. The target in the 10-30cm zone is greater than pH (CaCl) 4.8.
• Retesting during 2015 of historic soil pH datasets confirms soil profiles continue to acidify.
• Left unmanaged sub soil acidification is likely to occur in most Central West NSW soils.
• Liming needs to be thought of as a farm input, like checking and changing the oil in the tractor, (maintaining capital) rather than buying urea (dollars returned per dollar invested).
• Cost in managing soil pH are easier to quantify than returns.

• Soil pH levels in paddocks across KI are below critical levels which is having an impact on both farm production and the environment.
• Soil acidity potentially remains as a significant land management issue on Kangaroo Island with 94% of all sites analysed the top and sub soil were below the critical level of 5.0 pHCaCl2.
• Amelioration of soil acidity, through lime spreading needs to be conducted to prevent soil acidification.

• Over time applications of lime increase soil pH by an average of 0.45 unit.
• Many limed paddocks were still at critical pH levels, it’s important to retest paddocks about 2 to 3 years after liming and re-apply lime if required.
• Amelioration of soil acidity, through lime spreading, needs to be conducted to prevent soil acidification.

• Over time applications of lime (2.5-3t/ha) increase soil pH by an average of 0.45 unit.
• Monitor pH levels, retest 2 to 3 years after liming and reapply lime if required.
• Amelioration of soil acidity, through lime spreading, needs to be conducted to prevent soil acidification.

The results so far (after three dry seasons) indicate that:

- deep ripping has resulted in significantly lower yields, and

- gypsum has had no affect on yield.

• The purpose of 2010 was to establish this long-term trial and baseline soils analysis
• Due to limited funding no formal monitoring took place and all results and analysis was visual.
• The Spader caused the trial area to be soft and as such sowing depth was compromised. Some furrows were partially collapsed, burying the seed even deeper. This cause patchy germination on the spaded area.
• Perennials did not germinate due to lack of spring and summer rain- these may need to be re-seeded in 2011.
• Unfortunately some of the treatments were affected by aphids, eg Dalkeith and to a lesser extent Bartolo Bladder clover and Rose Clover.
• Due to a very dry finish there appeared to be very poor seed set on all treatments.
• Low clay rates of 60T without incorporation was effective in aiding establishment of seeded varieties and could be an economic option for establishing annual pasture on poorer non-wetting sands.
• At at current levels. This option produced high quality pasture which was a great improvement over the control and on a larger scale may sustain higher stocking rate and or growth rates.

• The purpose of 2010 was to establish this long-term trial and baseline soils analysis
• Due to limited funding no formal monitoring took place and all results and analysis was visual.
• The Spader caused the trial area to be soft and as such sowing depth was compromised. Some furrows were partially collapsed, burying the seed even deeper. This cause patchy germination on the spaded area.
• Perennials did not germinate due to lack of spring and summer rain- these may need to be re-seeded in 2011.
• Unfortunately some of the treatments were affected by aphids, eg Dalkeith and to a lesser extent Bartolo Bladder clover and Rose Clover.

 

• Good soil moisture conditions at sowing reduced the impact of repellence on establishment; all treatments established a healthy number of plants.
• Claying improved crop establishment, growth and grain yield in 2011; this appears to be driven by better seedbed moisture retention and reduced nutrient leaching, espeically nitrogen.
• Good soil moisture conditions during grain fill minimised any water shortage (haying off) effects from claying.
• Cultivation treatment had no impact on grain yield, possibly because seasonal conditions were not conductive to showing differences or because the cultivation impacts are reducing over time, ongoing assessment should clarify this.
• Drier conditions at seeding and harder finishes would be expected to result in greater impact from the repellence management treatments.

There was a significant yield improvement of the triticale to applied gypsum.

• Crop production on these deep infertile sands is often well below the water-limited potential, partly because they have little capacity to hold mobile nutrients such as nitrogen but also because they are often compacted.
• However, a major limitation on these soil types is the very infertile subsoils, which prevent efficient extraction of water by crop roots.
• Adding fertilisers into this area can produce spectacular benefits to crop performance but techniques to produce these benefits need to be further refined to make them more cost-effective.
• The addition of products, which will hold nutrients near the seed, showed some promise in this trial but further testing should be conducted to assess the reliability of this approach.
• Deep ripping is usually beneficial on these deep sands.

