• Variety: there was no difference between the yield of Digger and Northfield (0.56 vs 0.57 t/ha respectively)
• Row spacing: there was no significant difference in the yield of lentils sown at 18 cm (7") or 36 cm (14") (0.59 vs 0.54 t/ha respectively). However, the crop sown at 18cm (7") was much easier to harvest and stood up better.
• Sowing rate: there was a significant negative effect of sowing rate on yield - the 50kg sowing rate had the higher yield compared to the 100kg/ha sowing rate (0.62 vs 0.51 t/ha respectively).

Average yields ranged from 2.1 to 2.5t/ha.

Soil amendments applied in 2004 did not significantly improve wheat yields in 2005.

The high fertiliser regime yielded significantly higher than the district practice regime and the low fertiliser regime.

No significant result and more testing required.

• The extremely late break to the season highlighted maturity differences very clearly.
• Yield varied from 2.2 -4.0t/ha.
• Protein varied from 13.9% (Mitika, Echidna) to 15.7% (Quoll). Highlighting the potential for oats in a feedlot ration. Mitika has low lignin content (hull) and Quoll has medium lignin (hull) content.
• Screenings varied from 18.0% (Quoll) to 32.1 % (Potoroo). High values were because of the short growing season.
• The test weight varied from 47.6kg/hl (Potoroo) to 54.9kg/hl (Mortlock). Relatively low seed weights confirmed the short season trend shown by high protein and high screenings values.

• The extremely late break to the season highlighted maturity differences very clearly. 
• The long season trial was sown on the same day as the main season trial, favouring heavily the short season varieties.

• The extremely late break to the season highlighted maturity differences in pod mapping.
• The flowering period of late maturing varieties was cut short quite significantly. However there were not big yield differences overall.
• Yield varied from 2.0 - 2.7t/ha.
• The grain size varied from 18.6g/10Oseeds (Morgan) to 26.2g/10Oseeds (Moonlight).

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Weeds have the biggest impact on summer water storage.
• Over the last two summers, the method of weed control had little effect on moisture storage
• Even under adequate growing season rainfall, weed control is necessary because weeds tie up and/or prevent significant amounts of nitrogen mineralizing, which cost 0.5t/ha of the canola yield.

Controlling summer weeds conserved both water and nitrogen and doubled wheat yields in 2011 on both sand and clay soil types. Retaining or removing stubble has only minor effects on wheat yield. Complete control of summer weeds pays, and there is no excuse for weedy paddocks during summer in the Wimmera and Mallee!

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Overall imposing a fallow allowed for a small amount of extra water to be stored in the soil and a small amount of extra nitrogen. As a result there was a small yield gain of 0.2 t/ha in 2012. 
• In this trial the fallow treatment was planted then sprayed out in August to replicate what is known as an ‘opportunistic’ fallow compared to a ‘strategic’ fallow where no crop is planted for 18 months. 18 month fallows would have different results to the ones reported here.
• Other benefits of fallow that were not recorded in this trial but could have contributed to the yield gain are improved weed control, disease breaks and opportunity for early sowing. 

• This is the second season in which this trial has been run and the fallow has yielded higher than continuous cropping in both 2011 (0.4 t/ha) and 2012 (0.2 t/ha). Other research indicates that fallows produce yield benefits in dry seasons which are not the case in the crop in 2011, which received 231mm for the growing season. The yield difference in 2011 was therefore more likely to have been the result of extra nitrogen in the soil, or weed or disease control rather than soil water benefits, however, these were not measured.
• Farm economics need to be carefully considered before implementing a fallow, the opportunity cost of not producing a crop needs to be weighed up, and benefits of yield, extra N, weed control and disease breaks carefully factored into the decision. 
• In 2012 the yield benefit from fallow was 0.2 t/ha and likely to be due to extra nitrogen and water being present in the soil. However, this is an unreplicated demonstration and thus it is hard to tell whether yield differences are the result of fallow or random variation in the paddock. 

• Historically, Australian farmers own the land they farm. Given that a large capital cost is associated with land purchase, businesses may seek non-ownership options.
• Alternatives to buying or selling agricultural land do exist.
• Leasing and share farming agreements are the most commonly utilised alternatives in Australia but still play a relatively minor role.

