The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits. The grower mentioned the usefulness of the Greenseeker map to provide a visual overview of how the crop was growing and where nitrogen was being used. This has helped with understanding how different soil types perform and allow extraction of nitrogen during a growing season.

• The airport paddock at MAC was starved for nitrogen in 2009.

Key findings:

• This site was fairly unresponsive to nitrogen (N) application. Yield and screenings did not significantly change with increasing rates of N, but there were moderate responses in grain protein to all rates of applied N in all varieties.
• The 40 kg N/ha at sowing + 40 kg N/ha in crop treatment had a significant increase in grain protein above the 40 kg N/ha at sowing only treatment in all varieties, but was not significantly different from the 80 kg N/ha at sowing treatment

Results:

There were moderate responses in grain protein to all rates of applied N in all varieties. The 40 kg N/ha at sowing + 40 kg N/ha in-crop treatment showed a significant increase in grain protein above the 40 kg N/ha at sowing only treatment in all varieties, but was not significantly different from the 80 kg N/ha at sowing treatment. Screening levels were low, with only Dart above 5% in some treatments. Dart, being the quickest variety in this trial, flowered and reached grain filling ahead of the other varieties, most likely causing it to be filling grain and losing green leaf during the hotter and drier part of September. The slower varieties probably benefited more from the late spring rains in this season

• This site was very responsive to nitrogen (N) application. Yield and protein increased in all varieties, even up to the highest applied rate of 160 kg N/ha.
• Yield averaged across varieties increased from 2.80 t/ha with no application of N up to 3.58 t/ha with the application of 160 kg N/ha.
• Grain protein levels across varieties rose from 9.8% (nil applied N) to 12.4% with 160 kg N/ha.
• Screening levels were not affected by N application rates up to 80 kg N/ha but rose slightly from 2.7% to 3.8% with 160 kg N/ha.
• Kiora was the only variety which produced screening levels above 5% which were exacerbated by higher N application rates of 80 and 160 kg N/ha.
   

• There was a significant response in yield and grain protein across increasing rates of applied nitrogen (N) in all varieties.
• Yield averaged across varieties rose from 2.88 t/ha with no applied N, to 4.06 t/ha with 160 kg/ha of applied N.
• Grain protein levels across varieties increased from 9.0% (nil applied N) to 12.2% with 160 kg/ha of applied N.
• Screening levels were not significantly affected by increasing N application rates in any variety and averaged close to 6% across varieties and N rates.

Key findings:

• This site was only moderately responsive to nitrogen (N) application. Yield and protein generally increased in all varieties with the 20 kg N/ha and 40 kg N/ha rates. However, yield decreased with higher application rates.
• Protein and screening levels increased with N rates above 40 kg N/ha.
• KioraA produced the highest screening levels. The sowing date of 5 May at Nyngan is probably a bit late for KioraA, which would have exacerbated screenings.
• Varieties with comparatively lower biomass such as DartA, LancerA, SpitfireA and SunmateA maintained higher yield and lower screening levels even with the higher N application rates with a corresponding lower impact on harvest index also observed in these varieties.

Conclusions:

Conditions at sowing were very wet. There was no effective in-crop rainfall after August and combined with temperatures above 35⁰C in September resulted in a hard finish to the season.

This site had a high background starting N level (233 kg N/ha) which was surprising given the history of continuous cropping – 17 years of crop (Wheat 40%, canola 20%, barley 20%, pulse 20%) with additional N (above starter fertiliser application) only applied once in 1999. The lower rates of 20 and 40 kg N/ha gave modest yield increases in most varieties however rates higher than this tended to reduce yield and also caused screenings levels to increase in this trial. Protein levels increased with N application rates of 40 kgN/ha and above as seed size decreased.

Biomass and harvest index data (data not shown) showed that increasing N rate in heavier strawed varieties such as EGA_Gregory, Viking, Kiora produced more dry matter with comparatively less grain yield i.e. lower harvest index.

Key mesages:

• There was a decline in yield with all rates of applied nitrogen (N), which was likely to be associated with high levels of residual soil N at the site.
• Grain protein increased with all rates of applied N in all varieties, most likely due to decreased grain size.
• Sowing time had the greatest influence on yield, with the earlier sowing time yielding close to 1 t/ha better than the later sowing time for each variety.

Conclusions:

This trial site had a high starting soil N level of 233 kg N/ha (0–120 cm) which probably contributed to declining yield with increasing rates of N application. However, protein levels still increased with increasing rates of N application, but this was most likely due to decreased grain size. Most varieties yielded almost 1 t/ha higher with TOS 1 compared with TOS 2. Sunmate and Suntop generally performed similarly at both sowing times. They were the highest yielding varieties at each sowing date, but also had lower protein achievement. Lancer and Spitfire also performed similarly at the two sowing dates and were generally lower yielding than Sunmate or Suntop at each sowing time, but obtained higher grain protein levels.

• The experiment was highly responsive to nitrogen application (N).
• Averaged across the two sowing dates, yield ranged from 0.89 t/ha in LRPB DartA without applied N to 4.95 t/ha in LRPB FlankerA with the highest application rate of 160 kg N/ha.
   

• A mean yield of 5.97 t/ha was achieved for teh 2009 nitrogen response trial at the Inverleigh site.
• There was no significant differences in yield across the trial.
• The variety used for this trial was Preston.
• Grain quality achieved AGP1 for all treatments with low test weights and low protein levels the contributing factors.
• For further take home messages please see attached trial report.