• Soil inversion with a mouldboard plough results in a layer of repellent topsoil being buried at depth with a layer of wettable subsoil brought to the surface. Water can readily enter subsoil brought to the surface but it can take some time for the buried water repellent topsoil to wet up.
• Soil moisture measurements made just after seeding and prior to emergence indicated that at both sites the top 10cm of soil in both the furrow and the ridge was wetter in the mouldboard plough treatment compared with the control treatment.
• For further results please see the attached trial report.

• Five representative commercial wheat farm sites with a history of no copper application were selected on each of five main soil types in the Hamilton district.
• Four treatments (replicated 4 times) were established; Nil and 75 q of foliar copper applied at Z (Zadox’s growth stage) 23 , 41 and 23 + 41.
• Composite Al and A2 horizon soil samples from each site were analysed for EDTA (0.75%,1:5 soil; extract, l hour) extractable copper. Youngest fully emerged leaf and Whole plant samples were taken at growth stages Z21, 23 and 41 and analysed for total copper.
• Yield response (pooled data) was significantly related to copper level in the Al and A2 horizon, however variance accounted for improved to 20% when mean A horizon copper was used.
• Three plant Cu measurements were significantly related to Yield Response.
• Variance accounted for improved for earlier YL samples and later WP samples.
• Low Variance accounted for % were possibly due to climatic and soil variation across sites.
• Soil variation influences extraction efficiency and climatic variation influences growth pattern and nutrient redistribution Z21 plant Cu levels were significantly related to Z23 and 41 levels. Z21 sampling could thus give farmers a timely indication of Cu levels during later, critical growth phases.
• This experiment has shown that while soil and plant copper levels are related to yield response, they alone give a limited indication of the presence of copper deficiency in wheat.
• Yield response is most closely related to whole Plant Z41 and mean copper level in the A horizon.
• Early sampling may give advanced warning of copper deficiency.

• There is still a lack of scientific research to validate results and their complete interpretation, nor does there appear to be any standardisation of tests.
• Testing may provide a ‘guide’ and some value as a comparison tool between paddocks.
• Significant differences in results between labs, possibly due to different analysis methods. This highlights the
• need to be cautious when comparing results from different labs.
• For a copy of the full report contact the PIRSA Office, Kingscote.

• Stubble retention and reduced stocking pressures increase soil microbial activity.
• Activity of soil microbes give soils natural suppression of root diseases.
• Disease suppression has been shown to be substantially increased through retention of stubbles over a 5-10 year period.
• Microbial activity has a strong influence on the availability of soil nutrients to crops, Nitrogen is the nutrient most influenced by microbial activity.
• There are many microbes that can break down chemicals and this break down is often enhanced with increased stubble retention.

Results show that there was a significant increase in grain yield and protein level for brown manure and organic matter treatments.

Research and trial work across Australia has shown that stubble retention does eventually lead to an improved soil resource

The lupin phase is primarily a 'set up' rotation which continues evaluation of the soil resource. No yield results are obtained in the lupin rotation.

No significant differences have been found between treatments in relation to the soil resource.

• This trial was implemented in an effort to increase grain yield through improved soil water storage and biological functioning. Organic matter, whether as retained stubble or additional inputs, is a significatn source of crop nutrition, and improved moisture conditions allow for optimal breakdown by soil microbes.
• Further investigation and trial work into the effect of chaff and straw from different crop species would have on yield and soil health properties would be beneficial to evaluate.

It was expected that the imposed treatments to increase soil organic matter would take several years to become noticeable, especially in medium rainfall areas.  Even after three reasonable seasons at Temora with good crop production there were no differences in Soil C stock between the stubble and nutrient supply treatments.  The same result was found at the other seven trial sites located in SE Australia.  Thjis work shows that increasing soil C stocks is a long-term process, and three years was not long enough to measure significant changes with the practices selected.  The Temora Soil C trial will be remeasured again on the completion of the 2016 season after five years of trial work.

