Knowing phosphorous levels in the soil is critical. At low levels of nutrition, an economic response to phosphorous application will be achieved. This work is critical in determining where the nutrient response curve flattens out – allowing for improved management decisions to be made.

• X-rays of small dishes of soil to which fertiliser had been added in the centre showed that fluid forms of copper, zinc and manganese are more mobile (diffuse further) in soil compared to granular forms.

This site had high soil nitrate reserves (45 mg/kg Nit N in 0 - 10cm) but there were still very good responses to Flexi-N. Although there were no Flexi-N placement/timing or stubble effects on yield, an analysis of protein yield showed that stubble reduced N recovery in the grain by about 30 kg protein/ha or 5 kg N/ha – most likely due to increased immobilisation. Leaf disease symptoms were most severe where stubble was retained but they were less obvious where Flexi-N was banded. Hectolitre weights were 78 – 79 kg/hl and screenings were 2 - 3% in all treatments.

These results show a strong tend towards N applied and what is remaining in the soil after the failed wheat crop.

• Grain yields can vary considerably within the paddock in the Victorian Mallee. The spatial pattern of this yield variation, however, is not always consistent, with relative yield patterns differing over consecutive seasons, and/or crop types, in a flip-flop (alternating) pattern.
• Consistently high yielding zones existed where the shallow subsoil (10-20cm) was a clay loam texture (33% clay) with low salinity. In contrast, consistently low yielding zones possessed a shallow subsoil of light clay (40% clay) and medium to high levels of salinity.
• Flip-flop yield zones were associated with gilgai (crab-hole) depressions where yields tended to increase in dry seasons (due to a concentration of surface water) but decreased in wet seasons (due to water logging of the heavy textured soils). In contrast where gilgai depressions and light textured soils occurred, crop yields were depressed in dry seasons.
• Overall, the flip flop patterns in grain yields observed within paddocks was attributed to the effect of gilgai microrelief and changes in soil texture which influence soil water availability to crops.

• Phosphoric acid as a liquid fertiliser resulted in 13% and 8% higher yields in 2014 and 2015 respectively at Streaky Bay, and an 8% yield increase at Warramboo in 2016 when compared to the same rate of P delivered in granular fertilisers.
• Despite the yield increases at Streaky Bay and Warramboo, the economics showed granular fertiliser had greater returns in $/ha compared to using phosphoric acid at 9 units of P.
• The guidelines for moving to the adoption of phosphoric acid as a P source exist in the Fluid Fertiliser Manual which adequately covers the principles, economics, recommendations and chemistry of adopting fluid delivery systems. The manual is available at www.fluidfertilsers.com.au.
• Knowing the responsiveness of a soil type to phosphoric acid is an important factor to consider before investing in a fluid delivery system. The responsive soil types are generally higher n calcium carbonate (greater than 25%). P source responses may also be driven by soil moisture conditions because in 2016, which had wetter seasonal conditions, phosphoric acid and granular P performed similarly in the same soil type at Streaky Bay.
• The adoption of fluid fertiliser systems to place fungicides in-furrow for rhizoctonia disease management is not recommended in this environment. The addition of fungicides showed small and variable yield advantages at Warramboo in 2014 and 2016 and Streaky Bay in 2016. Using fungicides in above average seasons the greatest yield benefit was only 0.22 t/ha with an in-furrow application with granular phosphorus and trace elements. This is lower than the benefits achieved in other regions where yield increases of up to 0.49 t/ha in wheat with split applications of fungicides were achieved. Inluding fungicides on wheat up front will increase input costs and risk over a large cropping program. 
• Large scale demonstrations by growers across Eyre Peninsula with in-furrow fungicide applications at seeding did not reduce rhizoctonia or produce yield benefits over three seasons.
• The adoption of fluid fertiliser systems will depend in growers' soil types for phosphorus responses, the existence of trace element deficiences and ease or timing of application (in-furrow at seeding) and machinery ability to deliver fluids.

• Fluid forms of Phosphorus such as Ammonium Polyphosphate (APP) and Phosphoric Acid have been shown to significantly increase the growth and grain yield of crops on highly calcareous soil on the Eyre Peninsula of SA compared to granular fertiliser forms such as DAP and Triple Super.
• Field trials conducted at three sites in 2003 in Victoria on alkaline soils (central and southern Mallee and Wimmera Plains) demonstrated that fluid forms of P fertiliser promoted the growth of wheat more than granular forms at all sites but this was translated to a yield response at only one site (Birchip).
• There is no reliable diagnostic tool however presently available for predicting under what circumstances fluid forms will outperform granular forms of P.
• Experimentation will continue at the same sites in 2004.

• Field trials were conducted at two sites (comprising Sodosol and Calcarosol soil types) in the southern Mallee and one in the Wimmera (Vertosol soil) to assess the responsiveness of wheat to fluid forms of phosphorus (P) fertilisers.
• Fluid P forms (APP and phosphoric acid) generally produced greater growth during vegetative stages of crop growth compared to granular forms (DAP and Triple Super) at all three sites.
• However, in a season characterised by a late break and dry conditions prior to flowering, early growth responses to P fertiliser (regardless of form) translated to grain yield responses at only one Mallee site. In contrast there was significant grain yield responses to fluid P at Dooen (Wimmera).
• At this site, fluid P forms produced 0.24 t/ha (or nearly 10%) more grain on average than granular forms at commercially applicable rates (4 to 12 kg P/ha).

• Copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and molybdenum (Mo) were applied as foliar sprays at 75, 150 and 30 g/ha, respectively, to tillering wheat (5-6 leaf stage) growing on a strongly acid soil (Rutherglen site, pH CaCl2 4.38) limed at three rates (0, 2.5 and 10 t/ha lime).
• The highest lime treatment (pH CaCl2 increased to 7.18) was included to determine if lime induced any micronutrient deficiency.
• Two further sites were established on farmers' properties (Devenish, pH CaCl2 4.36; Goomalibee, pH CaC12 4.72), the same three micronutrients were applied with boron (B, 200 g/ha) to adjacent limed and unlimed areas.
• At the Rutherglen site plants were sampled on three occasions (3 leaf stage, jointing and flowering). The youngest fully emerged leaf (YFEL) was separated for chemical analysis.
• There was no effect of lime or applied Cu to the concentrations in the YFEL's.
• These concentrations considerably exceed the suggested deficiency value of <2 ppm (2). Zn concentrations in YFEL's at flowering were above 20 ppm for all treatments, well in excess of the critical deficiency level (<10 ppm).
• There were no effects on YFEL Zn concentrations from applying Zn or lime.
• The levels of Mo were significantly increased (P<0.01) by lime from 0.3 ppm to 0.6 and 0.8 ppm respectively, for 2.5 and 10 t/ha lime (SED0.059). However, YFEL Mo concentrations were more than adequate for plant needs.
• There was no effect of foliar applied Cu, Zn or Mo on grain yield.
• Lime has consistently increased grain yield at this site. At the Devenish and Goomalibee sites, lime significantly (P<0.01) increased grain yields (36% and 13% respectively) but there were no improvements from the applied foliar nutrients nor any interaction with lime.

• No significant yield response was recorded in either year.
• The trial site appeared to be badly affected by rhizoctonia root rot in 2000.

• No significant yield response was recorded in either year.
• The trial site appeared to be badly affected by rhizoctonia root rot in 2000.

• Organic amendments improved ‘soil health’ in terms of free living nematode community structure.
• The Tilled + Organic Matter treatment had a more well balanced soil microbial system than other treatments.
• Numbers of omnivorous and predatory nematodes are quite low in comparison to other cropped soils around Australia, thus room for improvement.
• Soils have improved, as the number of omnivorous nematodes in 2013 significantly increased in organic amended treatments, in comparison to 2011.

Frost events will occur when temperatures at the soil surface are below 0°C. These conditions often occur when a cloudy day is followed by a windless cloud free night. Cereal crops are at the greatest risk of damage when there is a frost during flowering however, damage can be done any time between late stem elongation and late grain fill.

• Foliar applications of blackleg fungicides such as Aviator Xpro or Prosaro achieve the largest gains on varieties such as Bayer 3000TR and Bonito which are both rated MS-MR or lower for blackleg resistance.
• Canola varieties rated R-MR or better are unlikely to benefit from foliar blackleg sprays for disease control,
  however some secondary benefit from green leaf retention may be seen in years where moisture is not limiting.
• Blackleg management should be tackled with an integrated approach using buffer zones, rotations, varietal selection and fungicides.

Severe moisture stress was a key feature of both barley fungicide trials this season with the Mallee trial yields ranging from 0.49 – 0.72 t/ha and Wimmera yields from 1.85 – 2.09 t/ha.

One way ploughing slightly improved establishment, head numbers, biomass production and yield but is not a viable long term solution for the severe non wetting on this soil type.

Deep ripping and spading improved head numbers by over 60% and biomass production by 87% compared to the control.

Grain yields were improved by over a 1 t/ha and gross margin by about $200/ha when treatment costs were amortized over 5 years in the combined ripping and spading treatments.

• Gibberellic acid is a safe, cheap and convenient way to increase winter fed growth, but it must be applied early in the season (ideally by late autumn/early winter).
• Only apply Gibberellic acid if there is sufficient soil moisture and adequate levels of surface cover.
• Applying early in the season will boost winter growth.
• Applying too late can potentially cause a decrease in spring feed production.
• Don’t graze the paddock within 3 weeks of application.

• Gibberellic acid is a safe, cheap and convenient way to increase winter fed growth, but it must be applied early in the season (ideally by late autumn/early winter).
• Only apply Gibberellic acid if there is sufficient soil moisture and adequate levels of surface cover.
• Applying early in the season will boost winter growth.
• Applying too late can potentially cause a decrease in spring feed production.
• Don’t graze the paddock within 3 weeks of application.

• Clover content in kikuyu can be increased by hard grazing of the kikiyu stand prior to the opening rains (insure RLEM are controlled, lime if soil is pHCaCl<5).
• Sowing legumes can increase legume content. If grass suppression is used, weeds may also increase unless control measures are taken.
• Legume content can be increased after the break by using a grass selective herbicide to suppress the kikiyu, if you have an adequate clover seedbank.
• If clover needs to be added, drill seed in, don't broadcast.

• CWFS regional site trials during 2013 and 2014 suggest stubble loads greater than 3 t/ha can limit yield.
• “No till with no stubble is no good” on hard setting red brown soil types. The delimma is that the annual incorporation of stubble just prior to sowing by cultivation or removal by burning would result in the loss of signifigant long term benefits to soil health.
• “If you do not measure it you cannot manage it!” Field measurements of stubble are the starting point for deciding what to do.
• Options to manage stubble loads above 3t/ha need to be made seasonally. Good planning may allow other agronomic and farm efficiency outcomes to be achieved at the same time.

• There has been no evidence of any soil health or production losses with grazing after seven years, irrespective of whether crop or pasture inputs were increased or kept at district practice levels.
• In 2014 higher input systems showed how increased inputs and costs throughout the season can result in increased productivity and subsequent profitability.