• Many views exist as to whether continous cropping is sustainable.
• Results from a long term tillage trial at Condobolin indicate direct drilled crops are outperforming crops using tillage.
• Stubble retention compared to burning gives mixed results for yield, although more weed build up is evident with retained stubble.
• Wheat yields are higher when grown after peas than after wheat in succession.

• Western Flat (Ramseys) soil modification work. Site was established in 2009. After 2 seasons, the area that organic matter was spaded into is performing well.
• Wolseley (Matthews’); alternative fertiliser demonstration; no differences were found between soil biology after a 12 month period.
• Lochaber Ag Bureau (Clothiers); Peries Wightman subsoil manuring project
• Dairy sites with Dairy SA based around the Mt Gambier region
• Coonalpyn Ag Bureau Soil pit days
• Coonawarra Grape Growers – historical composting trial sites revisited
• Sherwood – soil modifications in conjunction with additional carbon project

• 10 new soil demonstration and trials to be established in the south east over the next 2 years.
• Opportunities for farmers to access expert soil advice and information through a series of community meetings, workshops and field days. 

• Continuous wheat can be successfully grown.
• Stubble has been burnt to reduce the incidence of yellow leaf spot in the following crop.
• In most years the crop has been direct drilled.
• Disease levels are still low and the crop is checked at flowering every year for root diseases.
• Continuous wheat has been relativley low risk - after 7 years it has not failed (except for the drought year in 2002).
• Thus far there is no problem with grass weeds or soil borne diseases.

• Comparative tolerance of wheat and 2 species of barley grass to manganese deficiency was examined in solution culture.
• All 3 species achieve comparable biomass on full nutrients but wheat seedlings were greatly disadvantaged on low manganese.
• Both species barley grass proved far more tolerant of low manganese and maintained positive carbon balance and all treatments including nil addition of manganese.
• This contrast explains the comparative advantage barley grass wheat on low manganese soils.

• Soil and solution culture studies were conducted to examine the relative contribution of different mechanisms of zinc efficiency at the whole plant level in bread and durum wheat during early vegetative stage.
• While there are a number of mechanisms of zinc efficiency, zinc uptake appears to be the most important mechanism • Seed zinc remobilisation and root to shoot translocation do not appear to be important to zinc efficiency.
• Visual scores of zinc deficiency were significantly correlated with zinc efficiency, and they provide a useful criterion for an initial screen of zinc efficiency.
• This study was based on vegetative growth and the conclusions need to be verified under field conditions.
• The percentage deviation technique provided a straight forward means of comparing the relative effects of different components of zinc efficiency and the method could be extended to studies that use grain yield as the measure of zinc efficiency.

• Sunflower yields were very low at this site in 2015–16, averaging 0.24 t/ha, and overall variability was very high.
• The total removal of leaves at the budding stage had the largest impact on plant structures; plant height, head diameter and arc length.

• Sunflower grain yield averaged 1.07 t/ha at this site with the highest yields obtained from the control and the treatments where only the bottom one third (1/3) of leaves were removed.
• The total leaf removal treatments had the largest effect on yield, at worst yielding only 0.16 t/ha.
• Removing all leaves at budding or at the start of the flowering growth stages had the largest effect on plant structures.
• Total leaf removal at the end of flowering had the largest effect on 1000 grain weight and test weight.

• Sunflower yields were greatly affected by the various defoliation treatments, ranging from 0.12 t/ha to 0.97 t/ha.
• Reductions in yield, of between 55% and 82% compared with the control resulted from total leaf removal at all three of the targeted growth stages (budding, start of flowering and flowering completion) as well as removing two-thirds of the leaves at budding.
• There was no negative effect on grain yield from removing the bottom third of leaves at budding or the start of flowering. Removing the bottom third of leaves at the start of flowering actually provided a slight yield advantage over the control treatment. The largest effect on plant height, head diameter and head arc length were caused by removing all leaves at the budding stage.

• Grazing stubble with sheep speeds up N cycling and reduces N tie-up by the stubble. When yield is N limited, this can increase grain yield and quality.
• Over the seven year experiment, grazing and retaining stubble has been the most profitable treatment, with an annual Gross Income 172 higher than un-grazed, stubble retain (assuming a grazing value of the stubble) or $55 higher if no grazing value assumed.
• Over the seven years, there was on average a 0.5 t/ha reduction in wheat grain yield in the 2nd wheat crop where stubble was retained and not burnt – mostly related to N tie-up.