Given that carbon sequestration is not an overnight process it is not surprising that there have been few significant results or trends to report on in either an intensive plot or large paddock scale.  Nutrient addition to balance the ration of C;N;P;S has surprisingly had little impact on yield and this is possibly a desirable outcome as no difference between +/- nutrient treatments would indicate that the nutrients are available for sutbble breakdown, rather than crop vegetative mass. Cost associated on a whole farm scale of purchasing nutrients in addition to normal fertiliser requirements could prove prohibitive.

• Seasonal conditions and soil type have a greater effect on carbon than management.
• Providing necessary nutrients and pH for optimum pasture production will potentially increase soil carbon.
• Cropping in a good season might not decrease soil carbon stocks. Opportunities could exist for Monaro landholders to diversify their enterprises when the conditions are right without depleting their soil carbon.
• A rapid increase of soil carbon can easily be followed by a rapid decrease.
• For more information please see our eBook: Soil carbon in the Monaro region (https://itunes.apple.com/au/book/ id1035198100 or http://tinyurl.com/zrr9mht).

• Manganese deficiency was found to be less on compacted than uncompacted soils low in manganese.
• Compacted soils had more roots than uncompacted soils.
• It was postulated that a greater area of root surface increased the reduction and dissolution of manganous oxide and increased manganese availability.

• Compacted layers exist in EP soils, but there is no economic advantage in mechanically intervening.
• Any benefit from deep ripping alone is most likely for 2 years.
• Deep ripping is a high risk option in below average years.
• Sandy soils are more responsive to deep ripping.

Over the summer of 2002/03 soil conservation is as critical as summer weed control to ensure that your soil resource is in the best possible condition to produce high yielding crops in 2003.

• Relatively low levels of stubble cover during January – March provide effective protection against soil erosion.
• Protection against soil erosion is not related to the tillage system employed in crop establishment or management provided stubble is retained over the summer period.
• Ripping techniques in which significant levels of clod are brought to the soil surface are effective in preventing significant soil losses on paddocks without vegetative cover.

• Salinity is increasing slightly but is still well within desired levels. Salinity is not increasing at depth.
• Acidity is worsening with the majorioty of sites below critical levels. Acidity is also inceasing at depth, where it is much more costly to treat.
• Phosphorus levels, where fertilser had been applied, is at optimum to above optimum levels.

• Basal yield reached 75% of potential yield at this site.
• The plus N treatment did not significantly affect yield, and N was not a limiting factor.
• Moisture was in excess below 60cm soil depth.

This site was close to achieving potential yield according to the French-Schultz equation.

Yield from the basal applied treatment wqas 90% of potential yield.

Actual yield (basal treatment) was well below potential yield according to the French-Schultz equation.

• Yield was not significantly increased with the addition of extra N, therefore N was no limiting.
• Potential yield was not reached with either treatment.

• This site exceeded yield potential.
• The plus N treatment did not significantly increase yield from the basal treatment.

• Potential yield was not reached with the basal or the plus N treatments.
• Wheat yield was 1.27t/ha and was not significantly different with the addition of more nitrogenous fertiliser.

This was the highest yielding satellite site with the basal treatment yielding 4.03t/ha.

• As in 2014, there was a significant difference in yield, in response to the cultivation treatments but not between the lime treatments.
• Screenings in 2015 were much higher in the mouldboard and spaded plots than any other treatments. The percentage of screenings in these treatments increased with the increasing rate of lime.

• Sapding or delving in lime lifted the soil pH to a depth of 20cm within one year.
• All other results are inconclusive at this stage; this may be due to seasonal conditions and/or crop variety.

• This trial is a large-scale experiment, the data collected provides an indication of treatment effects and demonstrates benefits and pitfalls of adopting these subsoil acidity management methods on a large-scale. The small plot trials are more accurate and provided detailed statistical analysis of the impact of different treatments.
• Further years of research and analysis from this site and other sites will confirm these findings.