• There has been no measured grain production or soil health decline associated with grazing sheep on pastures and crop stubbles over a 4 year pasture-wheat rotation. Grain yields were higher as a result of increased wheat seed and fertiliser rates in 2013.
• Higher applied crop seed and fertiliser rates with an improved medic pasture increased estimated gross margins by $16/ha/annum over a 6 year wheat-wheat-pasture-wheat-pasture-wheat rotation

• Grazing sheep have not damaged soil health over eight years of several crop/pasture rotations.
• In 2015 total annual biomass was greater in higher input and grazed rotations. High input grazed systems carried twice the stocking rate of a low input system.

• Over nine seasons, incorporating livestock into the rotation improved overall system outcomes in this trial, including; increased nitrogen cycling and water use efficiency, reduction in weed and pest populations and no negative effects on cereal performance or soil health, while value adding to stubble and pastures by grazing.
• The high input grazed farming system had a gross margin of over $100/ha/year more than lower input and ungrazed treatments over the nine-year trial period.

• Pasture cropping is a relatively new system combining livestock and crop production on the one area of land.
• Production of crop and pasture individually can be lower when grown together in a pasture cropping system compared with when either is grown alone, however the overall annual production can be higher.
• Pasture cropping systems can be managed so that annual winter crops have no direct competition from pastures while the crop is growing.
• Pasture cropping can improve year-round resource use increasing overall annual productivity compared with conventional annual cropping or pasture systems.
• Pasture cropping will be most effective in soil types that do not store soil moisture well and have some summer rain.

Filed peas, lentils and chickpeas are responsive to the application of phosphorus.

Growers should soil test paddocks going into grain legumes to determine the optimum phosphorus rate to apply and ensure lentils and field peas are priority crops for P fertiliser.

Soil analysis is being performed on each individual sub-plot to determine the amount of Nitrogen each crop and stubble treatment produced/retained in the soil. The phase is being done in conjunction with the CSIRO laboratories in Canberra.

Significant responses have been shown at other sites with suface lime treatments and deep ripping to 30cm, so using test strips to test responsiveness of a soil to these more treatments is a good option.

The 2005 field trials have shown promising results in terms of an improved delivery system for legume inoculants.

Caution must be taken when using soluble herbicides on lentils (and other pulses) in light sandy soils, especially when there is wet soil surface conditions followed by heavy rainfall

Following two years of grass free medic pasture soil mineral nitrogen levels averaged 158 kg N/ha and all disease inoculum levels were low.

Cutting the medic pasture for hay lowered dry matter production and medic pod set in the following season.

An early light tickle resulted in higher weed germination and lower powdery mildew damage in spring.

Full cut tillage following two years of grass free medic resulted in the highest wheat yields while a discing prior to seeding resulted in the lowest yield.

Working medic residues in the year prior reduced the following wheat yield but grain protein was higher.

Cutting a medic pasture for hay in 2013 reduced medic productivity in 2014 and lowered wheat grain protein in 2015.

• A two year pasture break has been more beneficial in the first cereal year than a one year break, resulting in lower grass weed numbers, higher soil reserves of N and low disease levels.
• The impact of pasture management and pre-seeding tillage on grain yield and quality was greater following a medic pasture in 2015 than in 2016.

• Hay cutting in 2013 resulted in lower medic dry matter in 2017.
• Grass weed numbers were very low in 2017 due to low opening rains and poor germination.
• Two years of wheat increased Rhizoctonia, Yellow leaf spot and Pratylenchus.
• A two year pasture break was beneficial to the following cereal because of lower grass weed numbers, higher soil reserves of N and lower disease levels.

This demonstration showed there may be a large deep ripping effect, given the control gave the largest yield increase.

 

• In a drier season, early-mid maturing Mace wheat provided better feed and grain value than mid-late maturing Trojan.
• Make variety choice based on the stored soil moisture, the potential time of sowing and the seasonal outlook.
• Variety differences exist between Mace and Trojan and their response to grazing.

Subsoil moisture and an early sowing opportunity meant that grazing did not affect yield or the gross income return of canola at Sea Lake in 2012. Dry conditions increased canola tissue nitrate levels to toxic levels as plants matured. Canola has a shorter grazing window than cereals, and requires careful grazing management to avoid high tissue nitrate situations, and roughage to balance fibre.

These on-farm trials once again demonstrate that it is possible to graze crops in winter and maintain grain yield.  However, the frequency that yield penalties occurred (when grazing crops) increased when compared to the same set of trials in 2011.  Yield penalties (i.e. greater than 5% yield reduction) occurred in seven out of eleven (64%) trials in 2012 compared to two out of seven (29%) trials in 2011.  There are three possible reasons for this increase.  Firstly, growing season rainfall was significantly less in 2012 with most sites receiving only decile 1 or 2 rainfall.  Moisture stress may reduce the ability of crops to recover from grazing.  Secondly, a number of the 2012 trial sites were located in the low rainfall zone where the short seasons are less suited to crop grazing.  And finally, the timing and intensity of grazing may have increased the frequency of yield penalties experienced.  Four out of the eleven crops were grazed later than recommended and seven out of eleven crops were grazed heavily.  It is quite likely these three factors interact, and that a dry year or location exacerbates the negative impacts of late and/or heavy grazing.

The average amount of grazing value provided by crops was significantly less in 2012 compared to 2011 (214 vs 307 DSE grazing days per hectare).  This was mainly due to the late start and the cold and very dry July experienced in 2012.  The amount of grazing value provided by the crop is important when considering the economic implications of crop grazing.  In a year such as 2012, when grain prices were high, a small yield penalty caused by crop grazing can have a large impact on grain income per hectare.  At the current relatively low livestock prices, a lot of grazing value is needed to make up for any grain yield penalty.