Farmers in this situation can be confident that since the NDVI and the N sensor measurements complement one another, the low producing areas can be farmed differently to the high producing areas. In order to maximise profits on farm, growers ought to consider varying inputs according to productive potential of their paddocks. Soil types vary considerably throughout the Upper North and can also be quite variable within paddocks. Considerable cost benefits can be made over time by using variable rate technology in paddocks with high variability. While the upfront costs might be large, the investment quickly pays itself off, giving farmers increased confidence in using the technology. Some training is often required when using new monitors and equipment however regular use and familiarity of products improves ease of operation.

• Technical difficulties limited the value of data collected from this trial.
• There was no yield response to nitrogen rate, source or placement but protein increased with N rate.
• Nitrogen-use efficiency was in general poor across all treatments although banded treatments were slightly better than broadcase applications.

• Urea increased wheat grain yield significantly over the nil when banded at sowing.
• There was no significant difference between urea, UAN or MAXamFLO when applied at the same rate of nitrogen and incorporated by sowing, banded or applied at pre-sow, banded and post.

With extremely dry conditions following both sowing on 6 June and nitrogen application, there was no response to nitrogen application in this trial, despite the low level of available soil nitrogen (52kg/ha N, 0-130cm) recorded at the start of the season. • With yields in the range of 1.3-1.6t/ha, there was no response to applied nitrogen regardless of the timing or product used. • There was no evidence to indicate that, under these conditions, liquid fertiliser (Easy N - 32% w/w (16% urea, 8% nitrate and 8% ammonium) or Green Urea 14 (an agrotain urease inhibitor coated urea) were superior to straight urea (46%N).

• Later applications of nitrogen (GS30 & GS37) were the most profitable with the highest yield and quality, for malt barley in 2010.
• There was no significant differences in yield of varieties between early and later sowings.
• Crop sensors provide a good measure of nitrogen response and can improve nitrogen use efficiency.

Crop growth and yield potential were severely limited by one of the driest seasons on record at this site. Hence, the very poor grain yields and no response to nitrogen applications.

Results are complex and its difficult to separate the effect of waterlogging and crop development stage.
Results not statistically significant but suggest:

• Double application of nitrogen increased the crop yield,
• Potentially there is a benefit in applying nitrogen once waterlogging abating, and
• Quality increased with late application of nitrogen but yield did not increase.

The site at the BCDS looked the most promising of all 14 sites, unfortunately the frosts in late September and early October reaped havoc on grain yield.

Variable rate fertiliser application has a real and profitable place in the Mallee when combined with good paddock science. The precision technology gives the ability to examine the yield data for many effects including other possible influencing factors such as elevation, slope aspect or orientation to the sun, and probably many others. Grain yield was recorded continuously during harvest and logged against GPS position. From the resultant yield map it was possible to isolate treatment strips and EM38 zones within these strips and determine the yield for individual strips and therefore treatments, and also where these treatments intersect with the paddock zones. Trial was statistically analysed and Table 1 above shows there was no significant difference between treatments.

There was a significatn difference (P < 0.05) in the yield and protein levels between varieties but there was no difference in yield and protein due to the different fertiliser treatments within a variety.

• In a variable trial there were no significant differences in grain yield (machine harvested) due to row spacing 500mm v 750mm (20” v 30”), plant population (85,000 v 120,000 pl/ha) or N rate 300 v 450 kg N/ha).
• Overall grain yield average in the trial was 16.47 t/ha.
• Although no yield differences were recorded it was noted that narrower row spacing produced more overall harvest biomass, particularly at the lower plant population.
• Since there were no difference in grain yield associated with narrow row spacing and lower plant population, harvest index was reduced.
• Crop canopies at harvest contained more nitrogen than was applied as fertiliser indicating that at 300 kg N/ha applied as much as 235 kg N/ha was supplied from the soil.
• Increasing N fertiliser applied from 300 to 450 kg N/ha did not result in any greater N offtake in the crop at harvest, indicating that N was either left in the soil or lost.

• The average grain yield (header harvest) of the trial was 17.12t/ha with no indication that increased nitrogen rate (from the use of pre-drill urea) significantly increased yield when 207kg N/ha was subsequently applied in crop as fertigation.
• The lowest plant population 79,287 plants/ha resulted in the lowest yields with no grain yield difference between 91,864 and 103,620 plants/ha. 91,864 plants/ha was the most profitable.
• Normalised differential vegetative index (NDVI) assessments indicated that ground cover was significantly lower in the lowest plant population across all assessment timings up to V8.
• The most efficient recovery of nitrogen applied was recorded with plant populations of approximately 92,000 plants/ha with N applied by fertigation totalling 207 kg N/ha.

• The average grain yield (header harvest) of the trial was 16.33t/ha with an uneconomic trend for higher yields if N rate and seedrate was increased.
• Plants populations of 80,000, 93,333 and 102,222 gave no statistical difference in grain yield, grown in a maize-on-maize rotation position.
• There was a trend suggesting a response to nitrogen at higher plant populations, but this was not significant. Highest yields were associated with N uptake at harvest of 400 – 450kg N/ha.
• Grain maize established on grain maize stubble in 2020/21 was approximately 1 t/ha lower yielding than the trial in the same paddock in 2019/20 when grain maize was established in oaten hay stubble.
• Comparing the two seasons there was a significant reduction in yield last season when the population was reduced from approximately 92,000 to 79,287 plants/ha. There was no difference in this experiment with maize grown on maize stubbles.
• In terms of profitability using the yields generated, the highest margin was generated with approximately 80,000 plants/ha and 230kg N/ha applied as fertigation.
• The additional cost of N ($1.74kg/N and seed required for 17t/ha in this trial exceeded the value of 0.7t/ha grain maize valued at $210/ha, hence lowest N rate and seedrate were most cost effective.
• Last season with slightly higher yields it was the 92,000plants/ha with 297kg N/ha was most profitable.