Soil moisture retention granules did not influence wheat grain yield or quality at Hart in 2010.

Soil moisture retention granules did not influence wheat grain yield at Hart in 2009.

• N2O emissions at the Gunnedah site were approximately 10 times higher than at the Emerald site, due to the wet soil conditions and high pre-season rainfall at Gunnedah which led to denitrification of N from pre-season anhydrous ammonia application.
• Two nitrification inhibitors, DMPS (“Big N-sure”, Incitec Pivot Fertilisers) and nitrapyrin (“N-serve”, Dow AgroSciences) directly injected into anhydrous ammonia during pre-plant N application delayed the conversion of applied ammonium in the soil to nitrate for a period of 2–3 months.
• At the Gunnedah site, cumulative N2O emitted was reduced by 86% (DMPS) and 65% (nitrapyrin), compared to untreated ammonia.

Conclusions: 

In a season such as that experienced at the Emerald 2016–17 site, there were only minor environmental benefits from using a nitrification inhibitor in conjunction with anhydrous ammonia. However, these experimental conditions may not be typical as pre-plant fertiliser is usually applied earlier in the year at Emerald than it was at this site. A longer period of time between pre-plant application and plant establishment would provide greater opportunity for N2 O losses to occur, although the potential for heavy winter rainfall tends to be low in the Emerald region. While both inhibitor products clearly reduced emissions during the first two measurement periods, it was apparent that the effectiveness of these products had dissipated by the time of the second irrigation. The additional inhibitor application with the side-dressed urea boosted the N2 O reduction period for the DMPP treatment, while the application of untreated urea to the other treatments allowed further losses matching those of the untreated control after the initial pre-plant N application. The 2016–17 Gunnedah experiment provided the perfect testing conditions for nitrification inhibitors as the soil was very wet at application, and received frequent heavy rainfall during the next 3 months. These inhibitors were designed to retain mineral N from applied N fertiliser in the soil during periods of excessive rainfall that may otherwise lead to large losses of nitrate N through denitrification and leaching. Leaching occurs through downward movement of nitrate with water in the soil, but we found no evidence of this having occurred in the soil core samples we took just prior to sowing. For heavy clay soils such as this one at Gunnedah, denitrification of soil nitrate during periods of anaerobic soil conditions is the most likely major N loss pathway. The results of the gas sampling campaigns highlighted the almost complete mitigation of N2 O emissions during this period by adding nitrification inhibitors. The Big N-sure® inhibitor appeared to remain active for longer in the soil than the N-serve®.

• Visually the impacts of Lime may not be seen, but the benefits of Lime are evident when comparing
  Limed areas plant biomass and yield with that of unLimed areas.
• Application of Lime is shown to halt subsoil acidification which is costly to address and will impact upon future sustainability and productivity of an agricultural enterprise.
• Appropriate rates of Lime are shown to increases yield

When comparing the soil pH map against the EM38 map we found that there were some similar trends, especially in the alkaline zone in the south east of the paddock which lines up partially to the high EM38 readings (clay soil). However, the difference between the two maps is significant in terms of creating lime The greatest lime savings through the soil pH mapping approach have occurred on paddocks which are considered to be in a maintenance phase. That is, paddocks which have had a reasonable lime history and only require strategic lime applications. Savings on these paddocks tends to range between 35 – 65%. Other farmers who have previously implemented variable rate lime are also using the grid soil pH mapping service to measure how effective the variable rate application was. The subsequent map is then used to apply a maintenance rate of lime.

• Monitor pH to depth by using a shoven and cheap pH test kit.
• Don't assume just because you once limed that the problem is solved - monitor, monitor, monitor.
• Consider options to get lime to depth by increasing the rate and/or frequency of limin or using strategic tilage.

• Precision mapping of soil provides a more accurte understanding of pH and nutrient status than traditional mapping.
• Soils are highly variable, so even replicate samples of the same transect will vary and there is no 'perfect result' so just be aware of htis in the interpretation of the maps.
• If your paddock varies in soil type ensure extra samples are analysed for PBI.