• Grazing treatment had no influence on pasture sward composition when averaged over seasons.
• Grazing, rather than the type of grazing management, increased soil carbon under native pastures.
• Soil under cell-grazed pastures had a significantly greater carbon stock to 0.30 m compared with ungrazed pastures (32.9 t C/ha vs 25.6 t C/ha), however, there was no difference between cell and tactically grazed (29.5 t C/ha) pastures.

• Grazing livestock can compact surface soil and reduce infiltration rates, but their biggest impact on fallow efficiency is through stubble removal.
• Stubble improves summer fallow efficiency primarily by increasing infiltration; it slows but does not stop evaporation, and this is only beneficial where rainfall events occur close together or if it aids crop establishment.
• Despite high rainfall during the 2009-10 fallow period at Condobolin, there was little response in soil water storage to the grazing and stubble treatments.
• Wheat yield in 2010 was reduced by very heavy grazing but not by moderate (more typical) grazing.

• High levels of crop safety were observed in imidazolinone tolerant lentil varieties, with no grain yield loss from any simulated residue treatments of sulfonylurea herbicides, or post-emergent applications of imidazolinone herbicides, at North Block in 2018, or Tooligie in 2019.
• High levels of crop safety were observed in the imidazolinone tolerant faba bean variety, with no grain yield loss from any simulated residue treatments of sulfonylurea herbicides, or post-emergent applications of imidazolinone herbicides, at Yeelanna in 2019.
• Access to herbicide tolerance traits will provide growers with an increased opportunity to diversify their cropping rotations and increase in-crop control options, specifically for broadleaf weed control in areas with high weed burdens.

• Response of lentils to herbicide treatments varied with seasonal conditions, method of herbicide incorporation, stubble coverage, soil texture and fertility.
• Treatments that showed high plant damage generally incurred high yield losses, however low levels of chlorosulfuron plant damage still resulted in significant yield loss in some trials

Canola can be successfully grown on a cereal stubble. It is not essential to burn stubble as long as seedling emergence and establishment is not affected by the retained stubble. If the seeder does not leave a good seed bed and the harrows leave the paddock uneven with clumps of mixed up straw and soil it is better to burn the stubble.

The incidence of black leg was quite high and the fungicide treatments, Rovral and Impact in Furrow did not decrease the level of infection.

• Achieving quality high protein hard wheat (11.5% protein) and Durum (13% protein) can be difficult.
• Agronomic practices can have a large influence on wheat yield and quality achieved. Soil testing for available N is essential if high yielding and high protein crops are targeted. Topdressing nitrogen fertiliser after the 5 to 6 leaf stage of the crop will further add to protein. Sowing on narrow rows (between 18 and 23 cm or 7 and 9") results in higher yields and can also reduce the level of screenings. High sowing rates (between 90 and 120kg/ha) can increase yield and reduce screenings in some situations.
• No negative effects on yield or screenings were found with high sowing rates.

Early autumn rainfall provides an opportunity to establish crops much earlier than currently practised in the southern high rainfall zone (HRZ) of WA.

• Winter wheat can be sown from late March to mid-April, depending on soil moisture conditions.

• Stirlings to Coast Farmer's research has shown that winter wheat (E.g., Illabo and DS Bennett) sown early, can grow equivalent yields to spring wheat like Trojan and Sceptre, planted at their usual time.

• Winter wheat has much less risk from frost damage when sown earlier compared to spring wheat due to their vernalisation requirements.

• Early sown winter wheat can provide valuable grazing opportunities for mixed farmers in the southern HRZ of WA, with minimal yield penalties

Many farmers who target high protein wheat find malting barley a difficult crop to grow. The quality characteristics for malting are tight (less than 11.8% protein and less than 28% screenings). Trial work has shown that to have an increased chance of growing malting barley it is important to:
• sow early (mid May to early June)
• use a sowing rate less than 90 kg/ha
• only use pre-drilled urea if the soil has less than 100 kg/ha of available N at sowing
• do not top-dress urea

2018

Soil moisture measurements were taken on the 24th of May 2013 to confirm whether there had been carryover moisture from season 2012 in the bare areas of the paddock (due to mice damage in 2012). Based on the soil moisture tests below, and with regard to the bared areas observed in the paddock, the area shaded blue was identified as the only area with a potential representation of the chemical fallow effect. So in regards to final crop yield, this is the only one that was used for continuous crop versus chemical fallow comparisons.

2019

It was observed on the 23rd of July for both the wheat and barley, continuous cropped plots, were less vigorous and weedier than the respective chemical fallowed plots. For the canola on this day the chemical fallowed plot has commenced flowering sooner than the continuous cropped canola plot. There was more purpling on the continuous cropped canola compared with the chemical fallow plots which was possibly a combination of nitrogen deficiency and herbicide damage from the chemical, Intervix. On the 23rd of July it was also observed no differences in vigour between continuous cropped chickpeas and albus lupins when compared with the respective chemical fallowed plots.

On the 31st of July it was observed that net blotch disease had infected the barley plots and needed spraying with fungicide.

On the 1st of December when the trial was harvested it was observed that the chemical fallowed albus lupins appeared to have more terminal pods when compared with the continuous cropped plot. On this day both canola plots showed symptoms of severe shedding. The continuous cropped canola plot was thinner and shorter compared the chemical fallow canola plot. For both the wheat and barley, the chemical fallowed plots were thicker than the respective continuous cropped plots.

• Deep placement of organic master improved root development and increased overall yield and protein levels.
• Site needs ongoing monitoring to gauge the long term effectiveness (and profitability) of sub soil manuring.
• First commercial machine has now been developed by a farmer in Victoria.

• Potential to significantly increase yields with deep incorporation of organic matter.
• Local trial set up on KI but too early to gauge the real benefits or how long they will last for.