• All pre-emergent herbicides provided excellent early control of ryegrass (≥86%) & good crop safety under the knife-point press wheel system.
• Combination of trifluralin & Avadex Xtra followed by PSPE Boxer Gold provided greatest residual control, controlling more than 98% of ryegrass 12 weeks after sowing.
• Boxer Gold applied PSPE has been shown to provide some additional in-row controlof ryegrass.

• Boxer Gold alone or in combination with trifluralin and / or Avadex Xtra provided consistent pre-emergence control of ryegrass, as did trifluralin & Avadex Xtra.
• Although ryegrass control with new pre-emergent herbicide Sakura was lower than in previous years, its tank mixture with Avadex Xtra provided excellent control (86%).
• Boxer Gold & Dual Gold applied PSPE appeared to provide some additional in-row control of ryegrass.

Early application of selective herbicide (Group 1, A) gave excellent control of barley grass. While fewer barley grass plants meant less pasture biomass, it’s important to remember that the seeds on the mature barley grass would injure livestock. Further, these barley grass plants could host cereal crop disease.

Spray topping prevented viable seed set of barley grass while leaving the greatest pasture biomass.

Good barley grass control in the 2019 pasture was still evident in the 2020 and 2021 crops.

Late sowing of barley in 2020 (delayed 4 weeks) was relatively ineffective in controlling barley grass and crop yield was slightly reduced.

Late sowing of oats in 2021 (delayed 7 weeks) gave excellent weed control, but the crop yield was severely reduced.

Three years of control reduced barley grass density from over 1000 plants/m2 to 2-14 plants/m2 across the whole site.

The diverse rotation, including pasture and canola break crops, allowed a range of herbicides from different mode of actions and control of late emerging barley grass cohorts.

Two years of seed set prevention was not sufficient to remove the barley grass. Barley grass has a seedbank that lasts at least 3-4 years.

• Affinity mixtures consistently gave the best control of bifora.
• Treatments containing diuron or Buctril MA consistently produced reliable control.
• Precept was also one of the more effective treatments.

The trial establishment was variable early due to some non-wetting soil and the crop was sown too deeply due to furrow fill from significant rain after sowing. Early crop vigour as a result was low with blackleg further reducing plant establishment; this coupled with high levels of Vegetable beetle damage also reduced the evenness of the plots.

According to the DAFWA sporacle model spore maturity occurred on approximately the 22nd May which meant this trial was at very high risk of significant disease risk as emergence coincided with high spore levels being released from last year’s stubble.

• Excellent annual ryegrass control (>85%) with propyzamide either as split application (IBS followed by PSPE) or as a mixture with tri-allate.
• Atrazine also gave effective control this season with rainfall assisting activity (>79%).
• Early crop vigour was suppressed with Outlook & the higher split rate (1 kg/ha IBS followed by 1 kg/ha PSPE) of propyzamide.
• UAN at 20 kg/ha caused some leaf burning, however the crop recovered.

• Measurements in August showed clethodim to give 82% control and pre-emergent treatments to give 85% control of annual ryegrass.
• Averaged across the trial the ryegrass still set 15 heads per square metre.

• A Predicta B sample taken from the site indicated a medium risk of rhizoctonia although patches did not express during the season.
• Early establishment across the site was severely impacted by non-wetting affected all plots across the trial with the worst of it commencing around plot 215 and increasing in severity throughout replicate 3.  Early dry conditions further staggered the crop emergence.
• Good rains through late July and into early August ensured the crop was growing well albeit patchy across the trial with high levels of disease present at both the Z31 and Z39 applications. Only 48.9 mm of rain fell from the second Z39 application to the end of October reducing the benefits to yield of the different fungicide treatments.
•  Increasing variability in the trial due to the sub-soil issues from plot 215 into replicate 3 was a significant factor. Yield data should be treated with caution due to the variability of the site with disease control is the most accurate assessment of treatment efficacy.

