• Yield differences between soil types were less than seen in previous seasons on this paddock, although they did yield in expected order.
• Starting nitrogen levels were quite high (>100kg N/ha) due to previous crop history.
• Overall with the better responses to applied N being achieved on the better soils or where there was plenty of starting soil nitrogen, this experiment has given encouragement to the idea of managing soil types (or management zones) differentially for N.

RESEARCH QUESTION

Can incorporation of lime economically remediate a subsoil acidity constraint on gravel soils?

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

• To evaluate four rates of lime
• To compare three methods of incorporating lime
• To investigate an optimal combination of application rate and method of incorporation for ameliorating soil acidity

 

BACKGROUND SUMMARY

Forest gravel soils are common in the medium to high rainfall zone of Southern Western Australia and are estimated to account for about 2.4 million hectares of the state's farming area.  Non-wetting and soil acidity issues are known to constrain the productivity of these soil types, which are common throughout the Southern DIRT region. Considering this, limited local research has been conducted in regards to the effects of incorporating lime as a method to alleviate these soil constraints more effectively and economically than the traditional method of top-dressing.

The trial was collaboratively designed by Southern DIRT R&D committee members and staff, Wes Lefroy of Precision SoilTech, and the landholders, Roger and Simon House.  The focus of the treatments was to;

a)  Utilise the most economic source of lime for the landowners,

b)  apply the lime at a range of rates representative of both local practice and industry endorsed practice, and

c)  incorporate the lime with equipment which are known to improve the movement of lime through the soil profile compared to top-dressing; while having minimal complicating factors (i.e. poor seed placement) which are commonly associated with other forms of deep tillage.

The trial is located 12 km north of Kojonup and was chosen for its combination of targeted soil type (forest gravel) and pH range (4.5 – 4.8 CaCl2) up to a depth of 60cm.

 

 

The methods for incorporating lime in the trial are offset discs and one way plough, with knife-points at seeding included as a control.  Both offset discs and one way ploughs are generally used for the shallow incorporation of lime, and in this trial the depth achieved was approximately 10cm for the offset discs and 12cm for the one way plough. Research has shown that these incorporation methods can be more effective than the standard practice of top-dressing lime at increasing soil pH at depth by mixing lime into the soil profile when adequate rates are applied. While the lime is mixed well to the working depth of the implements, neither of these methods have the capacity to incorporate lime to depths beyond 20 cm.

Both offset discs and one way ploughs are considered by local growers as more cost-effective options for incorporating lime when compared to other methods (i.e. rotary spading). Annual plot soil testing and harvest yield will be the primary indicators used to assess how quickly and effectively the various treatments are able to raise pH at depth and increase production on forest gravel soils constrained by subsoil acidity.

Prior to seeding the trial in 2015, the site was extensively soil sampled to a 60 cm depth by Precision SoilTech.  An area with the capacity to accommodate the treatments with minimal variation in soil pH between plots was identified, however due to the nature of this site and the layout of the treatments (designed to be practical for the landowner to implement and maintain), there are inconsistencies within the trial which need to be carefully considered when assessing treatment effects. There were no systematic differences between the lime treatments in crop establishment and harvest yield, seemingly as a result of variability in soil pH and other characteristics between plots, complicated further by the layout of the trial, rather than a treatment effect.

It was observed that incorporation by both offset discs and one way plough did not reduced or cause uneven germination compared to knife-point at seeding, and during the season it was not visually evident that incorporation treatments had a major effect on crop growth and health compared to the control treatment.

While it may not be expected that shallow incorporation of lime would result in significant differences between lime treatments on a forest gravel soil type in the first year of a trial, it is imperative going forward into the next two seasons that a professional statistician helps analyse current and future data to ensure that subsequent interpretations can be improved, given the apparent impacts of site variability, and as treatment effects may become more pronounced.  It is expected that the ongoing plot soil testing conducted prior seeding each season will be the primary indicator used to determine whether incorporation of lime using either offset discs or one way plough can reduce soil acidity on a forest gravel at depth more quickly than the district practice of top-dressing, while yield responses will determine any economic benefits.

Mackellar wheat was cut at early‐mid stem elongation (GS32‐33), considered too late to be grazed without affecting grain yield, to determine effects under irrigation. Dry matter production was 22% higher compared with an earlier cut at GS30‐31 (start of elongation). With adequate soil moisture the late cut plots recovered well and grain yield was only 3% lower and not significantly different to the
earlier cut plots. Extended grazing of dual purpose wheat coupled with capacity to irrigate therefore provides increased economic and management flexibility.

These experiments provide a framework to allow growers in the Wimmera and Southern Mallee to use soil tests for nitrate N, organic carbon, and soil water to determine firstly, their yield potential, and secondly, whether there is a need for nitrogen fertiliser to achieve that potential.

• The trial was confounded by a severe shortage of plant available water (e.g. very low rainfall) and severe sub-soil acidity that resulted in toxic levels of plant aluminum concentrations that impacted negatively on crop productivity.
• The treatments (excluding prilled humate, which produced negative crop impacts) should be repeated (with VAM) at a site with more even sub-soil conditions. CALCIPRILL and VAM seed dressing showed particular potential for quality grain production and MAGPRILL showed particular potential as an effect agent for increasing soil pH.

• EM38 successfully mapped differences in soil water properties across the paddock.
• Positive response to fertiliser in wheat on wheat and higher yielding season.
• Barley yield decreased with increasing rates of nitrogen and phosphorus fertiliser.

• EM38 successfully mapped differences in soil water properties across the paddock.
• There were no significant yield increases from increased fertiliser.
• Reducing fertiliser on heavy soils had no negative impact on yield.

The main agronomic issues to be assessed in 2012 are:

• Targeting of seeding and post seeding nitrogen applications in line with identified changes in soil water characteristics ie changes in the ‘bucket’
• Assessment of gypsum applications over soil zones identified as having variations in sodicity levels. A trial has already been implemented which will allow economic assessment for several years.
• Sound agronomic and economic phosphorus fertiliser management in line with changes in productive capacity of soil zones and responsiveness of soil types to phosphorus applications.

• No yield differences were observed between the incorporated stubble and the standing stubble plots despite differences being recorded in plant growth during the year.
• The dry spring conditions had an impact on grain yields with no significant difference observed between treatments. 

• Yield differences were observed between the incorporated stubble and standing stubble plots.
• The hot dry conditions during November had a major impact on grain yield.
• Lodging was a problem in all of the plots with the incorporated plots particularly affected.
• At this stage no significat tincrease in soil orgainic carbon was observed.