Soil testing prior to sowing revealed that chemical properties were highly variable between zones (see Table 1 in attached Trial report). For example, over a distance of 100 m between the midslope and the swale, soil organic carbon levels nearly doubled from 0.22 to 0.40. Topsoil phosphorus levels also increased from just above the marginal level of 20 (Colwell) on the midslope to nearly 30 (Colwell) on the swale. 

Averaged across all sampling locations, protein levels increased by 0.6% in the 50kg/ha of urea treatment and by 1% in the 100kg/ha of urea treatment relative to the nil in-crop fertiliser strip. This increase in protein was enough to improve grain quality from Australian Standard White (ASW) to Australian Premium White (APW) at four of the six sampling locations. On the day of harvest at the nearest grain receiver site (Yelta), the ASW silo cash price was $127/t and APW was $158/t. At a urea cost of $620/t, the application of 50 kg/ha of urea costs $31/ha (fertiliser cost only). Therefore, at the four sites where grain quality was improved, a small profit was made (15 – 55 $/ha) with the application of 50 kg/ha of fertiliser. However, at one third of the protein sampling sites, a loss of $31/ha was incurred as there was no difference in grain quality between the treatments.

While all soil types responded to nitrogen, the response and profitability of nitrogen application varied between soil zones. Using the Urea/SOA treatment as an example, for the loam and swale soil types, the additional profit compared to no in-season N was approximately $50/ha. However, applying additional fertiliser to the dune soil was twice as profitable (approximately $100/ha). As input costs were standard across all soil types (i.e. an N Rich strip with the equivalent rate of N was used for all treatments), profitability was driven by the increase in yield. As fertiliser efficiency was below its potential for the loam and swale soils (and at potential for the dune soil), it is possible that the same yield response could have been achieved with less fertiliser, therefore these two soil zones could have been more profitable if less nitrogen was applied.

• Soil water can be predicted from EM38 measurements made on the soil surface in southern dryland cropping soils.

• It is possible to estimate the amount of water and its distribution in the top 50 cm of soil.

• Rapid surveys of large areas and/or high numbers of experiment plots will be possible.
 

• The trial provides strong support for the use of soil-specific N management to improve profitability and risk management on Mallee dune-swale paddocks.
• Sandy soil types have consistently shown yield responses to increased inputs of N, while the heavy swale soils have not shown a yield benefit of increased N inputs.
• Nil fertiliser (N and P) has been the most profitable fertiliser treatment on the heaviest swale soil and the least profitable elsewhere.
• Upfront N at a higher rate still appears to generate the most consistent yield increase and profit outcome on the sandy soil types.

• The trial provides strong support for the use of soil-specific N management to improve profitability and risk management on Mallee dune-swale paddocks.
• Sandy soil types have consistently showing yield responses to increased inputs of N, while the heavy swale soils have not shown a yield benefit of increased N inputs.
• Nil fertiliser (N and P) has been the most profitable fertiliser treatment on the heaviest swale soil and the least profitable elsewhere.
• There was still a measurable response in 2013 to a pasture break in 2009.

• Chlorsulfuron (eg Glean) was found to reduce wheat yields at some sites.
• No zinc (Zn) responses were recorded at any of the sites.
• Phosphorus (P) response was closely correlated with soil P levels.
• Increasing Zn and P nutrition did not reduce the Chlorsulfuron effect.

• Manganese toxicity developed on acid red basaltic soils north coast of New South Wales following continued use of ammonium sulphate fertiliser French beans.
• This was likely due to acidification of the soil as when pH fell below 4.5 large amounts of available manganese were released.
• Line at 5 to 7 tons per hectare alleviated the problem.
• Difficulty in establishing pastures, especially lucerne, in the Albury district shown to be a result of manganese toxicity.
• Liming at 2 tons per hectare increased soil pH and lowered manganese concentrations in leaves and in soil but did not reduce soil manganese below toxic concentrations in waterlogged and heat exposed soils.