• Deep placement of organic master improved root development and increased overall yield.
• Site needs ongoing monitoring to gauge the long term effectiveness (and profitability) of sub soil manuring.
• First commercial machine has now been developed by a farmer in Victoria.

The application of lime to this sandy acidic soil has had provided little benefit over the last 4 years (ie. 2000 - 2003).

In dry years, many canola crops are short and thin. Windrowing is recommended where yield potential exceeds 1 tonne/ha and crops are tall and thick enough to sit on 25-30cm of stubble. With light crops, where windrows may be blown about by strong winds, other options are desiccation and harvest or direct heading, depending on seed moisture levels.

• Herbicide-resistant annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) is increasingly becoming a challenge for growers across southern Australia.
• Harvest weed seed control (HWSC) — the collection and/or destruction of weed seeds at harvest — is a non-chemical control method, which can be used to reduce the seedbank of weeds such as annual ryegrass.
• A major premise of HWSC is that the targeted weed species retain a high proportion of their total seed production at crop maturity.
• Where pre-emergent or in-crop herbicides have not been applied, ryegrass weeds are shedding before wheat is harvested.

Weed seed data (weeds above and below the harvest height) measurements were taken immediately prior to harvest and assessments of weed populations in the soil will be taken after autumn treatments (windrow burn and large scale burn) are applied to allow for an understanding of the effects of different treatments on the weed seed bank.
Harvest data was also collected through the yield monitor. This data is being analysed so that the additional cost of the iHSD can

Leaving straw in windrow to be burnt Weed seed data (weeds above and below the harvest height) measurements were taken
immediately prior to harvest and assessments of weed populations in the soil will be taken after autumn treatments (windrow burn and large scale burn) are applied to allow for an understanding of the effects of different treatments on the weed seed bank.
Harvest data was also collected through the yield monitor. This data is being analysed so that the additional cost of the iHSD can be established to run various economic simulations on the weed seedbank through the LUSO model and to compare the cost of the treatments. There was no significant difference in the yield across treatments or the efficiency (ha/hr). This was as expected as
the groundspeed rate was kept constant between all treatments so that the other factors.

• Harvest weed seed collection showed barley grass is harder to capture using harvest weed seed collection techniques due to its habit of shedding seed early.
• Burning windrows decreased the number of weed seeds present in the soil seedbank at Minnipa in 2017.
• Harvest weed seed collection allows for the capture of ryegrass weed seed and cereal screenings, potentially increasing feed utilisation for stock when placed in chaff dumps or rows.

• Harvest weed seed control (HWSC) — the collection and/or destruction of weed seeds at harvest — is a non-chemical control method, which can be used to reduce the seedbank of weeds, such as annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidium).

• Techniques include mechanical weed destruction, or methods involving carting or baling chaff straight after harvest. Chaff can also be concentrated behind the header in a row, which is then left to mulch (chaff lining or decking) or concentrated in a narrow windrow behind the header and burnt (narrow windrow burning).

• A major premise of HWSC is that the targeted weed species retain a high proportion of their total seed production at crop maturity.

• There was no difference between a harvest height of 30cm and 15cm in terms of the number of weed seeds returned to the soil.

• In wheat crops with high annual ryegrass plant populations, a large percentage of the ryegrass seed matures and drops in the month before wheat harvest, limiting the effectiveness of HWSC in the Riverine Plains region. In 2017, approximately 30% of total ryegrass weed seeds were removed by the harvest process.

• HWSC could be used as one tool in a larger integrated weed management strategy.

This is a continuing project.

Knowing your initial soil nitrogen levels will assist in determining if there is likely to be a benefit of including nitrogen and other nutrients for humification when incorporating stubble. If initial soil nitrogen levels (0-60cms) are adequate i.e. above 70kg N/ha in the high rainfall zone, and above 50 kg N/ha in the medium rainfall zone, then the addition of nitrogen may not provide immediate responses – depending on the stubble nutrient levels.

Soil health is not a static issue. Soil is the foundation of our agricultural systems. Collating existing knowledge and building a framework for visual, tactile and oral learning based on the needs of the ‘customer’, in this case farmers and advisors, is supporting more informed decisions and a greater capacity to manage soils for a healthy future.

• Healthy Soils workshops are delivering knowledge, skills, and tools to better manage soils for improved soil health
• Care must be taken with soil sampling, transport and laboratory procedures for accurate test results
• Management significantly influences soil biology through various practices such as controlling what quality and quantity of organic matter is incorporated into the soil through crop and rotation choice, the utilisation of additives such as pesticides and herbicides, and the intensity and type of tillage employed.

There were no significant differences between the yield of either treatments. However the district practice treatment had a significantly higher thousand grain weight to the biological treatmeant. 

• Heat–moisture treatment can be successfully applied to wheat flour to change its functional properties.

• Treatment time and flour moisture content significantly affected the functional properties of the treated wheat flours.

• Lower flour moisture content and shorter treatment times are more appropriate to produce heat– moisture-treated wheat flour suitable for noodle production.

• Trafficking on wet soil in 2015 resulted in substantially less Rhizoctonia in barley in 2016.
• After two years of cereal production, there is little evidence that heavy vehicle trafficking is severely depressing grain yield on a Minnipa soil.

Common heliotrope (Heliotropium europaeum L.) is an opportunistic annual weed that grows in ‘disturbed’ areas (i.e. areas of bare or sparsely vegetated soil) following summer rain in regions with a Mediterranean climate (hot dry summers, cool wet winters). In its natural habitat, which includes most of the rim of the Mediterranean Sea, farming practices result in there being few disturbed areas during summer, hence common heliotrope is not such a problem. However, in the dry-land cropping belt of southern Australia, the wholesale clearing of native vegetation and the endemic broad acre agricultural practices leave vast areas of fallow, hayed-off pasture and sparse stubble over summer; all of which are ecologically speaking ‘disturbed’, and hence fantastic habitat for common heliotrope.