The complex nature of these trials has generated a vast array of information. To best extract meaningful results it is necessary to pry apart the data to generate answers addressing the key facets of the hypothesis: see attached report for full details and discusison.

• Organic carbon accumulation in soil did not approach an upper limit.
• Increases in organic carbon accumulation were due to accumulated microbial detritus (i.e. dead microorganisms and microbial products).
• Soil with the lowest organic carbon concentration at the start of the experiment accumulated the greatest mass of stable organic carbon.
• Nutrients applied based on humus nutrient ratios promoted organic carbon stabilisation in soil.

• The Kerang site had a Potassium (K) soil level (0-10cm) that exceeded 600 ppm (Colwell K) at sowing and showed no yield response to additional K applied in crop.
• As was the case at Yenda the application of K as potassium sulphate at V4 or V8 saw no change in leaf tissue levels when compared to the control (no added K) assessed at V10 or tasselling.
• Harvest results showed no response to added potassium, indicating that the soil was able to supply the required potassium to the crop.
• There was no evidence of luxury uptake of K in tissue and grain samples (assessed in untreated, 40 (tissue only) and 80 kg /ha K).

• The Yenda site had a Potassium (K) soil level (0-10cm) that exceeded 500 ppm (Colwell K) at sowing and showed no yield response to additional K applied post sowing in crop.
• Application of K as potassium sulphate at V4 and or V8 saw no change in leaf tissue levels when compared to the control (no added K) when tissues were assessed at V8 or tasselling.
• Harvest results showed no response to added potassium, indicating that the soil was able to supply the required potassium to the crop.
• There was no evidence of luxury uptake of K in tissue and grain samples (assessed in untreated and 80 kg /ha K).

• Plant growth regulator (PGR) application at the recommended time of early stem elongation (Z31) did not alter root or shoot growth in the barley cultivar (cv) CompassA.
•  When PGRs were applied during early growth stages (Z12–13) root growth was inhibited or unchanged depending on the active ingredient applied and the application method.
•  When PGRs were applied early and when applied as a soil drench they inhibited root growth, but when applied at the recommended time for controlling stem height, PGRs had no effect on root
growth.

• However, the influence of seedbed N application (50kg/ha N) was evident in the crop structure scores, producing 150-200 more shoots/m2 and producing higher readings when the crop sensor Greenseeker® was passed over the trial than the GS30 stem elongation timing or the zero nitrogen controls.
• Despite a relatively low soil nitrogen reserve at sowing (43 kg/ha N 0-100cm), there was no influence of nitrogen on yield.
• In a trial subject to low levels of spot form of net blotch (SFNB), there was no response to fungicide over the untreated.

The work illustrated that in low fertility situations, which are more ideal for malting barley (2nd cereal low soil N reserves), there was no disadvantage to applying nitrogen applications at stem elongation (GS30-33).

• Pre-emergent herbicides can cause crop damage. Separation of the herbicide from crop seed is essential for crop safety, which is more easily achieved in knife-point & press wheel seeding systems but considerably more difficult with low soil disturbance single discs.
• Crop stubble can intercept & bind pre-emergent herbicides, which affects crop safety & herbicide efficacy. Low solubility herbicides such as trifluralin have a tendency to bind strongly to crop residues, which reduces the potential for crop damage but also limits its ability to provide effective weed control in situations with heavy stubble load.
• Choose the right herbicide for the job – not all pre-emergent herbicides behave the same so follow label recommendations closely.

Take Home Messages

Whilst the trial didn’t go according to plan there were still some key messages that arose:

• Maximising seed-soil contact is the aim at sowing especially for the larger seeds that require more moisture to imbibe and germinate compared to small seeds.

• Unseasonably low June rainfall hindered establishment of partially sown beans due to a drying topsoil. These may have been

OK under normal June rainfall conditions.

• Hair pinning can be a serious issue when using a disc seeder especially when sowing into wet/ moist lodged stubble.

• Solutions to avoid hair pinning – sow when stubble is dry (good in theory), keep stubble standing, use sharp discs and ensure bar

has sufficient down force to cut through tough stubble.

• Temperature did not influence extractable copper consistently.
• The effects of varied with the soil and on whether or not copper was added.
• When soils were incubated under a fluctuating temperature 20 to 40% less copper was extracted by EDTA then when incubation was constant at 20°.
• This result emphasises the need for caution in applying the results from constant temperature to field situations where the temperature fluctuates.

• Analysis of wheat crops sown after rice harvest in the Murray Irrigation Ltd districts (MIL) found that increasing yields required different management depending on soil type and irrigation layout.
• Four management factors that limit winter crop yields were identified: waterlogging, late season water stress, under-fertilisation and low soil pH.
• In the MIL districts alone, increasing wheat yields after rice from the current median to the 80th percentile would result in an additional 20,000–30,000 tonnes per annum ($4–6 million at $200/t).
• If all rice areas were sown to wheat after harvest every year and 80th percentile yields achieved, an additional 128,000–138,000 tonnes of wheat would be produced ($26–$28 million at $200/t).

• High-pressure injection shows promise as an alternative method for applying fertiliser into the soil.
• Deep banding fluid fertilisers with extra long knife points is another option which also showed promise.
• This research is still in its early days.

• Annual medic had lower levels of soil N (kg/ha) remaining in the soil post-harvest compared to balansa clover and subterranean clover at Sherwood.
• Annual ryegrass establishment was greater in crops following wheat, compared to crops following a pasture break crop.
• Overall pasture biomass production was greater at Bordertown compared to Sherwood.
• Wheat yields at Sherwood were greater following balansa clover and subterranean clover, compared to following canola and cereals options, wheat, barley and oats.
• Grain barleys Compass and Rosalind have demonstrated a capacity to produce biomass as a forage or hay option; feed tests need to be considered to ensure they are as favourable as forage options for livestock production. 

• Sow chickpea crops between standing wheat rows.
• Sow the following wheat crop directly over the row of the chickpea crop from the previous year.
• Keep wheat stubble intact and do not spread it across the soil surface.
• This will maximise yield of both chickpea and wheat crops and reduce the incidence of crown rot in the wheat phase of the rotation sequence.
   