• Control of net form net blotch using effective fungicides resulted in yield increases of up to 1.0 t/ha compared to nil treatments.
• Two strategic fungicide applications during early-mid growth stages (before end of August) – suppressed disease development and provided control comparable to four applications made every 2-4 weeks from early August.
• Tilt, Amistar Xtra, Opera and Prosaro were effective for control of net form of net blotch.

• Control of net form net blotch using effective fungicides resulted in yield increases of up to 1.0 t/ha compared to nil treatments.
• Two strategic fungicide applications during early-mid growth stages (before end of August) – suppressed disease development and provided control comparable to four applications made every 2-4 weeks from early August.
• Tilt, Amistar Xtra, Opera and Prosaro were effective for control of net form of net blotch.

• Powdery mildew infection was observed during the 2015–16 season, although less severe than in previous seasons.
• Powdery mildew infection was found on all soybean varieties except Djakal, demonstrating its known resistance.
• Fungicide applications had no effect on the grain yield of Djakal, N005A-80 or P176-2 varieties, however, the SnowyA variety had a significant increase in grain yield when treated with tebuconazole in a split application regime.

• Boxer Gold IBS + PSPE or Trifluralin IBS + Avadex Xtra IBS + Dual Gold PSPE gave the best pre-emergent annual ryegrass control in 2009.
• Boxer Gold or Dual Gold applied PSPE significantly improved ryegrass control in the crop row.

• There was no significant change in wheat or ryegrass establishment due to sowing systems or position.
• BAY-191 produced the greatest control of ryegrass, 79%.

Controlled traffic farming leaves permanent wheel tracks when growing crops. There are large savings in
costs, especially due to lower horsepower requirements, and also minimisation of compaction layer effects
on the crop. Machinery with different configurations and widths of wheel tracks presents one problem for
controlled traffic.

• Observations in N.S.W., Victoria and Western Australia clearly show that tap rooted crops have excellent straight tap roots when grown on beds when compared to flat paddocks. 
• These initial considerations suggest narrow raised beds may offer a better overall soil water exploration throughout different depths of the profile and a better depth of rooting by crops. 
   

• Vetch production in a very tough season was little affected by trafficking imposed in 2015.
• After three years of crop production, low levels of trafficking have had little impact on grain yield on a Minnipa soil, multiple trafficking on wet soil (in 2015) increased grain yields in the second and third crops.
• Ripping conducted in 2015 lifted the soil substantially but has not benefited production in any of the following three crops.

• Multiple machinery pass trafficking decreased crop yields for at least four years on a Loxton deep sand.
• Single pass machinery trafficking did not result in yield decreases at Loxton and rarely at any of the other trafficking soil types in this project.
• Most soils in the south-eastern Australian Low rainfall zone are not likely to remediate from compaction naturally.

This work has demonstrated that N2O emissions from trafficked soil were consistently and significantly greater (by an average factor of 2.2) than those from non-trafficked soil. At the same time, soil CH4 consumption was significantly increased in the CTF beds compared to random-trafficked or permanent traffic lanes, although overall CH4 fluxes were small. Permanent traffic lanes normally represent only 10%–15% of field area on controlled traffic farms, compared with ∼50% or more trafficked area on non-controlled traffic farms. Thus, the results indicate that adoption of controlled traffic should reduce soil emissions of C2O-e by 30%–50%, and this effect would be greater if N fertiliser could be excluded from permanent traffic lanes.  The reduction in emissions also indicates that less N has been lost by denitrification, an effect which might be in the range of 3 – 20 kg/ha.

The work has demonstrated that CTF will reduce the GHG emissions from grain production, in addition to providing economic and other environmental benefits.
 

• A single application of Uragan (bromacil) plus paraquat in May gave complete control of all weeds at all sites over both rates. However, the additional expense, soil erosion risk and irsk to remnant vegetation need to be considered.

• A two spray or double knock strategy (including cultivation or another non-herbicide treatment) is often required for complete control in fencelines with the first application early in the season followed by another one later in the season (after the seeding and post-harvest operations are over).
• Tank mixes of residual herbicides plus a knockdown give the best control for the first application.
• A single application of a mixture of Uragan® (bromacil) and paraquat early in the season gives excellent weed control on fencelines.
• The addition of Alliance® (mixture of amitrole and paraquat) as the knockdown gives good broadleaf control.
• Glyphosate can still be used but intensive monitoring and complete seed set control is required to prevent resistance from developing.