• Moisture: Ironstone was found across some plots at depth which made any plot response to weed control difficult to measure so that there was more difference due to sub-soil constraints, rather than the individual treatments. Moisture readings were inconsistent and yields were therefore not taken.
• Weed control: Glyphosate is a very important base component when dealing with a mixture of summer weeds. The trial confirmed previous growers who experience and demonstrated summer grasses required high rates of glyphosate, at these high rates glyphosate provides excellent melon control. The Roundup Attack at 1.8 L/ha stand-alone gave the best control of grass and melons. All mixes containing Roundup Attack at 1.2 L/ha gave acceptable control of grasses and excellent control of melons when ester was added. With melons, the Triclopyr standalone was poor, but with Roundup Attack added had an additive effect, improving control significantly. Whilst no oil was used, perhaps the performance of the bottom three mixes may have given a better result with oil. Ally (metsulfuron) had an additive effect with the grasses but was antagonistic with the melons.

• In 2015 the drier start to the season and low soil moisture resulted in lower herbicide efficacy and less chemical damage than expected.
• In different stubble management systems the activity and resulting weed control of specific herbicides will be influenced by the solubility index (movement through the soil profile with rainfall events) of that herbicide. Soil texture and soil chemical properties can affect chemical movement and availability in the soil profile.
• Herbicide performance will vary seasonally due to soil moisture levels, rainfall pattern post application, timing of weed germination, position and number of weed seeds in the profile, etc. Understanding how the various herbicides work can reduce the likelihood of failures.
• Herbicides are only one tool for weed control – always adopt an integrated weed control package that includes non-chemical control, and where possible, consecutive seasons of total weed control.
• Consider the whole farming system when making chemical decisions as the impact may last for several seasons (eg. effects on medic germination and medic seed bank).

• Herbicides which may be influenced by high stubble loads include trifluralin, triallate, pyroxasulfone, prosulfocarb and metalochor products. If grass weeds are an issue in paddocks with high stubble loads (greater than 50% stubble cover), removal of some stubble may maximize the herbicide activity and grass weed control.
• In-crop germination patterns are later for barley grass than for other grass weeds in MAC paddocks, which is limiting early control with pre-emergence herbicides.
• If you expect most of your grass weeds to emerge straight after sowing maybe 2 L/ha trifluralin (plus an added herbicide depending on cost and risk factors such as seasonal conditions, soil type, rotation etc.) is the best value for your system.
• If you have a later germinating population, and aim to reduce the seed bank, you may be better investing in some of the more expensive herbicide mixes even though they may cost more in the first season.

• No significant difference in ryegrass control was found between plots treated with any of the three pre-emergent herbicides tested.
• Though not statistically significant, the trial demonstrated a trend of increased herbicide efficacy with increasing herbicide carrier volume.

Pre-emergent simazine and propyzamide (IBS) at maximum label rates recorded low crop safety margin.

Higher uptake of simazine following good soil moisture appeared to have made lupins varieties sensitive to damage by normally safe rates of post-emergent broadleaf herbicides.

A new herbicide Ultro® 900 WG at 2.3 kg/ha applied before seeding was tolerated by all the lupin varieties.

For blue lupin control/suppression, Garlon® 600 (triclopyr) at 30 mL/ha applied at 8-leaf stage and at pod setting on main stem of narrow leafed lupins caused statistically significant yield loss across all the lupin varieties. Triclopyr use on narrow leafed lupins is not registered.

Note: Always follow label recommendations. The Department Primary Industries and Regional Development, does not endorse the use of herbicides above the registered rate or off-label use of herbicides or off-label tank mixes. Crop tolerance and yield responses to herbicides are strongly influenced by seasonal conditions.

• Group B herbicides can exacerbate trace element deficiencies in cereal crops.

There was a strong early visual response to applied phosphorus (P), with the nil P plots lacking vigour early. This was confirmed with significantly better P levels in the plant tissue up to 35 kg of P applied see There was no significant response to applied copper, zinc or sulphur. There was a significant yield response to applied P, however at the highest rate of applied P the yield began to fall. This is possibly due to the increased dry matter produced using more moisture and as a consequence of the dry finish in November losing some yield potential. In this situation the most appropriate rate of applied P for this year would have been between 15 - 20 kg P/ha.

• More salts in the high input soil which can be detrimental to some plants. 
•  Significantly higher residual phosphorus and potassium in the high input soil, along with higher levels of sulphur. 
•  A soil structural problem in both soil types indicating a need for gypsum and possibly lime. • A crop could be grown in the high input soil with minimal fertiliser input in 1999, whereas significant fertiliser input would be required for the district practice treatment. 

• Regional survey on the nutrient status of nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), Potassium (K), Sulphur (S) and the micro-nutrients Zinc (Zn) and Copper (Cu) of soils in the HRZ of south-eastern Australia undertaken and status report prepared.
• Two omission trials sown in 2015 to test crop yield response and the interactions between nutrients where N, P, K and S and micro-nutrients Zn and Cu are omitted.
• Seasonal conditions resulted in the only responses being received from nitrogen applications; the omission trials to be repeated in 2016 under different seasonal conditions.

• Regional survey on the nutrient status of nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), Potassium (K), Sulphur (S) and the micro-nutrients Zinc (Zn) and Copper (Cu) of soils in the HRZ of south-eastern Australia undertaken and status report prepared.
• Two omission trials sown in 2015 to test crop yield response and the interactions between nutrients where N, P, K and S and micro-nutrients Zn and Cu are omitted.
• Seasonal conditions resulted in the only responses being received from nitrogen applications; the omission trials to be repeated in 2016 under different seasonal conditions.