• The use of Lucerne in the Upper Wimmera catchment and similar areas can be extended away from traditional areas such as river and creek flats.
• Introduction of lucerne into grazing systems lengthens the period of available green feed and can allow for enterprise change such as adding a lamb finishing operation to the farm business.
• Sowing time of lucerne is best suited to late winter.
• Soil testing is important to test for nutrient deficiencies and pH prior to lucerne establishment. Adequate lime and fertiliser should be applied to address deficiencies prior to establishment. Attention must be paid to ensuring that aluminium levels are suitable for lucerne production prior to sowing.
• A sub soil pH test should be taken to ensure that there are no acidity or aluminium toxicity issues at depth which could affect the lucerne plants as their roots penetrate the sub soil.
• Weed control is of critical importance before and during the establishment phase of lucerne pastures.
• Sowing depth of lucerne is important to allow an even germination. Care should be taken not to sow seed too deeply. The seed should be covered by 1 – 2 cm of soil, ensuring good soil contact.
• Control of annual grass and broadleaf weeds is of critical importance during the life of the lucerne stand if maximum production is to be achieved.
• A suitable fertiliser regime including the use of potash needs to be applied to replace nutrients removed by the lucerne system.
• Lucerne pastures can produce high quality hay which can enhance the farm’s production system if kept on farm.

• The negative effect of water repellence management at this site is at odds with other work in this project. In both years we have observed a lower grain yield in the banded wetter, mouldboard ploughing and spading treatments than in the control at this site.
• However, the average yield response to mouldboard ploughing and spading was 550 to 600 kg/ha over 28 sites.
• For further details please see the attached trial report.

• A factorial pot experiment involving four rates of soil-applied Mn (0, 0.75, 7.5 and 75 mg Mn/pot), four levels of CCN (0, 93, 186 and 372 second stage juveniles per pot) and 12 replicates of one Hordeum vulgare cv. 'Clipper' plant per pot was carried out.
• Four replicates were harvested 28, 73 and 192 days after sowing and each plant was assessed at harvest for growth, Mn content and level of CCN infection • Several plant growth parameters were measured non-destructively during growth.
• Resistance (ability of the pathogen to reproduce on the host) was not influenced by Mn nutrition of the host and equal numbers of nematodes invaded and developed to maturity on all plants despite Mn treatments resulting in plant Mn levels which ranged from severely deficient (0 Mn rate) and deficient (low Mn rate) to adequate (two highest Mn rates).
• However, tolerance (endurance of disease without severe losses in yield or quality) was considerably reduced by the combination of low Mn supply and higher levels of CCN.
• Plant height was reduced by increasing CCN numbers only at the two lowest Mn rates.
• These trends were typical of those observed in all plant growth parameters measured in the final two harvests including dry and fresh weight of roots and tops and total dry weight of grain produced per plant. Maturity was delayed in the severely affected plants.

Soil biota hold the key to sustainable crop production via impacts on processes like suppression of disease outbreaks and the cycling of essential nutrients.

1. In dryland conditions, planting in February increased yield of dryland mungbeans by 475 kg/ha over December planting.
2. Irrigation treatments increased mungbean yields by a maximum of 298 kg/ha and 653 kg/ha (planted in February and December respectively).
3. Application of water during mid pod-fill increased grain yield in the December planting but not the February planting.

The success of break crops to increase wheat production in the Eastern Wheatbelt is dependent on firstly addressing any physical and chemical soil constraints to crop production and where the previous land use is a chemical fallow. In this situation, the grain yield of lupin, chickpea, lentil and field pea was 0.97-1.42 t/ha 0.67-1.1 t/ha, 0.3-0.97 t/ha, and 1.2 t/ha respectively in a below average season. The yield of wheat following legume break crops tended to be higher than either canola or wheat planted in the remaining paddock area. The profitability of double break-crop sequences was negative in many of the sequences evaluated in this study compared to a positive profit for continuous wheat. The profitability of double break-crop sequences can be improved by the inclusion of high value legumes as the second break-crop, but further work is required to lower the risk of growing these species of crops.The yield of wheat following legume break crops tended to be higher than either canola or wheat planted in the remaining paddock area. The profitability of double break-crop sequences was negative in many of the sequences evaluated in this study compared to a positive profit for continuous wheat. The profitability of double break-crop sequences can be improved by the inclusion of high value legumes as the second break-crop, but further work is required to lower the risk of growing these species of crops.

• Hybrid choice and plant population had a significant impact on the yield of sorghum with irrigation. MR Buster yielded significantly higher than the other hybrids evaluated, while the higher population rates of 100,000 and 150,000 plants/ha yielded higher compared with the lower planting rates.
• The development and yield potential of the late season heads was compromised, and therefore the later developing sorghum did not take full advantage of the greater soil moisture of the intensive irrigation rate.

Conclusions

The experiment showed there are considerable productivity gains to be made by growers by selecting the right hybrid and plant population when irrigating sorghum. Irrigation management can significantly influence the growth of sorghum hybrids, affecting plant height, and grain development. Population did have an effect on yield during the trial with the higher planting populations of 100,000 & 150,000 plant/ha resulting in significantly higher yields than the 50,000 & 75,000 plants/ha. The higher plant numbers took advantage of the high plant available water from the irrigation treatments. 

On average, the surface retained treatments appeared to yield marginally better across this site. There appeared to be no difference in grain quality between treatments. There appeared to be no significant levels of insect pest or predator numbers in either the assessed standing stubble or the burnt treatment at the crop early emergence stage. There was however twice as many beneficial species in the stubble retained treatment. Insects that were present included both beneficial and harmful earwigs at very low levels, spiders and carabid beetles (that were of importance). Soil water data at crop anthesis indicates that the higher yielding treatments experienced lower soil moisture levels to 60cm, reflecting a possible increase in transpiration from greater crop biomass. Plant available water in the burnt and wider row treatments was higher, but not significantly different.

• Canola in rotation reduced Rhizoctonia inoculum levels and increased following cereal yields.
• Fluid fertiliser increased plant dry matter and yield on highly calcareous grey soils.
• A barley/vetch brown manure increased soil mineral nitrogen and this appears to have exacerbated Rhizoctonia disease symptoms on a following barley crop.
• Added carbon (10 t/ha/yr) has increased microbial respiration and microbial nitrogen.

• Differences in C input (dry matter production plus any additions) between the treatments were 24 t/ha at Minnipa, and 31 t/ha at
• Poochera over the last two seasons.
• Wheat at Minnipa produced between 0.5 t/ha of stubble in a poor season (2008) and 8.8 t/ha in a good season (2009).
• Doubling the seeding rate of wheat at Minnipa produced 1.4 t/ha extra stubble compared to the wheat control in 2009.
• Barley and vetch brown manures produced the lowest dry matter at both sites.

• The effectiveness of the Gamma sensor appears to depend on the geology of the area being surveyed.
• The Gamma sensor appeared to have very good correlations with clay % on the tertiary sediments, but further work is required on the Padthaway formation.

The main points to emerge from this farmer scale research are:

Depth: You can chase moisture to 3cm in good conditions but to achieve 25 plants/m2 you may need to increase your seeding rate.