 

• In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops.
• The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached.
• In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops. The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached. In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

In the 2001 season there was no benefit from the application of an alphacypermethrin insecticide application to barley and lentil crops. The dry summer of 2000/2001 resulted in very few host plants for aphids and virus diseases and threshold levels for disease carry over potential were not reached. In wet summers with many host plants surviving it is possible that preventative spraying with alphacypermethrin could be worthwhile.

Seed-applied fungicide had no significant effect on plant establishment, yield or grain quality (Refer Table 2). Visual differences in disease levels were not present between the fungicide treatments. Spot Form of Net Blotch was present at low levels in the trial and Leaf Scald was present at very low levels.

A small but significant decrease in black leg infection was observed from the Atrazine applications. Further work will have to be undertaken in this area to confirm these results.

There were no differences in yield between the treatments.

• Roundup alone will not control Flaxleaf fleabane. 
• Addition of Surpass and Ally to Roundup provided the most effective control.
• To avoid the need to use more expensive chemicals and spray more than twice, control fleabane before it begins to elongate (>40cm in height).

• Metribuzin added to Precept® gave good control of all weeds.
• Affinity Force® did not perform to the standard expected.

Medic must be controlled prior to sowing lentils because there are no in-crop herbicide options available.

The best pre-sowing options coming out of this trial were:

• cultivation prior to sowing
• SpraySeed®
• Roundup Power Max® plus Lexone®
• Roundup Power Max® plus Hammer®

Roundup Power Max® alone was not very effective, and Roundup Power Max® plus Dicamba® resulted in extensive lentil damage which resulted in low yields.

Summer rain over the past 3 months has been substantial in some areas; therefore summer weed growth has been vigorous. Rosinweed is a particularly strong summer weed which is very difficult to control. This trial showed that Group B (IMI) herbicides had good control of rosinweed, while Ally® having less control, offered good suppression.

• Glyphosate alone at high rates produced poor control of annual ryegrass along the fenceline.
• Spray.seed + Diuron, Round up Power Max + Diuron and Alliance all gave good control of the glyphosate resistant annual ryegrass.

• The best control of ryegrass was from Roundup Powermax at 1.5L/ha, giving 70% control.
• High rates of glyphosate can be effective, but nevertheless lead to increased resistance. Different modes of action should be used where possible.

• Group D resistance will develop if trifluralin is consistently used without other control practices.
• Trifluralin used in combination with other herbicides such as Avadex Xtra (Group E) and Dual Gold (Group K), may enhance ryegrass control and could prolong the onset of Group D resistant ryegrass populations.
• BoxerGold was very effective on both sites with added crop safety. This herbicide is expected to be released in 2008 and likely to be expensive but should be included in the crop rotation to reduce the likelihood of developing resistance.

• Group D resistance will develop if trifluralin is consistently used without other control practices.
• Trifluralin used in combination with other herbicides such as Avadex Xtra (Group E) and Dual Gold (Group K), may enhance ryegrass control and could prolong the onset of Group D resistant ryegrass populations.
• BoxerGold was very effective on both sites with added crop safety. This herbicide is expected to be released in 2008 and likely to be expensive but should be included in the crop rotation to reduce the likelihood of developing resistance.

• Trifluralin was more effective at reducing ryegrass numbers in the cereal phase than in break crops.
• There are more benefits from good rotation than improved weed control alone, but benefits (in this case additional nitrogen) may not be apparent until several years after the non-cereal break crop or pasture phase.

This trial looked at protecting the crop from excessive sun and wind during the spring when crops are flowering and setting seed by covering it in shade cloth in early September. It was expected that this would improve yield and grain size but in fact it had the opposite effect with reduced yields and poor grain quality.

• Two years of full wild oat control did not exhaust the seedbank to a manageable level.
• A selective post emergent herbicide or an early hay cut were the most effective strategies for reducing the wild oat seedbank.

• One year of full wild oat control reduced the wild oat seedbank to 8 seeds per square metre in 2010.
• A selective post emergent herbicide or an early hay cut were the most effective strategies for reducing the wild oat seedbank.