• Field experiment to test the relative effectiveness of a zinc spray to the soil surface compared to zinc-enriched fertilizers.
• These results suggest that zinc-enriched fertilizers which are of a heterogeneous nature will not be effective at correcting zinc deficiency in the year of application, or in the following year.
• Both soil sprays of zinc pre-sowing and zinc-enriched fertilizers drilled with the seed of a homogeneous nature are effective at correcting zinc deficiency.

• The frequency of winter cereals in the rotation have a large impact on crown rot inoculum build up.
• Monitoring paddocks over time is a powerful way to help crown rot management and the PreDictaB™ soil tests are an effective method for achieving this.
• The dominant wheat–canola rotation in southern NSW is increasing the region’s level of risk to losses caused by crown rot.
• Not all paddocks behave the same way and factors other than crop type are affecting crown rot behaviour.

• 55% of paddocks tested in 2014 and 80% of paddocks in 2015 had crown rot.
• 90% of paddocks tested in 2014 and 2015 had take all.
• The previous crop grown in the paddock can greatly influence the pre-sowing levels of crown rot and take all in the following year, particularly in a cereal on cereal rotation.
• Most paddocks with pre-sowing levels of crown rot and take all had increased inoculum levels throughout the growing season.
• Crop rotation and duration, and stubble management can reduce crown rot and take all infection risk.

Results from the Northern Agricultural Region have shown that crops can be sown over subtropical perennial grasses without jeopardizing persistence of the perennial base. However, perennial grasses vary in their tolerance to in-crop herbicides and crop yield is dependent on effective weed control, adequate fertility and moisture, and winter dormancy (or suppression) of the perennial pasture.

Pasture cropping systems can also lift overall biomass production, improve the feed value of stubbles, provide out of season fodder, and reduce the likelihood of wind erosion and groundwater recharge on deep sandy soils.

The application of additional nitrogen can lead to greater biomass in both the annual crop and perennial pasture. However, this is dependent on seasonal conditions and the economics of applying additional nitrogen needs to be considered carefully on low moisture holding, infertile, sandy soils in the Northern Agricultural Region.

• Bean yields at Conmurra were significantly lower in 2011 than in 2010.
• This trial was located in much shallower soil in 2011 than 2010, and yield was suppressed by dry conditions and several frost events during September and October.

• Since soil moisture was not limiting, and a soft finish to the season was observed, sowing date trials at Minnipa in 2010 showed no differences in yield between early and late sowing dates under these conditions.

• Despite only close to average growing season rainfall, yields in 2011 (average 2.9t/ha) were
  buoyed by stored soil moisture from summer rainfall, low disease levels and generally
  favourable growing conditions, and performed significantly higher than the wetter seasons of
  2009 (2.4t/ha) and 2010 (2.5t/ha) where growing season rainfall was higher but disease was
  more prevalent. These favourable growing conditions are also likely responsible for the lack of
  sowing date response in 2011.

Early sowing is essential in order to maximise yield of wheat crops grown on long (18 month) fallow. Long fallowing and early sowing are complementary practices, as the fallow reduces weeds and diseases which can be difficult to control in early sown crops, and early sowing with slow developing cultivars allows the crop to better use soil water that is stored during the fallow. Stored soil water also helps to establish early sown crops when there is minimal autumn rainfall. This fact sheet outlines how farmers can maximise wheat yield on long fallow by sowing early with slow developing cultivars, and is based on two years of GRDC funded research conducted by AgGrow Agronomy, CWFS and CSIRO in western NSW.

• There were no measurable differences in 2014 wheat yield in response to two different sowing dates and sowing on-row vs. inter-row.
• On the sandy soil type, there was more plant available water (PAW) in the top 10cm when sowing on-row.
• Rhizoctonia inoculum was higher with on-row compared to inter-row sowing but this did not carry through to an effect on rhizoctonia infection in the crop. 
• In a season where the profile PAW was similar for the two sowing dates (April 30 and May 14) crop establishment was better with the earlier time of sowing but ryegrass pressure on the swale was also higher with the earlier time of sowing.