• Grain yield was significantly higher in the narrower row spacing (500mm) at both high and low plant populations (nominally 85,000 v 106,000 plants/ha) (Caution different harvest methods were engaged for logistical reasons – see note below).
• Overall grain yield average in the trial was 16.53 t/ha.
• Total crop biomass (dry matter) at maturity was similar across all treatments suggesting narrower row spacing combined with lower plant population significantly improved harvest index and therefore grain yield.
• Of the three components (row spacing, plant population and N rate), N rate (either 300 or 450kg N/ha) had minimal influence on the yield and biomass results, since the lower rate of 300 kg N/ha met the N requirement of yield (already established 240N optimum N rate-see Trial 2).
• Row spacing and plant population did interact in the analysis of the trial data, making the assessment of the contribution of these factors difficult.
• Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) was greatest with narrow rows, low population and 300N at 16.15kg N applied for each tonne of grain produced and 25.57kg N/t if 188kg N/ha soil supply was added to fertiliser applied (see Trial 2)

• Although increasing the frequency of N applications appeared to slightly increase grain yield (machine harvested) compared to all “up front” in seedbed yield differences were not statistically significant.
• As a general comment, timing of N application did not affect the grain yield, whether it be all up front or split over 4 timings up to V6.
• The nil applied N treatment yielded 9.49t/ha.
• However N content of the grain at harvest was greater where split applications involving later timings were compared to all the nitrogen applied at sowing indicating greater N fertiliser efficiency
• However, unless there is a premium for the maize protein in the grain resulting from later N timings the difference may be of little value to the grower.
• Soil N prior to sowing and watering up was 25 kg N/ha (0-60cm). The nil treatment contained a total of 147 kg N/ha at harvest, suggesting in-crop mineralisation resulted in 122 kg N/ha released to the crop.

• In all treatments where N fertiliser was applied there were no statistically significant differences in grain yield.
• The highest yield achieved was 16.82 t/ha with the total applied N of 300 kg N/ha, applied as 100 kg N/ha at sowing, then 3 subsequent topdressings of 66 kg N/ha up to tasselling, but achieved similar yields to applying 300 kg N /ha at sowing only.
• The nil applied N treatment yielded 10.61 t/ha and had a dry matter of 19.58t/ha and a N content of 176kg N/ha at harvest.
• Soil available N prior to sowing and watering up was 44 kg N/ha (0-60cm).
• The nil N applied treatment contained a total of 176 kg N/ha at harvest, suggesting in-crop mineralisation resulted in 132 kg N/ha being released from the soil during the course of the season.
• In this trial as long as at least 100 N (and 200 kg N/ha in total) was applied beginning at sowing, product or timing did not influence yield.

• The highest grain yield (machine harvested) achieved was 16.36 t/ha with the applied N rate of 240 kg N/ha in a crop producing 30.63 t/ha dry matter at 50.45% harvest index.
• N applications above 240kg N/ha were uneconomic in the trial.
• The nil control treatment yielded 10.89 t/ha in a crop producing 26t/ha dry matter at 51% harvest index.
• Available Soil N prior to sowing and watering up was 34 kg N/ha (0-60cm). The nil control N offtake at harvest was 241 kg N/ha, suggesting in-crop mineralisation resulted in 207 kg N/ha of the N taken up.
• At the highest level of N (560kg N/ha) there was no advantage to applying 80 Kg N/ha of the dose very late at tasselling.

• The highest machine harvested yield achieved was 16.42 t/ha with the applied N rate of 560 kg N/ha, however this was not statistically different to the yield where 240 kg N/ha was applied.
• Yield plateaued beyond the ‘240 kg N/ha’ treatment (16.18t/ha), mirroring the 2019/20 results which produced a similar N applied optimum.
• Where no N fertiliser was applied the yield was 9.70 t/ha with a dry matter of 21.8t/ha at harvest compared to 16.18t/ha and 35.79t/ha for the optimum N rate of 240kg N/ha.
• The N offtake at harvest revealed an average N content of approximately 188-448kg N/ha in the crop with the 240N treatment giving an offtake of 395kg N/ha with 58% of the N in the grain.
• Increasing N rate from 240kg to 560kg N/ha applied did not significantly increase dry matter present at harvest, although there is evidence of additional N content in the dry matter above 240kg N/ha.
• Soil N prior to sowing and watering up was 32 kg N/ha (0 – 60cm). One month after sowing and wetting up this figure had risen to 107kg N/ha.
• The nil N treatment contained a total N content of 188 kg N/ha at harvest, suggesting in-crop mineralisation through the course of the season resulted in 156 kg N/ha released.
• In-crop mineralisation in the 2020/21 season was lower than in 2019/20 (241kg N/ha) but still contributed a significant portion of the crop N budget.