The trial determined that Tigrex, Paragon, Glean, Affinity + MCPA500, Eclipse + MCPA LVE , and Jaguar + MCPA LVE provide good early post emergent control of radish in wheat. To ensure that no radish sets seed it is still important to follow up with a phenoxy herbicide later in the season. In this trial Jaguar + MCPA LVE had the highest wheat yield.

• A benchmark of cropping income of $275/ha or $100-120 income per 100mm rainfall was derived from an analysis of the performance of two Birchip farms over 12 years. ƒ
• Up to 80% of variability in gross income can attributed to annual rainfall

There are no magic solutions in these times of rural difficulty. We need to find positive ways to work our way through. Hopefully some of this information will assist you to understand yourself and avoid some pitfalls.

Results 4 & 5 years after the initial Cu application on a gravelly soil near Wandering indicate responses to copper but clover persisted without Cu applied.

Zinc applied as a basal.

The Cu concentration in October 1967 was low [possbily due to sampling time].

Design is a incomplete factorial and Cu residual measured as a run down rather than comparisons to new or current applicationa of Cu

• Copper concentrations in tissue on sandy soils declined with the age of the plant, with indications of copper deficiency for older plants.
• Patches of crop with partially empty heads were observed while the rest of the head was still green.
• Suggested that EDTA extractable copper might give indication of likely copper deficiency in sandy soils.
• Deficiency can be overcome by applying copper fertilisers to soil (long term solution) or a foliar copper spray (short term solution).

• Main areas at risk from Inglewood and Yelbaron in the south to Tara and Condamine in the north.
• Occurs on grey or grey brown clays or sandy clays which carried belah and brigalow in their native state.
• Variance in triticale varieties in responsiveness to copper sulphate.
• When copper fertiliser was placed in dry soil it was unable to be taken up by plants and grain yield, but not straw production, was severely compromised.

• 21 field trials across Southern Wimmera.
• At 18 trials the treatments included 2 kg ha of copper spray-applied to soil and incorporated at sowing; foliar applied copper (75 g Cu/ha) at late tillering; and 150 g Cu/ha at booting; a nil treatment.
• The other 3 trials investigated correction of previously diagnosed Cu deficiency.
• One of the most responsive sites in 1984 was reinvestigated in 1985 using similar treatments on an area which had not previously received copper.
• Grain yield and micronutrient of YEBS for Cu were measured.In 1984 grain yield response to applied copper was 0146 t ha-1 for wheat grown on the Yellow Duplex soils and 1.32 t ha for the Deep Sand site.
• The Red Duplex and Non-Friable Clay soils were not Cu deficient.
• In 1985 responses on yellow duplex soils (important cropping soils in region) were much smaller: attributed to fact it was a drier year than 1984 (no waterlogging).
• In 1984, leaf Cu concentration was initially sufficient but fell below the critical minimum after the onset of waterlogging and remained low until the soil dried out.

• Trials on Yellow Duplex Soils at 3 sites in the Southern Wimmera.
• At one site commercial chelated copper was foliar applied.
• Treatments were Nil; 75 or 150 g Cu/ha at late booting; 37.5 or 75 g Cu/ha at late tillering and; split applications of 75 g Cu/ha at late tillering plus either 75 g or 150 g Cu/ha at late booting.
• At two sites formulations of copper were compared, these treatments included Nil; copper oxychloride; copper sulphate and a commercial chelated copper. All were applied at 75 g Cu/ha at late tillering plus 150 g Cu/ha at booting. All plots were sown to wheat. Dry matter cuts were used at anthesis and maturity to estimate crop growth and yield components.
• Since copper is important in wheat for production of viable pollen the late booting treatments (applied after pollen set): resulted in only an 18% increase in grains/ear and grain yield.
• Whereas copper applied at late tillering increased grain yield by 1.55 t/ha or 93% (resulting from 60% more grains/ear and 20% more ears/m2 • Split applications did not result in higher yields.
• Both copper oxychloride and the chelated product resulted in grain yield increases between 0.94 and 1.26 t/ha but the chelated product is approximately seven times as expensive.