• Wyalkatchem wheat reinforces its position in the cropping rotation.
• Magenta may be a possible alternative to Wyalkatchem.
• Advisable not to grow durum on the lateritic ironstone soils on the plateau.
• More research required into suitability of soft wheat varieties .
• Linseed tolerates and yields in wet soils, but its marketing requires further investigation.
• Avoid growing chickpeas unless you can eliminate wildlife.
• Lentils require good inoculation and well-drained soil. Target early or medium maturity varieties.

• Soil water content is being measured to 3 m depth in the CWFS core site.
• The lucerne plots in the phase farming systems contained 200 mm less soil water than the continuous cropped plots at the end of 2003.
• Lucerne had dried the soil to a similar extent after 3 years of lucerne (conventional tilled system) and 2 years of lucerne (reduced till system).
• Most of the additional moisture in the annual plots was below 1 m depth.
• Including a perennial pasture such as lucerne in a cropping system can reduce the risk of excessive deep drainage.

• Yield and quality response to nitrogen program and seeding rate was difficult to observe due to moisture stress throughout grain-fill.
• Seeding rate had no significant effect on grain yield or quality.
• Nitrogen program significantly affected N uptake and grain protein, but not yield or other quality parameters. Grain protein was very high overall.

Previous trials and demonstrations have highlighted zinc deficiencies in both cereals and pulses, which could produce substantial profits over the cost of zinc. A trial conducted on wheat at Hopetoun in 2006, on a zinc responsive soil type with a good zinc history defined responses to zinc and demonstrated that responses to phosphorus or nitrogen cannot be achieved if zinc is deficient, in a drought year.

Chara sown 13th June gave a small but significant responses to applied nitrogen, despite a soil N reserve of 176 kg/ha N (0‐90cm) pre planting. With this later sown trial there was no significant difference in nitrogen timing, though there was a trend for seedbed/GS31 (50/50 split of N) treated crops to be slightly higher yielding than GS31/37 (50/50 split of N) treated crops.

• Deep ripping was very worth while at this site but had not effet of lowering crop requirements for N in this situation.
• Nitrogen requirements may have been lower after deep ripping if there had been more organic N to mineralise (say after a lupin crop) and/or the soil had higher mineralised N levels that were subjected to more leaching pressure.
• After deep ripping, high N inputs may be more effective delyaed until late tillering. 

• Glasshouse experiments measured plant DM response and recovery of Zn fertilisers in oxide and sulfate form using three placement treatments - banded, mixed throughout the soil volume, and applied to the soil surface.
•  Also plant recovery of Zn from pure Zn phosphates and carbonates, which are likely reaction products of banded Zn fertilisers in soil, was measured. Recovery of Zn from Zn phosphates, carbonates and oxides was lower than that of Zn sulfates when banded.
• Placement was the major factor controlling plant responsiveness to Zn.
• Zinc oxide fertilisers had very low water solubility and slow dissolution rates in water, which is related to the high pH when the oxide is dissolved in water.
• There was significantly less recovery of fertiliser Zn by plants from Zn oxides than from Zn sulfates when the fertiliser was banded near the seed, likely due to higher pH in the band as the oxide dissolved.
• However, the Zn supply to plants was the same for both sources of Zn when fertilisers were mixed through the soil, as the soil likely buffered any dissolution-induced pH increases.
• This means that Zn oxides, despite their low water solubility, can be effective fertilisers if uniformly mixed throughout the crop rooting depth but Zn sulfate is preferable for banding or surface application.

• Wheat grain yield in 2007 was increased by 0.2t/ha after the addition of 5.0t/ha of wheat straw
• Straw is important for decreasing evaporation and conserving moisture in topsoil, particularly after canopy closure and when the crop is senescing
• The additional moisture available under straw significantly increased dry matter production after GS65.
• Inter-row sowing reduces straw burial

• 3t/ha Little Sahara limesand will increase the pH in the top 5 cm of soil within 6 months and the effect will last for 4 years before re-acidification occurs

• It can take up to two years to get a pH change down to 10 cm in the soil profile

• Maintain surface pH above 5.5 to minimise risk of sub surface acidification.

• 3t/ha limesand will increase the pH in the top 5 cm of soil within 6 months.
• Possibly takes up to two years to get a pH change down to 10 cm in the soil profile.

• This manual provides useful guidance on the design of experiments to explore and treat nutrient deficiencies in agricultural crops.

Full laboratory analysis of all samples has not been completed, but some interesting data have already emerged.

Experiments were conducted in a commercial lentil crop (2006) in a paddock considered representative of the southern Mallee region of Victoria (McCellands Jil Jil East). The study identified that seasonal variations in the spatial pattern for grain yield were explained principally by differences in the ‘effective plant available water’ (ePAW) rather than differences in nitrogen supply. ePAW was considered to be related to both the textural properties of the surface soil (eg. small rainfall events at the season break are more effective in coarser textured soils than in clay soils) and the presence of physio-chemical in the subsoil, which can limit crop access to stored water.

• Nodulation and shoot dry matter in medics is depressed by poor phosphorus (P) nutrition and in-crop application of certain herbicides.
• Applying P when establishing a medic pasture boosts shoot and root dry matter and improves root health.
• The timing of application of certain herbicides can have an important effect on maximum shoot dry matter.
• High soil nitrogen levels can reduce nodulation in medic pastures.

• Growers should be aware that the application of certain broad-leaved herbicides can result in a reduction in shoot dry matter of medic pastures.
• Application of a full label rate of Agritone 750 (late) resulted in the largest reduction of shoot dry matter.
• Applying P to a soil with low P reserves when establishing a medic pasture boosts shoot and root dry matter, improves root health and improves N fixation.
• Growers should also be aware that the use of herbicides can reduce nodulation and N2- fixation in medic pastures.