Seeding Bars: There were large statistical differences in plant establishment between bars and between depths. The ability to achieve precise seed placement with different machines allows flexibility in adapting your seeding rate to the current seeding conditions if you know your seed size, germination percentage and establishment percentage achieved by your bar.

Although plant numbers ranged from 20 plants/m2 to 40 plants/m2, there was no statistical difference in yield, so you need to aim for 20-25 plants/m2 to increase your chances of successful establishment in marginal conditions.

• Corresponding to the biomass assessments, the compaction of the Trafficked zone had a notable effect on the crop performance.
• As a comparison of all sites there was an increase of grain yield of between 18 and 46% of the zero traffic area above the paddock assessments.

• Corresponding to the biomass assessments, the compaction of the Trafficked zone had a notable effect on the crop performance.
• As a comparison of all sites there was an increase of grain yield of between 18 and 46% of the zero traffic area above the paddock assessments.

• Corresponding to the biomass assessments, the compaction of the Trafficked zone had a notable effect on the crop performance.
• As a comparison of all sites there was an increase of grain yield of between 18 and 46% of the zero traffic area above the paddock assessments.

This trial sight was chosen as a typical regional soil type and had had a representative cropping rotation. Unfortunately the soil phosphorus levels (Colwell P) show that this site was possibly not phosphorus responsive as required for the purposes of this trial.
Adequate winter and late spring rains resulted in average grain yields. The trial was never moisture stressed and high grain protein levels indicate that the trial was not stressed for nitrogen. Visually it was difficult to pick any differences between treatments during the growing season.

• These data demonstrate a significant yield response to teh application of 20kg P/ha when compared to teh control. There were no yield differences to the various treatments. 
• The trial was moisture stressed in late spring but moderate grain protein levels indicate that the trial was not stressed for nitrogen. 
• Visually it was difficult to pick up any differences between treatments, however the poor growth control was very evident throughout the growing season and the Airseeder treatment appeared to lack early vigour, but at the end of the season this was not apparent. 
• The application of zinc as either foliar or as fertiliser at sowing (Granulock Supreme Z treatments) did not result in additional yield. 
• The liquid treatments did not prove to have any significant benefit over the solids fertilizer products; contradicting results from SFS Mininera trials in 2007 where liquid fertilisers proved to have distinct advantages as conpared to solids. 

• Early zinc uptake can be increased when zinc is applied as soil spray, seed coat or granular fertiliser but this does not necessarily increase yield.
• Products differ markedly in price per kg of elemental zinc so carefully consider your choice to get best value for money.
• Make sure choice of application method fits your farming system: for example if you are no-till then soil spray inefficient as not worked into root zone, foliar spray too late if you have zinc deficient soil as yield losses will already have occurred.
• Some products have short term benefits (seed coats and foliar sprays) and some longer term benefits.

There was no difference in wheat grain yield between the different phosphorus treatments in trial. The dry spring in 2007 resulted in considerably lower yields than expected due to a combination of severe frosts and moisture stress, delayed flowering and crop maturity. (There was substantial flowering “in the head” and failure of heads to fully grain fill.) There was also visual differences in growth across the trial (“patchiness”) that was evident in the high co-effeciency of variation (CV = 35.7).

Linseed is not new to Western Australia or the Great Southern region as it was grown in the Boyup Brook region from the 1940’s to the 1960’s. It was grown for fibre and milled at the Boyup Brook Flax Mill. Linseed (flax) Linum usitatissimum is a niche product and has the potential to offer an alternative revenue steam for producers outside of the traditional crop. Demand for Linseed has recently shifted to a health food. Linseed has several uses, it can be crushed for Linseed oil which is a rich source of linolic acid and Omega 3 fatty acid and the remaining linseed meal can then be used as livestock feed or it can also be eaten as a whole seed or ground.

Linseed also has agronomic benefits as a potential break crop that provides a disease break, the opportunity for alternative weed management strategies, provides an insect pest break and can be effective in reducing some soil borne root diseases and soil borne pathogens namely root lesion nematodes. Canadian research has demonstrated that cereal yields were higher when planted on linseed stubble compared to wheat stubble.

The aim of the project is to investigate agronomic packages which support the introduction and scale up of commercial cultivation of Linseed in the Great Southern region of Western Australia.

Consistent supply with volume is imperative to develop a market that has the ability to realise the full value of Linseed produced. Also, in order for growers to take up production it is important they have a full agronomic package available to grow the crop successfully. Finally, Linseed needs to generate an equivalent return per hectare of alternative rotational crops such as canola in order to expand into the rotation.

The key objectives of this project are:  

A: To determine if Linseed can be successfully grown under dryland farming conditions in the Great Southern region of Western Australia with the potential to scale up to commercial cultivation.

B: To determine if any investment is required into machinery and infrastructure by growers to grow linseed.

C: To develop basic agronomic guidelines to grow linseed in WA.

D: To assess the yield potential of two commercially available linseed varieties grown under dryland conditions in WA, Croxton and Bilton.

The project was conducted over two years in 2019 and 2020. In 2019 the trials were conducted in small plots across three sites. In 2020 the trials were conducted as producer demonstration sites utilising grower machinery and large-scale plots.

In 2019 three sites were located across the Great Southern Region of Western Australia covering a variety of soil types, climates, paddock histories and growing conditions. The trials sites were in the shires of Darkan, Wagin and Kojonup. The trials involved growing two commercially available varieties Croxton and Glenelg over three times of sowing (TOS) 10 to 14 days apart at three seeding rates (SR): 35, 40 and 45 kg/ha and applying three top dressed nitrogen application rates (low, optimal and high) 40, 80 and 120 units N/ha.

Over the three trial sites, the seeding rates and nitrogen application rates trialed did not consistently result in significant differences in grain yield or oil quantity and quality. Time of sowing had the greatest impact, with the earliest time of sowing generally resulting in higher grain yields. Glenelg on average had a higher grain yield and oil quantity, with Croxton having the highest oil quality.

Trial Site

Average Site Yield

t/ha

Darkan

0.562

Wagin

0.914

Kojonup

0.998

Table 1: Average Site Yields in 2019 (Below average rainfall)

The Darkan site plant counts were the highest, however this was not reflected in the yield. Darkan was the lowest yielding of the three sites. This may be due to the below average rainfall and lack of finishing rains experienced on the non-wetting forest gravel soils at this trial site. Kojonup and Wagin on average achieved nearly double the yield of the Darkan site despite lower plant counts and early plant disease.

In 2020 four demonstration/bulk up sites were established across the Great Southern Region covering a range of soil types, rainfall, rotations and growing conditions. The four sites were located in Katanning, Wagin, Darkan and Kojonup.