• Copper deficiency is common in wheat in South Australia and yield increases are common after copper is applied.
• Responses are observed on a range of sandy soils, especially siliceous and calcareous sands, sand over clay and soils containing ironstone.
• Symptoms of copper deficiency include wilting during early growth, leaf dieback after wilting, withertip (sterile ear tip and yellow/white ear tips), whiteheads, curved ears and heads pointing toward the ground, and blackening (melanism) of lower parts of leaves.

The program demonstrated that:
• At some sites where copper deficiency was historically assumed, no response to any form of copper application was observed. Copper response is likely to vary by site and season.
• Yield loss caused by copper deficiency can be devastating to wheat yield.
• Soil and tissue testing can be useful in helping to detect low levels, but are not always definitive. Copper response appears to be dependent on other complex interactions such as soil moisture, yield potential and other constraints (N fertility etc.) and thus soil/tissue tests alone are not a definitive guide to future responses.
• Foliar applications performed better than in-furrow liquids.
• Chelate and sulphate products performed equally well when applied as foliar applications.
• Timing did not appear to be critical, with a wide band of opportunity from mid-tiller to early head emergence providing similar results

Copper treatments had no effect on crop establishment.

Soil DTPA was 0.27 mg/kg soil.

Grain yield increase by 32 % for both granular and fluid applied Cu.  About 1.3 kg Cu /ha was required for maximum grain yield of 3.2 t/ha.

Foliar application reached 85% of the maximum yield when applied at flag leaf before flowering; earlier application at first node was effective but only reached about 75% of the maximum.  

At this site seed coating had a small effect on germination of seedlings and was insufficient Cu for wheat seedling to recover from Cu deficiency.

Flag leaf Cu concentrations were 1.3 mg Cu/kg and grain Cu concentration from nil Cu treatments were 1.3  mg/kg

Soil DTPA was 0.32 mg/kg soil.

Grain yield increased by 2 % for both granular and fluid applied Cu.  About 1.5 kg Cu /ha was required for maximum grain yield of 3.32 t/ha.

Foliar application reached 97% of the maximum grain yield when applied at flag leaf before flowering; earlier application at first node was effective but only reached about 95% of the maximum.  GY

At this site seed coating had no effect on germination of seedlings..

Flag leaf Cu concentrations were 1.5 mg Cu/kg and grain Cu concentration from nil Cu treatments were 1.4  mg/kg

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied Cu was applied in 1959.

• Barley responded to Cu; applied as Cu ore @ 35 kg/ha.

• ZnO at 3.3 kg/ha depressed yield without Cu for both levels of N, applied as ammonium sulphate

• Cu increased yield by about 30% with nil ammonium sulphate applied.

• Application of Ammonioum sulphate appeared to decrease the respponse to Cu.

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied Cu was applied in 1957.

• Oats responded to Cu

• Area very Cu deficient as responses in grain yield to Cu in oats are not frequently obtained

• Cu additions in aabsence of Zn induced more sebere Zn deficierncy in oats.

• However, yields showed no Cu x Zn interaction.

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied Cu was applied in 1953.

• !953 experiment a Cu & Zn experiment on oats.

• In 1959 Cu and Zn reapllied on half plots.

• Zn applied in 1953 had the same grain yield as  Cu & Zn applied in 1959

• Residual value of previous applied Cu & Zn were  good

• No further response  of oats to second addition of Cu and or Zn after 6 years.

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied Cu was applied in 1957.

• Zn applied in 1957 reduced grain yield where Nil Cu.

• Zn oxide was not reduced until 4 kg/ha was applied

• Cu  applied in 1959  did not increased grain yield of wheat. 

• Residual value of previous applied Cu & Zn were  good

• Copper was applied as Cu ore equivalent to about 5 kg Cu sul/ha.

• No further response  addition of Cu and or Zn.

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied in 1955.

• Cu  applied in 1959  did not increased grain yield of wheat. 

• Copper was applied as Cu ore equivalent to about 5 kg Cu sul/ha.

• No further response ti addition of Cu and or Zn.

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied in 1955.

• Cu  applied in 1959  did not increased grain yield of wheat. 

• Copper was applied as Cu ore equivalent to about 5 kg Cu sul/ha.

• No further response ti addition of Cu and or Zn.

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied in 1952.

• Cu  applied in 1959 increased grain yield of wheat. 