• Applying phosphorus to a soil with low P reserves when establishing a medic pasture boosts shoot and root dry matter, improves root health and improves N fixation.
• The addition of urea at seeding can reduce nodulation in medic pastures.
• Residues of the herbicide Logran can severely stunt medic growth.
• Applying a full label rate of Agritone 750 (late) decreases pasture production and N fixation in actively growing pastures.
• Any management practice that reduces medic biomass will reduce N fixation, such as the late application of certain herbicides, eg Agritone 750.
• In a dry growing season when medic plants are already moisture stressed, herbicides will have little impact on medic production and N fixation.
• Regardless of seasonal conditions, the management of newly established medic pastures with regard to herbicides and nutrition, appears to have no impact on the yield and protein levels of the wheat crop in the following year.

• VBHT805 is an inidazolinone tolerant barley variety in the final stages of evaluation and commercialisation.
• VBHT805 could be a useful tool for managing Group B soil residual herbicide carryover for improved grass weed control in intensive cereal rotations.

• The trial was sown into dry soil on the 11th May. This trial was indicative of many lupin crops within the West Midlands region in 2010, with establishment and weed control issues. Establishment was inconsistent across the trial site with seasonal conditions, non-wetting soil and rhizoctonia root rot contributing to uneven plant numbers and poor growth within some plots. Herbicide management of weeds, particularly ryegrass, was less effective than expected, resulting in high weed burdens, especially in plots with poor lupin establishment.
• Anthracnose was introduced into plots 4 weeks after sowing but warm dry weather following introduction of infection and long dry spells during the growing season reduced disease development.
• Disease assessments at crop maturity indicated that despite high levels of inoculum being introduced only low levels of disease were present within the trial and differences between varieties were not statistically significant. Approximately 10% of the moderately susceptible Jenabillup plants suffered stem infection, the resistant variety Tanjil and resistant breeding lines had between 2-4% of plants with stem infection. Pod infection levels were low across the trial due to dry weather during podding.
• Due to uneven establishment, variable soil moisture, root disease and weed burden, individual plot yields varied from 0.5 t/ha to 2 t/ha across the site (average 1.4 t/ha), however neither variety nor anthracnose infection significantly affected yield.
• In seasons with good rainfall, anthracnose can be a yield constraint for lupin production in the high-medium rainfall regions of the northern agricultural region (particularly in areas with abundant blue lupins); the anthracnose resistance in current advanced breeding lines will reduce disease development and yield loss.

1. Barley and wheat crops led to increases in P. neglectus, while mungbeans, wheat and chickpea led to increases in P. thornei.
2. The non-host summer crops (cotton, maize, mungbean and sorghum) provided the greatest reduction in crown rot inoculum while most non-host winter crops had virtually no impact.
3. There was little impact from most species on common root rot levels with wheat the worst crop option, while common root rot declined under the moderately resistant barley variety CompassP.

1. Grain legumes (chickpea, faba bean, field pea, mungbean) often leave more residual soil water at harvest than cereals, this difference is diminished due to lower subsequent fallow efficiencies and hence soil water is often similar at the sowing of the next crop.
2. Higher intensity systems have higher fallow efficiencies while lower intensity systems and those with more legumes have lower fallow efficiencies.

• Eleven days after seeding, emergence in Minnipa and Cungena soils was higher with no fertiliser or with all the DAP banded below the seed row, compared to DAP placed with the seed or split.
• Emergence was most affected by the presence of DAP in the Streaky Bay soil, least in the Minnipa soil and Cungena soil was intermediate.
• Shoot weights decreased where DAP was placed in the seed row and this occurred in all soil types. The soil EC (salinity) was higher with DAP placed in the seed row.
• Fertiliser toxicity may be reducing wheat emergence on grey calcareous soils, even at quite low application rates of DAP at 30 kg/ha.

 

• Nodulation was reduced when pea seeds were coated with P-Pickel T fungicide before inoculation.
• Reductions in rhizobia numbers on fungicide-coated seeds occurred very quickly, within two hours, but the toxic effect of the fungicide continued after sowing.
• Dry soil conditions are likely to have exacerbated fungicide toxicity to the rhizobia.

• Similar to previous years and at other sites on Kangaroo Island, adding soil improvement agents to the subsoil did not produce any tangible benefits to wheat performance. However, chemical analysis of the soil to a depth of 40 cm below the surface did not reveal any major constraints to growth at this site except low fertility. This would help explain why adding lime and gypsum to the soil (either to the surface or into the subsoil) had no impact on crop productivity.
• In trials with deep placed nutrients in other environments, spectacular yield benefits have been measured in sandy profiles with all their fertility concentrated close to the surface and top soil drying being a frequent  occurrence during spring. Although fertility decreased at the site tested here, there was still reasonable fertility in the 10-20 cm layer and rarely did the top soil get a chance to dry in spring last year. Perhaps both of these features decreased the value of nutrients placed deep into the profile.
• Some treatments will be re-applied in 2006 in this trial so we will be able to test whether they will have an impact in a different season, and if so, how fresh applications compare to those applied in the previous year.

• Similar to previous years and at other sites on similar KI soils, adding soil improvement agents to the subsoil did
• not produce any tangible benefits to wheat performance in last year’s trial.
• However, chemical analysis of the soil to a depth of 60 cm below the surface did not reveal any major constraints to growth at this site except low fertility.
• This would help explain why adding lime and gypsum to the soil (either to the surface or into the subsoil) had no
• impact on crop productivity.
• Deep ripping did not produce any benefits to crop performance in the very dry year of 2006.