The methodology in the second year of the project was to bulk up the Linseed seed for future commercial production and to also integrate high level variety comparisons between the two varieties being utilized in the project Bilton and Croxton. Two sites, Wagin and Darkan, incorporated replicated plot treatments as a variety trial with the other 2 sites being predominantly bulk up sites.

The key outcome of any variety demonstration is the final yield result. Due to operational difficulties within the demonstration some yield data is not available however the key findings from the data available was:

• Bilton yielded on average 0.95 MT/Ha and 85% of Canola
• Croxton yielded on average 0.86 MT/Ha and 72% of Canola.
• Bilton out yielded Croxton on both sites.

The seasonal conditions may have contributed to Bilton out yielding Croxton. Bilton is a slightly shorter maturing variety and the below average rainfall received in 2020 is expected to have favoured shorter season varieties.

The project has successfully set in the place the ability for growers in the Great Southern region to scale up production of Linseed and demonstrated its ability to fit within the current rotations with the additional benefit of assisting in the long-term management of soil borne root pathogens.

However, for the scale up of the commercial cultivation of Linseed there is the requirement for beyond farm gate systems to be in place before producers will scale up production. An active market to determine a fair price, storage and handling facilities off farm to enable harvested grain to be stored before delivery to consumers, supply chains in place which enable efficient delivery of the grain anywhere around the world and long-term buyers/processors who will receive the grain year in year out. There is still a lot of process to be put in place before Linseed production will scale up to a considerable level.          

Grower adoption beyond the project has continued with over 60 Ha planted in southern WA in 2021 across 4 growers. Confidence in the supply chain beyond the farm gate remains as the major obstacle stopping increased uptake and requires addressing before increased production can be expected.

• Chelated iron applied to the soil before sowing increased active iron in leaves by 42% and dry matter by up to 46% early in the season.
• The 9% increase in grain yield following iron application to soil was not significant.
• Foliar iron had no significant on activeFe, leaf colour or photosynthesis.
• Lime induced iron chlorosis was suspected.

Population had no effect on yield. Populations as low as 130 plants/m2 had similar yields to that of 180 plants/m2.

Plant establishment varies greatly with conditions post sowing. The long term average for cereals at the ICC Trial Block is 70%, but colder soil temperatures and soil moisture can see establishment fall to 50%.

Drainage is the key to successful irrigated pulses. The subsurface drip irrigation without beds resulted in prolonged soil waterlogging which impacted establishment and plant survival in spring.

• Site experienced extended dry conditions after seeding due to late follow up rain.
• SACOA will continue local soil surfactant research and evaluations in 2004.

• No significant difference between treatments but interesting trend supporting combined use of protectant fungicides with soil surfactancts, delivered on furrow rather than on fertiliser (this is not a registered pattern of use).
• Warrants further investigation in 2005.

Continuous wheat has worked in the Charlton district over the past below average rainfall seasons. It has been a relatively low risk option and has provided a better return compared to growing pulses and canola in rotation with wheat. Whether continuous wheat will be as successful in other areas with different weather patterns, soil types and disease pressure should be investigated.

• Although not statistically validated a trend of either higher or lower NDVI’s in the centre of the tram tracks was observed on 7 of the 14 farms investigated.
• The trend to wider header fronts makes the practicalities of redistributing residue evenly back across the width of the header all the more difficult and may accelerate any rate of change in crop performance.
• In the short term CTF producers should target even redistribution of crop residue across header widths
• Further work is needed and the author would welcome collaboration from others in helping to design a future experiment and statistical analysis.

• Three field sites were sown with grass clover pasture and limed and 11 rates.
• Soils were also collected from lime treatments incubated for 2 months and then used to grow clover in the glasshouse.
• Increasing soil pH by liming decreased availability of manganese at all sites and in the glasshouse experiment.
• In the glasshouse experiment yields decreased on all soils at the higher lime rates.
• Diagnosis of manganese deficiency in sub clover is confounded by lack of a reliable critical value.
• If 20 mg/kg is taken as a critical concentration fulfilled run clover and flowering 2 of the experimental sites are nearing manganese deficiency at moderate line rates.
• Calcium chloride extractable manganese determined in the pot soils correlated well with planned manganese in the youngest open leaf.

Crop stubbles provide a valuable feed source for stock over the summer period. The results from this trial indicate that grazing stubbles does not reduce either the amount of soil water stored during the summer fallow period or subsequent crop yield. In low rainfall environments, it is rarely possible to grow sufficient stubble to improve summer fallow efficiency by reducing evaporation (>5t/ha): growers should make use of this valuable feed source. Growers should maintain at least 70 per cent stubble cover (about 2t/ha of cereal stubble) to minimise the risk of wind erosion.

This quick look at rainfall patterns does not prove whether there is, or isn’t, a change t to farming in the dry mid 1990s nwards. High rates of N and no fallowing worked during the wet periods but have ot worked very well in the last decade. We need to adapt our farming practices to prevent over-supplying inputs in low rainfall years. This must be done in a way which does not compromise potential yield if it turns out to be a wet season. We cannot change crop type once sown but can increase the proportion of cereals and fallow if there is no stored soil moisture at seeding. We can also reduce P rates in accordance with past applications and with potential yield AND we can delay N inputs until later on the season. Refer to numerous articles on these topics in this manual. occurring in our climate and rainfall patterns. It does show that, although not desirable, it is not unusual to have a run of dry years – it could be just chance or a normal periodic event. Other long periods of dry seasons occurred at the start of the 20th century (1897 to 1906), mid 1920s to early 1930s; and the longest dry spell between 1938 and 1950.

At low available soil P and moderate PBI levels relatively high P inputs are required to maximise yields. Replacement P programs should incorporate a measure of PBI in order to effectively balance available P across different soil types. Significant yield differences between varieties of wheat and barley could not be attributed to varying P uptake efficiencies

• JumpStart is phosphate inoculant containing naturally occurring soil fungi
• Trial showed no significant difference in JumpStart treatments
• Significant yield increases achieved with increasing phosphorus rates
• DGT test results suggest JumpStart increases plant available P residual for following crop

• Soil testing is essential for monitoring soil fertility levels.
• Of all the soil samples taken the majority were below critical levels for pH.
• Phosphorus levels were low on some properties particularly with ironstone soils

• Soil testing is essential for monitoring soil fertility levels.
• Of all the soil samples taken the majority were below critical levels for pH.
• Sulphur levels were low on some properties with sandy soils.

The use of a Speed tiller to incorporate stubble did not appear to have any negative impacts in the mixed farming systems in the medium rainfall zone in the South-East of South Australia in a very dry season. There was high paddock variability, due to moisture stress, which would have impacted the results.