• Copper was applied as Cu ore equivalent to about 5 kg Cu sul/ha.

• THe response of wheat  to Cu in 1959 was not annticipated .

• As there was very large responses to Cu in 1959, doubts arose as to whether Cu was originally applied. However, clover grew well in 1952 suggestion Cu had been applied, along with the plain supper Zinc 

• Conclusion a second application of Cu is required to the soil type.

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied in 1953 was adequate in 1959. 

• Copper was applied as Cu ore

• Further additions in combination or alone had no further effect on grain yileld 

• 6 years of clover ley; Addition N as ammonia sulphate (112 kg/ha) increased grain yield by 300 kg/ha; profitable application

• Nitrogen did not induce Cu & Zn deficiency.

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied in 1953.

• Cu  applied in 1959  did not increased grain yield of wheat. 

• Copper was applied as Cu ore equivalent to about 5 kg Cu sul/ha.

• No further response ti addition of Cu and or Zn.

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied Cu was applied in 1957.

• Cu ore, Cu sulfate and zinc chloride source used.

• In 1957 Zn chloride reduced yields. There were no reduction in yield in 1959

• Zn applied in 1957 reduced grain yield where Nil Cu.

• Cu  applied in 1959  did not increased grain yield of wheat. 

• Residual value of previous applied Cu & Zn were  good

• Copper was applied as Cu ore equivalent to about 5 kg Cu sul/ha. There was no difference between Cu ore and bluestone [Cu sulfate] compared at the same rate of Cu applioed.

• No further response  addition of Cu and or Zn.

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied in 1953 was adequate in 1959. 

• Copper was applied as Cu ore

• Further additions in combination or alone had no further effect on grain yileld 

• 6 years of clover ley; Addition N as ammonia sulphate (112 kg/ha) reduced seedling stands & reduced grain yield.

• Anticipated a response to Cu

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied Cu was applied in 1953.

• !953 experiment a Cu & Zn experiment on wheat.

• Zn reduced yield in 1953 when applied without Cu 

• Cu & Zn applied in 1953 had the same grain yield as  Cu & Zn applied in 1959

• Residual value of previous applied Cu & Zn were  good

• No further response  of wheat to second addition of Cu and or Zn after 6 years.

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied in 1956.

• Cu  applied in 1959  did not increased grain yield of wheat. 

• Copper was applied as Cu ore equivalent to about 5 kg Cu sul/ha.

• No further response ti addition of Cu and or Zn.

• The addition of copper and zinc fertiliser applied in 1954 was adequate in 1959. 

• Copper was applied as Cu ore

• Further additions in combination or alone had no further effect on grain yileld 

• 5 years of clover ley; Addition N as ammonia sulphate (112 kg/ha) no effect on  grain yield by 300 kg/ha; profitable application.

• Wheat, rye and triticale were grown in three Australian soils at low and high levels of trace elements.
•  All basal nutrients were supplied in copper and zinc added at 4 mg/pot.
• Addition of copper alone greatly increased pollen viability.
• Addition of zinc alone either decreased pollen viability or had no effect.
• The results confirm the tolerance of rye to extremes of soil pH and to both copper and zinc deficiency.
• In all environments adding zinc alone aggravated copper deficiency.
• Genotypic differences in copper zinc interaction showed up most strongly in soils of pH 7 and 9.

• In 2005 the Farming Systems Comparison Trial, the Core Site, came through its 8th season and has a further two years to complete the second, and final, rotation,
• A dry start to the growing season resulted in another late sow.
• The decision to refrain from sowing canola due to the late sowing date was repeated in 2005.
• For the first time since the initiation of the project we see a difference in the grain yields between farming systems.
• Projection of fleece weights suggests that fleece production may have approached performance of previous years.
• The perennial pasture was the highest profit making system based on crude estimates of gross margins.

• There is little difference between the three cropping systems in terms of grain yield and quality.
• The drought over recent years has particularly affected the livestock data.
• Differences between the systems prior to the drought no longer exist as the sheep have spent about half their time off the trial due to lack of feed.
• Other research across Australia is supporting the management issues of some farming systems that have been highlighted by this trial.

• There was no statistical increase in yeild with the addition of CoRoN at GS31.