• In a non-wetting sand, sowing on-row allowed seedlings to germinate in a wetter soil, with increased competitiveness against weed and disease pressures resulting in significant advantages in crop establishment and biomass production.
• Sowing on-row in sands or loam that did not express non-wetting did not capture the same level of benefits.
• Sowing crops on or very near last year’s crop row greatly suppressed grass weed populations and reduced brome grass seed set by over 70% compared to inter-row seeding.
• Early sowing in the last week of April instead of the third week of May helped to overcome the dry spring conditions and resulted in yield benefits of 28% at Loxton and up to 13% at Karoonda.
• When sowing crops on last year’s row, the potential for higher stubble borne pathogen (Take-All and Fusarium) inoculum and a greater likelihood of N tie-up after opening rains needs to be considered. However, impacts on rhizoctonia disease depend upon inherent biological fertility of soil.

• In a non-wetting sand, sowing on-row allowed seedlings to germinate in a wetter soil, with increased competitiveness against weed and disease pressures resulting in significant advantages in crop establishment and biomass production.
• Sowing on-row in sands or loam that did not express non-wetting did not capture the same level of benefits.
• Sowing crops on or very near last year’s crop row greatly suppressed grass weed populations and reduced brome grass seed set by over 70% compared to inter-row seeding.
• Early sowing in the last week of April instead of the third week of May helped to overcome the dry spring conditions and resulted in yield benefits of 28% at Loxton and up to 13% at Karoonda.
• When sowing crops on last year’s row, the potential for higher stubble borne pathogen (Take-All and Fusarium) inoculum and a greater likelihood of N tie-up after opening rains needs to be considered. However, impacts on rhizoctonia disease depend upon inherent biological fertility of soil.

• In a non-wetting sand, sowing on-row allowed seedlings to germinate in a wetter soil, with increased competitiveness against weed and disease pressures resulting in significant advantages in crop establishment and biomass production.
• Sowing on-row in sands or loam that did not express non-wetting did not capture the same level of benefits.
• Sowing crops on or very near last year’s crop row greatly suppressed grass weed populations and reduced brome grass seed set by over 70% compared to inter-row seeding.
• Early sowing in the last week of April instead of the third week of May helped to overcome the dry spring conditions and resulted in yield benefits of 28% at Loxton and up to 13% at Karoonda.
• When sowing crops on last year’s row, the potential for higher stubble borne pathogen (Take-All and Fusarium) inoculum and a greater likelihood of N tie-up after opening rains needs to be considered. However, impacts on rhizoctonia disease depend upon inherent biological fertility of soil.

• Earlier sowing and standing residue was important to maximising grain yield in lentils in the Wimmera.
• Mid to mid/late maturing varieties like CIPAL0803 and PBA Jumbo, where highest yielding in the 2011 season with mild conditions and significant stored moisture.

• Early to late May was optimum for planting chickpeas at Yenda in 2010. This season was
  one of the most favourable experienced for many years. However, during a normal season in this lower rain zone, greater moisture and heat stresses will occur, later sowings will be
  more exposed to climate stress and yields will be lower. These findings support conclusions
  from the Wagga Time of Sowing trial reported above - late April to early May is the optimal
  window to plant chickpeas in southern NSW. In the drier Yenda environment (compared to
  Wagga), sowings should be targeted more towards the first half of this window.
• PBA Slasher, CICA0603 and Genesis 509 (all desi types) were the best varieties especially
  when sown in May and June. Genesis 090 and Genesis 079 (kabuli) performed well at the
  May planting only.
• Plant population had little or no affect on yield or seed size.

• As to be expected, the highest rate of lime application (100 t/ha) had the greatest increase on pH, increasing pH by 1.5 units in the topsoil and 0.4 of a unit in the sub soil.
• The spaded only treatments (no lime applied) also increased the pH by bringing up less acidic clay into the surface soil horizons.
• The higher lime rate applications showed that the soil pH had been evenly increased through the profile,  demonstrating the ability of the spader to uniformly mix the lime to depth.

Growers taking part in the trials were hoping that the spader would create a more uniform soil by mixing clay throughout the root zone and breaking up impermeable clay at depth and help reduce waterlogging.