KI’s 7 golden rules for successful establishment

•  Good weed control is absolutely critical – it’s a waste of time seeding if you don’t get weed kill.
•  Apply broad spectrum insecticides pre-seeding.
• Seed in early Spring.
•  Seed at 2kg/ha.
•  Ensure good seed soil contact.
•  Allow the plants to become well established before grazing.
•  Continually monitor the paddock, after seeding for insects and pests and during the first graze to ensure stock are not pulling up runners.

• Kikuyu has the potential to become a valuable addition to pasture mixes on parts of KI.
• Follow the nine golden rules for success – weed, insect and vermin control, good seed/soil contact, shallow seed at 2kg/ha in spring, don’t graze until well established, use N fertiliser or legumes.

• 2015 - Plots with-out lime were consistently lower yeilding than plots with lime irrespective of incorporation treatment. Threatments with incorporation tended to have higher yield than where lime is left on the surface.
• 2014 - sowing setup remains the weakest link when using deep tillage. Depth of sowing is critical and fifficult to control on ameliorated soils. A good establishment density is critcal for reducing erosion potential at both ends of the season.

• The one-off 2010 mouldboard ploughing treatment has resulted in yield increases of 1.0 t/ha or more for the past 4 seasons.
• The measured yield increases were partly a result of overcoming the water repellence by soil inversion and improving crop establishment.
• For further details please see attached trial report.

• Commander was the only variety which did not meet the minimum protein of 9%.
• 50kg/ha Urea was required to increase Commander’s protein into the malt range from 8.6 to 9.7%.
• To increase grain protein by 1%, 10kg/ha Urea is required for every tonne of expected yield.
• For example, a 5t/ha crop requires at least 50kg/ha Urea. applying nitrogen (N) later in the season, when the yield potential is relatively certain, knowing the N (available soil N, mineralisation and applied N) available to the crop, will help refine the amount of N required.

• Good soil moisture conditions allowed clear separation of relatively safe and more damaging treatments.
• Many results from 2010 were replicated in 2011.
• Spinnaker at all application timings and Raptor at 4 node appeared to be more damaging to beans than in previous years.

• Good soil moisture conditions allowed clear separation of relatively safe and more damaging treatments.
• Wilpena sulla showed improved tolerance to Simazine and Broadstrike at the 5 node stage.
• At the 6 node stage Hussar and Crusader did a good job of controlling all crops.

Available soil N at the start of 2014 was 20-50 kg N/ha higher for legume treatments compared to wheat. Starting soil N did not affect grain yield for nil or additional N applied treatments. Differences in grain protein were correlated to starting soil N levels

good nodulation in the uninoculated treatments, and the absence of growth or yield responses to inoculation in this trial, indicated that pulses have been grown sufficiently often in this particular paddock (lentil in 2007 and pulses every two/three years previously) to maintain appropriately high rhizobial populations in the soil. as the numbers of rhizobia decline in the soil over time, consider inoculation based on, paddock history and length of time since growing the last legume crops. Pulses often benefit from inoculation if there has not been a legume grown in the paddock for six years. where rhizobial populations are low in the soil, inoculation of legumes at sowing is extremely important to ensure adequate nitrogen fixation

• In all but Paravic and Ascot, the innoculated crop yielded better than the uninnoculated crop. In fact, the average gross return for the innoculated crops was $346 per hectare, versus $247 per hectare for the uninnoculated crops. This represents an extra return of $99 per hectare. 
• It is therefore recommended that in all cases, legume crops should be innoculated with the correct strain of rhizobia prior to sowing. It is very cheap insurance against the bacteria not being present in the soil. 

2018 Season 

• While growing season conditions were dry and grain yields were low and therefore not profitable, both Bolt lentils and Gunyah field peas yielded highest of the 5 break crop species grown at the Salmon Gums demonstration site. Soil boron levels were relatively high at this site.
• Following waterlogged conditions in August, Bonito canola out yielded the 4 four legume break crop species grown at the Gibson demonstration site, with Samira faba beans a close second.
• The addition of an extra 72 Units of nitrogen (171L Flexi-N delivered in 3 incremental applications) to the 5 break crops at the Gibson demonstration site resulted in significant increases in yield and earnings before tax profit in both Bonito canola and Samira faba beans but made little difference to the performance of PBA Strikers chickpeas, Morava vetch and Jurien lupins. The addition of extra nitrogen to Faba beans lifted yield by an average of 0.763t/ha taking it to 2.473t/ha which was close to the average yield of un-topped-up canola (2.169t/ha).
• In terms of earnings before tax, the faba bean crop was the most profitable of the 5 break crops grown at Gibson. It is important to note though that the $800/tonne price seen for faba beans in February 2018 was well above both the five and ten year average for this crop.

2019 Season 

• Annual rainfall was well below average in 2019 at all 5 demonstration sites in the Esperance Port Zone and an unprecedented frost event in September affected crop flowering at the Ravensthorpe, Salmon Gums and Beaumont sites. It’s important these seasonal conditions are factored to in to interpretation of legume crop performance at these sites.
• Poor growing conditions at the Ravensthorpe demonstration site resulted in very low yields and none of the break crops grown were profitable. The State Government declared part of the Ravensthorpe Shire as water deficient on 7th May 2019 and further parts of the Shire on 13th February 2020.
• Reasonable rainfall in August stimulated germination of broadleaf weeds resulting in a higher than ideal weed burden in all break crop species strips at the Ravensthorpe site. This highlights the limited control options available for late weed germination in legumes.
• At the Coomalbidgup demonstration site while lupins yielded highest of the break crop species grown, they were not profitable, making an EBT tax loss. Chickpeas were the only profitable break crop species grown at this site; lower seasonal rainfall meant the waterlogging conditions that commonly prevail at this location were not a constraint on chickpea yield. An average rainfall year would likely result in chickpea yield losses due to their susceptibility waterlogging.
• Dry conditions at the start of the season at Coomalbidgup reduced herbicide efficacy but the site did not have a high background broadleaf weed pressure so competition was unlikely to have greatly reduced crop yield.
• Poor growing conditions at the Beaumont demonstration site, which entailed a dry start, a severe frost at flowering and a very dry finish resulted in none of the 5 break crops grown performing profitably. The dry start at this site affected plant establishment of the chickpeas and faba beans in particular. Seeding equipment issues handling the large seed size of the faba beans also reduced establishment of the beans.
• Poor growing conditions, which entailed 2 dry preceding years resulting in very low subsoil moisture at the start of the season, a dry start, a dry growing season, a severe frost at flowering and a dry finish meant that Scepter wheat yields were below average at the Salmon Gums demonstration site. There was no significant difference in wheat yields achieved between the 2018 break crop species treatments. Scepter was profitable after each of the 2018 break crop species except in those replicates following vetch. Wheat after lentils were most profitable with an EBT return of $50/ha, followed by wheat after field peas at $34/ha.
• At the Gibson Demonstration Site wheat following vetch grown in 2018 yielded highest and was therefore the most profitable. Wheat following faba beans and lupins grown in 2018 yielded next highest; their yields being statistically similar. Wheat in replicates following 2018 canola and chickpeas were similar and yielded lowest of the 2018 break crop species treatments.
• Wheat yield in replicates that received an additional 171L/ha of Flexi N in 2018 yielded higher than those that did not and as such were more profitable.
• Tissue test data and wheat yields achieved at the Gibson site suggested nitrogen carryover from 2018 to the 2019 cropping season had occurred. This was not reflected in the pre-seeding soil test data demonstrating the significance of low soil moisture in impeding soil nitrogen mineralization. These results emphasise the importance of understanding mineralization when interpreting soil test results in dry conditions and the merits of coupling autumn soil testing with in-crop tissue or soil testing to support in-crop nutrition decisions.