• Header grain yields averaged 18.2t/ha with no yield benefit observed from applying pre-drill urea in the trial when N was applied post sowing as fertigation.
• In a trial with an overall dose of post sowing N of 207 kg N/ha applied via fertigation there was no significant yield increase from the earlier pre-drill N applications of between 0 – 315kg N/ha.
• The economic optimum level of nitrogen applied was 252kg N/ha (45N pre-drill + 207kg N as fertigation).
• No significant differences were recorded in total dry matter (DM) content at V6 or at harvest with an average DM content of 34.6t/ha.
• The N content at harvest revealed an average N content of 462kg N/ha with a range of approximately 415-530kg N/ha in the crop, but there were no statistical differences.
• The N offtake at harvest indicated soil mineralisation provided up to 165kg N/ha to grow the crop with lower N efficiency recorded from applied fertiliser at higher overall N rates.
• There were no significant differences in test weight (mean 81.1) or harvest index (mean 51.7%).

• Header grain yields averaged 17t/ha with no yield benefit observed from applying pre-drill urea in the trial when N was applied post sowing as fertigation (230kg N applied).
• In a trial with an overall dose of post sowing N of 230 kg N/ha applied via fertigation there was no value to the earlier pre-drill N applications of between 0 – 315kg N/ha.
• No significant differences were recorded in dry matter (DM) accumulation at V5 or NDVI at V7.
• The N offtake at harvest revealed an average N content of 420kg N/ha with a range of approximately 395-460kg N/ha in the crop.
• The N uptake at harvest indicated soil mineralisation provided up to 79kg N/ha to grow the crop with lower N efficiency recorded from applied fertiliser at higher overall N rates.
• There were no significant differences in test weight (mean 80.7kg/hL)
• Dry matter at harvest showed no differences with an average reading of 35.3t/ha and harvest index mean of 46.9%.
• Exactly two thirds of the N removed in the crop was present in the grain with an average of 280kg N/ha in the grain and 140kg N/ha in the stover.

• With an average grain yield of 18.28t/ha there were no significant differences in header grain yield from varying nitrogen rate or timing of prilled urea (46%N).
• Where no nitrogen was applied early in the season a significant decrease in nitrogen content was observed in the stalk of the plants at harvest, but there no influence on grain N content.
• Test weight was significantly reduced when only 207kg N/ha was applied to the crop, there was no significant benefit in test weight when the highest rate of nitrogen was applied.

• With an average grain yield of 17.29t/ha there were no significant differences in header grain yield from varying nitrogen rate or timing of prilled urea (46%N) when 230 kg N/ha was applied as fertigation post sowing.
• Dry matter was between 30 and 35t/ha at harvest with approximately 50% of this dry matter present as grain and the remaining 50% as stover.
• In terms of nitrogen uptake in the crop at harvest 70% of the N on average was in the grain with 30% in the stover (leaves, stalk and cob husk).
• There was some evidence that additional N increased grain N content, but this was not associated with yield increases.
• The trial results are similar to the same trial run in 2019/20 which following oaten hay had an average yield of 18.2t/ha compared to 17.3t/ha when sown maize on maize.

•  Delaying post sowing applications of nitrogen (92 kg/ha N) to the flag leaf stage for both Kellalac and MacKellar at the Gnarwarre site, resulted in the best grain yield and grain quality.
• Application of nitrogen (35 kg/ha N) to barley at the early jointing stage (GS32), gave the best grain yield and quality at Gnarwarre.
• Late nitrogen applications appeared to result in more flower sites (florets) filling with grain for both wheat and barley. 
• For further conclusions please see the attached trial report.

• Early sulphur application supported higher tiller numbers although this did not translate into yield
• Site was very responsive to at least 79kg nitrogen application.
• An additional 50kg urea (23kg N), resulted in slightly higher protein readings.
• Site was unresponsive to sulphur application.
• Timing and splitting of in-crop fertilisation conferred no yield advantage • Good utilisation of applied N and S in spite of high rainfall year.

To manage N2O emissions in low to medium rainfall environments, growers need to match nitrogen supply to crop demand. Lowest emissions were measured where nitrogen levels were least, while highest emissions occurred where nitrogen levels were greatest. Applying late nitrogen to increase wheat protein is not economic when segregation price differentials are small.

• Work conducted in low and medium rainfall environments indicate that N2O emissions are low from an overall national perspective. • Results showed that there was no clear response of N2O emissions to nitrogen applied at sowing and post sowing. • High pre-seeding soil mineral nitrogen raises the possibility of higher N2O losses over the fallow period following significant rainfall.

• Work conducted in low and medium rainfall environments indicate that N2O emissions are low from an overall national perspective. • Results showed that there was no clear response of N2O emissions to nitrogen applied at sowing and post sowing. • High pre-seeding soil mineral nitrogen raises the possibility of higher N2O losses over the fallow period following significant rainfall.

Preliminary results showed the level of nitrous oxide emissions did not increase over the 2013 winter as a result of near capacity soil water contents coupled with increased nitrate nitrogen levels resulting from seeding and in-crop nitrogen applications on the canola compared with a pulse crop and legume pasture.

Preliminary results showed the level of nitrous oxide emissions did not increase over the 2013 winter as a result of near capacity soil water contents coupled with increased nitrate nitrogen levels resulting from seeding and in-crop nitrogen applications on the canola compared with a pulse crop and legume pasture.

• Nitrous oxide (N2O) emission into a closed chamber was found to be linear over our standard closure time of 60 minutes in three of the four chambers tested.
• Beginning N2O sampling at 9:00–9:30 am appeared to underestimate the daily average N2O flux, although there was no significant time effect in the higher emitting treatment. The sampling time was changed for the following season to start at 10:00–10:30 am.
• The average flux from the four manual chamber locations used in the main experiments (irrigated furrow, non-irrigated furrow, fertilised side of plant bed, non-fertilised side of plant bed) were found to give a good approximation of the N2O flux averaged across 12 chambers covering all possible locations in a two metre cross section of the cotton field.
• These tests validated the assumptions made in devising the sampling strategy used in subsequent experiments.
   

• N2O losses appear to be minimal from dryland low to medium rainfall farming systems; peak emissions of only 4.0 gN2O-N/ha/day were measured following rainfall.
• N2O emissions from legume stubble over summer and with synthetic fertiliser applied in-crop were low.
• An increase in soil water was the major driver of N2O emissions.

• N2O losses appear to be minimal from dryland low to medium rainfall farming systems; peak emissions of only 4.0 gN2O-N/ha/day were measured following rainfall.
• N2O emissions from legume stubble over summer and with synthetic fertiliser applied in-crop were low.
• An increase in soil water was the major driver of N2O emissions.

• N2O losses appear to be minimal from dryland low to medium.
• Rainfall farming systems; peak emissions of only 4.0 g N2O-N/ha/day were measured following rainfall.
• N2O emissions from legume stubble over summer and with synthetic fertiliser applied in-crop were low.
• An increase in soil water was the major driver of N2O emissions.

• Wheat established by no-till yielded at least as well as full cut sowing on stony soils in 2009.
• Seed scattered on soil surface germinated at Lock in 2009!
• Hydraulic tines, K-Hart discs and Canadian designed points are excellent options for no-till on stony soils.

• Peat and liquid formulations were the most consistent inncoulants across all pulses, having the highest nodule scores and equal or highest grain yields, compared with the remaining treatments. 
• Without inoculation, faba bean and chick pea failed to nodulate indicating host rhizobia were absent at this site. This consequently lowered the grain yields. 
• On the other hand, lupin, field pea and lentil effectively nodulated without inoculation, indicating their respective rhizobia had colonised this site. 
• Fungicide seed dressing (P-Pickel T) did not affect pulse nodulation, but did increase grain yeild in chickpea. Further investigation is needed to establish the reasons. 

• Chickpea and lupin failed to nodulate without inoculation.
• Inoculation formula had minimal effects on growth and yield of pulses at this site.
• Peat and liquid formulations were consistently reliable inoculants across all pulses based on nodulation and grain yield
• Differences measured in nodulation were not reflected in differences measured in crop growth and grain yield, suggesting soil nitrogen reserves were sufficient to make up most of the crop’s needs.
• Field pea and lentil rhizobia appear more widespread in this environment and better adapted to the acidic soils, while chickpea rhizobia appear less adapted.

• There was no significant yield difference between Tambla and Tantangara, however Yambla was significantly higher yielding than Gairdner. 
• For further conclusions, please see the attached trial report.

Despite the fact the trial was on beds, there was significant waterlogging in parts of the trial area caused by a natural ground depression. Yield results should therefore be treated with caution. Of particular concern is the poor performance of Gairdner relative to the other varieties. I would suggest that more consideration be given to the results from the DNRE barley trial at the Gnarwarre site. 

• There was a significant difference in varietal performance, in both yield and oil percentage. Generally speaking the grain yield was disappointing, however there were some exceptions including that of Hyola 60 (Non TI) and Surpass 501TT. There was a high level of the Blackleg in the trial, which could have accounted for the poor yield of some varieties. 
• For further discussion please see the attached trial report.

• These results must be treated with caution, as one years results can be fairly misleading. When choosing varieties other factors (such as quality) must be taken into account besides yield. Disease resistance is critical and you should always aim to grow a variety with the best resistance you can possibly get for the type of diseases you could reasonably expect to get. 
• For further information about varieties please see the attached trial report.

For results plese see the attached trial report.

• This protein levels achieved in this trial are very low, indicating possibly an acute nitrogen deficiency problem.
• An N deficiency however was not evident in the trial with no noticeable interveinal chlorosis.
• For further discussion please see the attached trial results.

Placement of soil wetter in the seed contact zone behind the seed boot was the most effective for improving germination and early biomass growth.

Seeding on or near last year’s furrow significantly increased early biomass growth compared to off-row. 

There is a high variability in expression or water repellence across paddocks and soil types along with response to soil wetters. 

Canola plants can compensate for low plant densities and significant difference in grain yields are hard to detect. 

Placement of SE14 into the seed contact zone behind the was the only treatment to have a significant increase in plants per m2.

Increasing rates of SE14 from 2 to 4 L/ha, the most effective placement (behind the seed boot), did not result in a significant increase of plants per m2.

Applying SE14 on the seed or behind the press wheel resulted in no significant difference compared to the untreated control.

When SE14 was applied in combination both behind the press wheel as well and behind the seed boot reduced the effectiveness compared to being applied exclusively behind the seed boot.

High rates of SE14 directly on the seed resulted in the seed sticking together which lead to lower plant establishment then the control.

The addition of clay even at low rates of 75 and 150 t/ha have been very effective in increasing the yield from an average 2.45 t/ha of the Control to about 2.95 t/ha. It is expected that the claying will have a long lasting effect and that the yield increases compared to the control will remain.