• Lentil and field pea yields were similar at Hart in 2011 and averaged 2t/ha.
• Sowing date and site location significantly affected variety yield performance with early sowing favouring higher yields at the ‘poorer’ site.
• The late September rain was critical for the yield of later flowering varieties at the late sowing date and the western site but was of limited benefit to the early maturing PBA Blitz.
• PBA Jumbo was the highest yielding lentil variety when sown early and PBA Blitz and Nipper were generally the lowest yielding varieties in 2011 at Hart.

• Lentil varieties yielded similarly in varying soil types and at different times of sowing.
• New early maturing lentil varieties PBA Flash (3.6 t/ha) and PBA Blitz (3.57 t/ha) were highest yielding.
• Lentils were equal or higher yielding than PBA Gunyah field peas under favourable conditions in 2010.

• At both trial sites due to very dry spring conditions and high levels of moisture stress no disease occurred last year. Hence there were no significant interactions between treatments at either site apart from an overall time of sowing difference which was reported on in the time of sowing by seeding rate experiment.

• Interactions between herbicide and application rate did not have differing responses for grain yield, biomass yield, or gross margin at Minnipa, 2018.
• Combined herbicide and application timing treatments did show differences in grain yield, biomass yield and gross margin.
• Metribuzin and Diuron treatments indicated increased safety levels (58-466% higher biomass and 6-161% higher grain yield) and lower economic risk compared to Terbuthylazine treatments.
• For herbicide applications incorporated by sowing, Metribuzin was of lower economic risk (45% higher gross margin) than Diuron.

Soluble herbicides utilised in controlling broadleaved weeds in lentils can have significant impact on growth. Ensuring that soil throw is minimised back into the seed row is paramount. Also understand soil moisture levels prior to applying some herbicides and the impact this factor will have on uptake and persistence

Depending on nutrition demand and soil nutrient levels, foliar applied products can assist in increasing yield. Primarily in a sand loam soil at this site, Sulphur products appeared to increase yield

• Results from this experiment and previous research have proven that lentils can be successfully grown in southern NSW with sound agronomic planning and management.

• Across all varieties tested there was no significant difference between the 4 May and 20 May sowings, which validates the current sowing window recommendation from late April to mid May for the western region of southern NSW. Previous experiments have shown yield decline with a late May sowing.

• PBA Hurricane XTA, PBA Jumbo2 and PBA Bolt were the highest yielding commercial varieties, while PBA Ace was significantly lower yielding in this experiment, which is not consistent with previous research.

• There was a significant reduction in seed weight when sowing was delayed for all varieties except PBA Ace, which showed no significant effect.

Paddock selection, disease management, variety selection and marketing are important to maximising profitability from lentils.

Lentil yields were poor in 2004 due to dry conditions, mainly through October, combined with high temperatures and frost during the reproductive period. Trial data were unreliable for many sites and variety selection should be based on long term data. Disease was not a major issue in 2004 but seed from the Horsham trial site had high levels of infection by ascochyta blight and diligence must be maintained in disease management.

Note: CIPAL203 was resistant to botrytis grey mould and ascochyta blight and is suited to medium rainfall areas such as the Wimmera. CIPAL411 and CIPAL415 have improved salt tolerance. CIPAL402 is moderately resistant to botrytis grey mould and ascochyta blight and is a larger seed size than Matilda.

• Lentils are a viable pulse option for the Southern Mallee, except in dry years on soils where high soil boron, sodicity and salinity are a problem.
• Digger has consistently been the highest yielding variety tested in the Mallee but the new variety Cassab offers a good alternative to growers.

Soil treatments had no effect on grain yield. Varieties differed in biomass and grain yields.

• There was a small difference in plant establishment between the varieties and breeding lines (see Table 3 in attached trial report summary).  The two CIPAL lines had significantly higher plant populations than PBA Bolt and PBA Jumbo2.  However, these treatments still had adequate plant densities, and this is not expected to have affected grain yield in such a dry season.
• There were no significant differences in grain yield between varieties with a mean yield of 0.39 t/ha across all varieties and breeding lines.  Prior to harvest a blackening of the lentil foliage was noticed, therefore a visual score of the percentage of blackening observed in each plot was recorded.  It is unknown what caused this effect; however, it could relate to underlying variability of subsoil constraints.  There was a significant difference between varieties for blacking score with PBA Jumbo2 and PBA Hurricane XT showing significantly less blackening than the other varieties.  This score was also used as a covariate in the grain yield analysis however this still did not result in significant differences. 
   

• There were no significant differences between treatments for any of the variables measured on the sandy loam soil.
•  The mean grain yield across all treatments was 0.55 t/ha which was slightly higher than that achieved on the contrasting loam soil type (0.39 t/ha).  This outcome reflects higher levels of plant available water on lighter textured soils under low rainfall conditions such as those experienced in 2018. 

• Normalised Differential Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used to compare lentil growth of varieties across the 10 subplots.  As shown in Figure 1 in the attached trial report summary, lentil growth was greatest on the flat soil type (bay 1-3), however productivity declined on the mid-slope and sand dune (bay 4-10).  Overall, PBA Ace had the highest NDVI, but that varied across the bays. In the sandier (mid slope and sand dune) bays, PBA Hurricane XT and CIPAL 1721 performed relatively well.  