• Noodle wheat production was not suited to this paddock due to the high soil nitrogen levels. Milling wheat production was a much better choice for this paddock as evidenced by the performance of Mitre. High soil nitrogen levels resulted in protein levels too high for the noodle varieties to achieve their ASWN potential for all plots at the site except Lorikeet with no urea at sowing.

• Growing Noodle wheat has been perceived as high risk by growers in the High Rainfall Zone (HRZ) due to the risk of not making ANW1 grade. There are, however, some specialist noodle wheat growers in the HRZ who consistently make better than Mace yields and achieve ANW1 for almost all grain produced. The reasons for this are guiding the HRZ Noodle wheat production package.
• A 30km distance from the south coast within the HRZ, proposed as the ‘Chillinup Line,’ appears to be a critical agronomic cut off point for where the risk of downgrade (or failure to meet specification) is more manageable.
• The 2017 prototype HRZ Noodle Wheat production package is an upgrade on the 2016 version using the project’s trial results and other research and experience by the SCF R&D team in consultation with key stakeholders.
• Intergrain and AEGIC are helping refine the HRZ Noodle Wheat production package to meet market specifications for Noodles and the other alternative products being tested by AEGIC.
• Grower groups recognise that differentiated products aid price stability in times of relative grain oversupply and higher competition. For example, grain for Udon Noodle wheat markets and other specialist new markets are less to be affected by downward price pressures than undifferentiated grade wheat prices.

• The variety Janz outyielded both other varieties at both times of sowing. 
• The earlier time of sowing outyielded the later time of sowing. 

• There were no significant differences in yields between all varieties.
• Dry growing season conditions may have restricted growth of yield components resulting in an evening out of yield between varieties.

1. The district practice Baseline system is the most profitable to date. However apart from the 2016 winter crop there is very little difference between the seven grain systems.
2. Water use efficiency is higher for cereals than pulses and is highest in high-yielding crops.
3. Subsoil constraints are limiting PAW extraction by pulse crops.

1. Higher soil fertility was the most profitable and highest yielding system for the 2018 sorghum crop.
2. Higher legume is cumulatively the most profitable system thus far.
3. The Baseline system is falling behind four of the six systems in the trial on most comparisons.

1. Summer break crops reduced levels of cereal soil-borne disease and allowed more even and higher yielding wheat crops in 2018, however they were the least profitable.
2. Root lesion nematodes continued to decline, even under susceptible crops due to the dry growing conditions of 2017 and 2018.
3. Higher nitrogen supply did not increase plant uptake or yield due to low in-crop rainfall, but this extra nitrogen is still available in the soil profile for following crops.

• Phosphorus (P) was a limiting factor to chickpea yield at four of the seven trial sites in 2015.
• Zinc (Zn) limited chickpea yield in three trial locations in 2015.
• Waterlogged induced iron (Fe) deficiency was a limiting factor to chickpea yield on a grey–brown vertosol with a 50 year cropping history.
   

Key findings:

• Faba beans sown to target 20 plants/m2 appears to optimise yield in northern regions of NSW.
• Faba beans sown to target 30 plants/m2 appears to optimise yield in central regions of NSW.
• Faba beans sown to Doza appears more prone to frost damage than either PBA Warda or PBA Nasma get 30 plants/m2 appears to optimise yield in central regions of NSW.

Conclusions:

Limited data from the first year of trial results in 2015 suggests that for northern and western sites, 20 plants/m2 is a preferred target plant density, while in central areas 30 plants/m2 is a better option to achieve optimum yield with faba bean grown under dryland cropping conditions. Large seed does not necessarily confer higher yield, with PBA Nasma out yielding PBA Warda at only one location, Trangie, in 2015. Doza appears more prone to frost damage than either PBA Warda or PBA Nasma. Frost tolerance is a key attribute for the faba bean breeding program in northern NSW, with new releases (particularly PBA Nasma) targeted at having better tolerance than Doza, which was apparent in these trials in 2015.

• Severe drought conditions affected the results of this trial (grain yields 0.60 to 1.02t/ha), with only 130 mm for April – October and 171mm for the calendar year recorded at the trial site.
• The wheat variety Ventura, showed the benefits of quicker maturity over Sunstate in such extreme seasonal conditions. 􀂃 Plant density was not found affect grain yield or quality in a very tough year.
• Precision agriculture can be used for on-farm trials to produce statistically valid results, thereby offering an alternative to small plot trials.
• The broadacre trial will be repeated in 2007 at Northparkes Mine.

• Yellowing of wheat leaves, similar to the old ‘Frame yellows’ has been observed again in SA over the last few years.
• There does not seem to be a clear cause of the yellowing.
• Yellowing can lead to yield reductions, but also yield increases!
• The effect of yellowing on the relative performance of varieties is far less than the effect of all the other traits that go into making a good variety.
• If anyone has any ideas on what is causing this yellowing – send them through!

Harvest contrac prices can be high, and depend on the quality of the windrows.

• Sowing date, uniform sowing depth and weed control are just as important to maintain yields in a wide row system as in conventional systems.
• The results in 2001 indicate that the wide-row system has potential at the yield levles typically achieved in the central-northern Mallee.

 Similar yields were achieved at low and higher plant densities. While defoliation reduced yield on average by 0.6t/ha.
 Defoliation at GS32 in Rosalind corresponded to a defoliation date of GS31 in RGT Planet and mid tillering in the winter cultivar Cassiopee. This had profound influences on crop development and delayed flowering by 25 days in Rosalind, 13 days in RGT Planet, and 7 days in Cassiopee.
 Despite a 48% difference in the dry matter removed on 8 July between the spring varieties Rosalind and RGT Planet in contrast to the winter variety Cassiopee there was no significant interaction between variety and defoliation for final yield.
 At harvest while there were significant differences in head numbers between varieties, with Rosalind and RGT Planet having 280 and 240 heads more than Cassiopee respectively, plant population and defoliation did not significantly impact head numbers.

 Similar yields were achieved at low and higher plant densities. While defoliation reduced yield on average by 0.3t/ha.
 Defoliation at GS32 in Rosalind corresponded to a defoliation date of GS31 in RGT Planet and mid tillering in the winter cultivar Cassiopee.
 RGT Planet suffered a 0.66t/ha yield penalty with defoliation, and Cassiopee yielded similar to the control.
 Despite the later than recommended defoliation date in Rosalind there was no significant reduction in yield and crop development was delayed. In other experiments Rosalind has responded well to this treatment and in frostier environments or in years where light
conditions were more favorable in October it may be possible to increase yield with this strategy

 Cultivar choice had the biggest influence on head densities. Rosalind reached 965 heads/m2, Planet 746 heads/m2, and Urambie 820 heads/m2. This reflects the genetic ability of these cultivars to tiller and the proportion of tillers that survive.
 Similar yields were achieved at low and higher plant densities, consistent with findings from other experiments that demonstrate limited yield responses at target densities above 150 seeds/m2
 Defoliation reduced yield on average by 0.5t/ha.
 Defoliation at GS32 in Rosalind corresponded to a defoliation date of GS31 in RGT Planet and later tillering in the winter cultivar Urambie
 Despite the later than recommended defoliation date in Rosalind there was a significant delay in crop development. In other experiments Rosalind has responded well to this treatment and in frostier environments or in higher production environments years it may be possible to increase yield with this strategy from earlier planting dates.

• Jumpstart seed inoculant did not increase the yield of treated crops in 2009.
• Jumpstart seed inoculant increased the early vigour of the crop.

• Plant tests indicated marginal potassium (K) supply but there were no obvious visual responses.
• An independent analysis of NDVI imagery showed that K-Till Extra Plus was more effective than the MAP/MoP blend, and this was supported by significant yield differences.
• K-Till Extra Plus outyielded the MAP/MoP blend by 170 kg/ha.
• Grain quality was not affected by treatment – proteins were about 11.4%, hectolitre weights 80 kg/hL and screenings 4%.

 

Three projects are running, one in each of the western, northern and southern GRDC regions. NSW DPI and FarmLInk, together with Southern Farming Systems, the Mackillop Farm Management Group and AgGrow Agronomy, are responsible for the Southern GRDC region.

The project still underway, the analyses of samples will be completed during 2016.

The main messages from BCG work are presented in this report.

• The site was very responsive to nitrogen (N) fertiliser. Increasing N inputs from 12 to 75 kg N/ha increased yields by about 0.36 t/ha
• NUlogic suggested very little response to P and K after soil testing. It is important to be soil testing at least every 3-4 years so that fertiliser rates recommended are applied for maximum economic returns to the grower.
• Tissue tests on the 3rd July indicated marginal S deficiency in the no S treatments but there was no yield response.
• Wind and rain after seeding caused furrow fill resulting in poor germination (5-15 plants m²).
• Yield potential  probably limited by low soil pH
• Decile 1 rainfall year for the area, interpret results accordingly.
• Quality analysis not yet available.

• This preliminary study suggests that both chaff carts and windrow burning removes significant amounts of nutrients from the paddock.  Most of the K left behind in the windrows remains in the paddock.  However, most harvesters now have auto-steer so these nutrients are effectively placed in the same strip each year.  Growers who make windrows and have auto-steer are advised to embark on a program of moving the windrow across approximately 1m each year.  If they do not move the header each year then all of the K is placed in the same strip each year which is essentially lost from the system which is a big cost to the grower (Table 3).
• While the Harrington Seed Destructor (HSD) may be more capital intensive and more costly to run than a chaff cart or windrow burning, all of the nutrients contained in crop residue remain in the paddock.  The true cost of all systems should be considered when deciding which method of harvest weed seed management to adopt.  For a header harvesting 3000ha at an average yield of 3 t/ha the cost of the three systems is similar (assuming the header moves across 1m each year when making windrows) (Table 3).  For a smaller area of crop the relative cost of the destructor and chaff cart increase due to the capital cost being spread over a smaller area. 

• A review of fertiliser responses on different soils in the southern Wimmera.
• Unfortunately the scanned copy I received was illegible, there is only one copy in the Victorian library system and they would not release the printed version.
• Primarily on pastures but some cropping experiments.

• Virgin "Cypress Pine Sand" was deficient in copper, manganese and zinc.

• The nutrient status of 33 virgin soils were examined in pots in the glasshouse using nutrient additions (omission experiment) and Phaseolus lathyroides as the test plant.
• Molybdenum deficiencies were most common in central and norther black earths.
• There was no apparent relationship between pH and molybdenum deficiency.
• Molybdenum deficiency was more common under grassland than brigalow soils.
• Response to zinc were minor.