Key message: Herbicide damage symptoms were not observed in PBA Hallmark XT due to herbicide treatments at Wudinna and Warnertown, 2019. This is likely due to the dry seasonal conditions, which lowered herbicide mobilisation within the soil. Consequently, effects of zinc sulphate on herbicide damage recovery were not visible. Average grain yield of PBA Hallmark XT was 0.71 t/ha at Wudinna and 0.93 t/ha at Warnertown.

Key message: Herbicide damage symptoms were not observed in PBA Hallmark XT due to herbicide treatments at Wudinna and Warnertown, 2019. This is likely due to the dry seasonal conditions, which lowered herbicide mobilisation within the soil. Consequently, effects of zinc sulphate on herbicide damage recovery were not visible. Average grain yield of PBA Hallmark XT was 0.71 t/ha at Wudinna and 0.93 t/ha at Warnertown.

• PBA Hurricane XT lentils continue to show tolerance to all group B herbicides tested in this trial, presenting an opportunity for flexibility in crop rotations.
• PBA Hurricane XT lentils displayed small amounts of yellowing and stunting from some herbicides, most evident following ‘SU2’ applied at 4 node, however they recovered quickly. No grain yield reduction was observed in PBA Hurricane XT from any of the herbicides applied in this trial.
• PBA Jumbo 2 displayed a significant yield reduction from terbuthylazine incorporated by sowing (IBS) in comparison to simazine applied IBS. As would be expected, the application of ‘SU1’ post-sow preemerge (PSPE) and ‘Imi2’ at 4 node significantly reduced grain yield in comparison to all other treatments.
• Early in the growing season, both varieties showed slightly more damage from terbuthylazine than simazine both applied IBS.
• ‘Imi1’ and ‘SU2’ both displayed the worst physical herbicide damage but recovered over time. 

• Group B herbicide application timing significantly influenced the level of herbicide damage and subsequent yield loss in lentil varieties. PBA Jumbo2 incurred significant herbicide damage and a subsequent yield loss of 33-100% from all the treatments except PSPE application of SU1 and incrop application of Sulf at 4 node, 8 node and flowering stages. In contrast, PBA Hallmark XT had significant herbicide damage and yield loss only from application of SU1 at flowering and SU2 at 8 node and flowering stages. PBA Hallmark XT was able to recover from damage caused by some of the herbicide treatments and produce grain yield equivalent to the nil treatment.
• Establishment and Plant growth: Establishment was favoured by adequate soil moisture at sowing and good rainfall conditions after sowing. Assessment of establishment about 7 weeks after sowing showed significant difference between the varieties, however the impact of the PSPE herbicide treatments on establishment was not significant. Averaged across herbicide treatments, PBA Hallmark XT had about 18 more plants/m2 than PBA Jumbo2 (Table 2). Plant growth was average despite drier spring conditions and a few frost events during vegetative and reproductive growth stages.

The application of all Group C herbicide products decreased grain yields of lentils grown on the deep sand soil at Pinnaroo. Application IBS reduced crop damage and had lower levels of grain yield loss for all chemicals compared with PSPE.

• Key Messages: SP1333 and PBA Hallmark XT showed little to no signs of herbicide damage at x0.25 gai/ha and 376 gai/ha. At higher herbicide rates SP1333 showed lower herbicide damage than PBA Hallmark XT, but grain yield results were unreliable due to shattering in SP1333.

• Establishment and Plant Growth: Application of ‘Gp C’ PSPE had little or no impact on emergence and early plant growth. Lentils had optimum establishment and growth as a result of adequate soil moisture at sowing and favourable conditions during the rest of the season. Growth, development and yield were not affected by the few frost events, which occurred in the spring.

• Herbicide Damage: Both varieties did not show symptoms of herbicide damage at lower rates (x0.25 and x0.5 gai/ha) irrespective of the time of application (Table 1). However, at higher rates (x1 and x2 gai/ha) the new variety SP1333 showed less damage than PBA Hallmark XT. At x2 gai/ha, PSPE damaged SP1333 more whereas application at 4 node stage was more detrimental for PBA Hallmark XT.

• Number of weeds: Better control of weeds were achieved when ‘Gp C’ was applied as PSPE or 4 node applications at rates above x0.5 gai/ha (Table 2). Almost full weed control was seen in the x1 gai/ha and above for both PSPE and 4 node treatments. Weed densities were not different between varieties.

• Biomass at flowering: At flowering varieties were not significantly different in biomass. In PBA Hallmark XT biomass improved when low rates (x0.25 and x0.5 gai/ha) were applied as PSPE spray but decreased at the highest ‘Gp C’ rate (x2 gai/ha) applied as PSPE or 4 node stage spray, compared to the plants which did not receive herbicides (Table 3). This indicates that application of ‘Gp C’ at lower rates as PSPE sprays in PBA Hallmark XT can effectively control weeds without the crop damage or biomass loss, as oppose to higher rates. However, rates or times of herbicide application did not cause any biomass change in SP1333.

• A significant reduction in biomass was observed when phosphorus was omitted from the fertilizer on both soil types, however grain yield was reduced only on the sandhill, not swale.
• The dry growing season conditions may have reduced movement and uptake of the applied macro and micro-nutrients by the crop. Hence, results should be treated with caution.

• NDVI indicated differences in lentil growth with low values in treatments which received no nitrogen (see Table 3 in attached trial report summary).  The highest values were in the treatments which received all macro nutrients (All and Alltrace elements).  
• Biomass data was collected from bays 3, 5 and 9.  Individually no bay showed statistically significant effects of the treatments, but collectively there was significance at the p < 0.01 level (see Figure 1 in attached trial report summary).  The treatments with the lowest biomass were the All-N and Nil plots which both had no nitrogen added.
• The only significant effect on grain yield was in bay 4 where the All-N and Nil treatments were lowest.  While the grain yield in this bay was very low, the response is consistent with the data from both NDVI and biomass. 

Only treatments with phosphorus removed from fertilizer resulted in grain yield losses consistent with previous seasons. Some visual responses were observed for other nutrients, but nothing resulted in a yield gain or loss.

Management practices influence microbial activity by altering carbon availability and conditions reflecting rapid changes in the biological function of the soil, although the reserach is still in the preliminary stages this has been highlighted where increased microbial biomass and nutrient availability was associated with plots receiving high amounts of organic matter.

• Average yield increase of 0.3 t/ha or 12% where chaff was added. (Although in some seasons addition of chaff resulted in no yield benefit or a yield decline.)
• Microbial population has doubled where chaff was added.
• 650 kg/ha more nitrogen where chaff was added.
• Soil now holds 8 t/ha more organic carbon where chaff was added.

• Organic matter treatments showed greater early vigour, but this was not reflected in yield due to the dry season.