• The nutrient status of five virgin soils were examined in pots in the glasshouse using nutrient additions (omission experiment).
• Four of the five soils were deficient in molybdenum.
• Liming to pH 6.5 without trace element addition depressed yields, presumably due to molybdenum deficiency.
• One soils responded to zinc but there were no responses to copper or manganese.

The basic message has been to 'wherever possible maintain your normal management practieces'. Changing rotations, cutting back on yield, generating inputs and taking short cuts only serves to increase the risk of missing out on a return to profitable growing conditions this year.

• Conventional tillage enhances soil organic carbon (SOC) turnover with the potential to simultaneously increase plant available nutrients [nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S)] in the soil compared with no-till and perennial pasture.
• Across farming management practices and under ideal soil moisture, soil organic matter (SOM) could have supplied up to 45 kg N, 16 kg P and 19 kg S/ha in the absence of plant carbon (C) input.
• Over a longer period (126 days), particularly if there is a lack of plant C input (e.g. a normal fallow period), any P or S released via native SOM turnover over a shorter period (e.g. over 30 days) would have been immobilised by microorganisms and/or adsorbed to soil minerals, hence decreasing P and S availability for crop uptake

Variable rate fertiliser application has a real and profitable place in the Mallee when combined with good paddock science. The precision technology gives the ability to examine the yield data for many effects including other possible influencing factors such as elevation, slope aspect or orientation to the sun, and probably many others.

• Calculate the quantity of key nutrients (N and P) that you removed from your paddocks in grain last year using simple rules of thumb – aim to at least replace this and add more if you can.
• Deep N soil test in paddocks where protein was low.
• Sow into standing stubbles if possible.
• Make more informed nutrient decisions - know your soil organic carbon & PBI.

Peak yields of 10.98t/ha were achieved at 90kg N/ha, whereas 10kg of applied N yielded 9.98t/ha (1 t less), and at 290kg N/ha yields achieved were 10.2t/ha (table 1).
Yield responses match NDVI responses during the critical period reaffirming growth and crops intercepting light during this period is the key to higher yields (figure 1).
Crop biomass increased with Nitrogen rate from 16.1–20.5t/ha, however harvest index declined due to increased lodging and brackling (figure 2).
These results are consistent with other HYC sites in that once crop biomass at maturity in barley exceeds 16t/ha it is difficult to achieve a harvest index above 50%.
Screenings increased and test weight declined at the highest N rates, likely due to lodging and or brackling.

 There was no additional yield benefit of applying N above 126kg/ha in 2021.
 Extra Nitrogen applications increased grain protein, every additional 20 units of N above 126kg/ha increased protein by 0.4% suggesting the N was taken up but nor converting to yield.
 There was little evidence of extra biomass being achieved at any growth stage with extra N.
 Other grain quality parameters were not influenced by N.

- A mean yield of 8.8t/ha was achieved across the experiment and proteins were greater than 10.5% and within malt barley specification.
- There wasn’t any additional yield benefit from an extra 25% and 50% N combined when applied either with or without the additional P and S fertilizer compared to the farmer applied nutrition which totaled 130 Nkg.ha
- The aspirational N treatment of an additional 60 units of N increased grain protein by ~0.4% compared to the current practice.
- All other yield components and lodging were not influenced by N nutrition in this experiment

- Means yields of 8.99t/ha were achieved and despite grain protein levels below 10% there wasn’t any additional yield benefit from and extra 25% and 50% N combined when applied either with or without the additional P and S fertilizer compared to the farmer applied nutrition which totaled 130 Nkg.ha
- The aspirational N treatment of an additional 60 units of N increased grain protein by ~0.3% compared to the current practice.
- Other components such as lodging were not influenced by N nutrition in this experiment
- These findings are consistent with the first sowing date and suggests more N from applied fertilizer is unlikely to significant increase grain yields.

- A mean yield of 7.25 t/ha was achieved across the experiment and proteins were greater than 10.5% and within malt barley specification.
- There wasn’t any additional yield benefit from and extra 25% and 50% N combined when applied either with or without the additional P and S fertilizer compared to the farmer applied nutrition which totaled 148kg N/ha
- The aspirational N treatment of an additional 35 units of N increased grain protein by ~1.7 % compared to the current practice.
- These results are consistent with other experiments across the high rainfall zones, were limited responses to applied N fertilization are measurable when application rates exceed 150 units of N.

- A mean yield of 4.24t/ha was achieved across the experiment and proteins were greater than 11.4% and outside of malt specifications suggesting N was not limiting in this experiment.
- There wasn’t any additional yield benefit from an extra 25% and 50% N combined when applied either with or without the additional P and S fertilizer compared to the farmer applied nutrition which totaled 86kg N/ha
- The aspirational 25% and 50% more N treatments both increased grain protein by 1.1% and 1.9% which indicates the N was taken up but not contributing to yield
- These results are consistent with other experiments across the high rainfall zones, were limited responses to applied N fertilization are measurable when application rates exceed 150 units of N.

- A mean yield of 10.21 t/ha was achieved across the experiment and proteins were greater than 10.5% and within malt barley specification.
- There wasn’t any additional yield benefit from 60 kg N/ha (extra 25%) and 120 kg N/ha (50% extra N) combined when applied either with or without the additional P and S fertilizer compared to untreated control
- The aspirational N treatment of an additional 60 units of N increased grain protein by ~1 % compared to the untreated but did not increase yield.
- These results are consistent with other experiments across the high rainfall zones, were limited responses to applied N fertilization are measurable on fertile soils.