• The results again highlighted that delayed sowing in field peas will generally reduce yields.
• The new varieties, OZP0805, OZP0819 had the equal highest average grain yields 
• The new forage line, OZP0902, produced significantly more biomass at maturity than Kaspa or Morgan at all sowing dates.

• Genotypes compared in this trial responded differently to sowing dates.
• Early sowing was optimal for all genotypes, particularly for AF05073, which was the highest yield genotype when sown early

• As to be expected, the highest rate of lime application (100 t/ha) had the greatest increase on pH, increasing pH by 1.5 units in the topsoil and 0.4 of a unit in the sub soil.
• The spaded only treatments (no lime applied) also increased the pH by bringing up less acidic clay into the surface soil horizons.
• The higher lime rate applications showed that the soil pH had been evenly increased through the profile,  demonstrating the ability of the spader to uniformly mix the lime to depth.

Soil acidity affects up to 5.5 million hectares (50%) of Victoria’s agricultural land and soil acidification looms as a major soil
degradation issue (NHT 2001). Soil acidification can be seen is a cost of productive agricultural systems - whether from
product removal, increased potential for nitrate leaching, the build-up of soil organic acids, or from the increased use of
nitrogen fertilizers.
Soil acidity and acidification are mostly ameliorated by applying agricultural lime. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2018)
survey data show the average rate of application of lime is only about 1.5 t/ha, which is considerably less than the general
minimum recommendations of 2.5-7.5 t/ha (Agriculture Victoria 2019). Moreover, few Victorian farmers, about 1,000 (5%),
use variable rate application. Variable rate application is used to apply a wide range of agricultural chemicals, lime being
only one of many, so that the application rate is adjusted to match changing local requirements within the paddock. No
statistics are available on the application of variable rate technology for managing soil acidity, however service providers
supporting variable rate liming are increasingly active.
Agriculture Victoria Research (AVR) studied 10 case-study paddocks in the HRZ of Victoria to demonstrate the net
economic benefits of using intensive point sampling of surface soil pH and the precision application of lime in cropping
systems.
The initial pHCa distribution within each paddock was obtained by sampling at the rate of 100 soil cores per paddock
followed by spatial interpolation to a resolution of 10 square metres.
Discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis was used to generate profit-maximising lime 'prescriptions’ for each homogenous pH
zone (HZ) within the 10 case-study cropping paddocks, and to quantify the net benefits of the precision liming strategy.
These benefits were compared to alternative liming strategies, including traditional approaches and uniform application.
The analysis followed the best-practice method described by Mullen (2001). It involved optimization and simulation; and it
accommodated the dynamic nature of the acidity nature of the soil, in that production in the current year is affected by
current pH and in turn has an impact on pH in the next year.
It was shown that reaping the benefits of the precision liming strategy is difficult, because benefits depend on the
decisions made by farmers and their advisors requiring a high level of data collection and management, interpretation, and
judgement.
When acid tolerant crops are grown, the net benefits of liming can generally be maximised using low-cost traditional
practices. However, if the decision-maker wants the option of planting high-value, acid-sensitive crops then it would pay to
pursue a profit-maximising strategy involving intensive point sampling, pH mapping and variable rate application.
The DCF model described in this report demonstrates the nature of the data, analysis and interpretation involved in the
decision-making process. The model has been prototyped in MS Excel® and uses Evolver, an optimization add-in that is
part of Palisade’s DecisionTools Suite. The DCF model is available from the primary author on request and can be used
with attribution.

In this 2013 trial:

• Increasing nitrogen fertiliser, over 100 kg N/ha, increased canola yields.
• Nitrogen had no significant effect on oil%.
• Splitting nitrogen applications had no effect on canola yield, oil or gross margins.
• Hyola 404RR had a higher gross margin of $506/ha, compared with $436 for ATR Stingray (TT), in spite of the higher seed costs.
• To get $2 for every $1 spent on nitrogen the economic optimum rates of nitrogen at this site in 2013    were:                                                                                                                                                                # 45 kg N/ha for ATR Stingray (TT OP).

                                       # 70 kg N/ha for Hyola 4040RR (RR hybrid).

In this 2013 trial:

• Applying nitrogen 12 weeks after sowing had a similar effect as the same total nitrogen rates applied earlier.
• Nitrogen had a minor effect on oil%, with rates above 50 kg N/ha tending to reduce oil.
• Applying higher than 50 kg N/ha to ATR Stingray increased yield but was of little economic benefit. 
• Grain yield of Hyola 404RR responded to 150 kg/ha of applied nitrogen, but gross margins were optimised at 75 kg N/ha.

In this 2013 trial:

Nitrogen applications at 12 weeks produced similar canola yield to earlier applications.

OP TT and hybrid RR varieties had a similar response to nitrogen timing and rate.

The OP TT variety ATR Stingray produced greater grain yields and returns than the hybrid RR variety Hyola 404R.

Gross margins were maximised at lower rates of nitrogen than grain yield.

• Hyola 404RR outperformed ATR Stingray.
• Canola yield responded positively to applied N.
• Oil decreased as N rate increased.
• N had no effect on gross margins.
• Timing of nitrogen had no consistent effect on grain yield, oil or gross margins. 

In this 2013 trial;

• Applying nitrogen 12 weeks after sowing had a similar effect as the same total nitrogen rates applied earlier.
• Nitrogen reduced on oil%, and late N reduced it more than early N.
• Applying more than 25 kg N/ha to ATR Stingray increased yield but was of little economic benefit. 
• Grain yield of Hyola 404RR responded to 150 kg/ha of applied nitrogen, but gross margin was highest at 75 kg N/ha.

In this 2015 trial;

• Economic response plateaued at 75 kg N/ha – lower than grain yield (125 kg N/ha)
• Nitrogen applications at 12 and 14 weeks produced similar canola responses to N applied earlier in the year – but no added benefit.
• OP TT and hybrid RR varieties had a similar response to nitrogen timing and rate.

 

All the spray nozzles trialled gave an equal level of ryegrass seed control.

Spraying small ryegrass with translocated herbicides such as Roundup®, the droplet spectrum is not as critical as what was first thought.  When spraying Roundup during the time of year when drift is a problem, which occurs mainly at sowing during autumn, nozzles which produce droplets which drift less such as the Air Inducted nozzles (AI) can be used (in our trials water rates were kept at 60L/ha).

Higher rates of Spray.Seed provided significantly greater levels of final ryegrass, radish, canola and lupin control.

The trials clearly showed that high levels of control of resistant radish populations could be achieved with a 2 spray program that used both old and new chemistries. The trials clearly showed that growers don’t need to use 2 applications of pyrasulfatole in one crop to achieve satisfactory control if small weeds are targeted with robust herbicide rates and good spray coverage.

Growers should be using a 2 spray regime on bad wild radish paddocks as a matter of course. Growers should be targeting radish as early as possible i.e. from the 2 leaf stage of the cereal crop and be coming back 3 - 4 weeks later with a second application using alternative modes of action to those used in the first spray. An example of this would be to use Velocity at 2 leaf stage of the crop and follow up with 24,D amine plus Ecopar as a second spray application.

The plan must address the target and the nature of the target. Is the target small or large, short or tall, fine or course, young or mature. Is the target stressed eg. heat, waterlogged, dry or frosted.

• Spreading sand on heavy flats resulted in a yield increase of up to 0.7 t/ha in 2009.

• The trial was sown a month too late due to windy conditions not allowing us to get a knockdown herbicide sprayed before sowing. The close proximity to other trials made this process very risky. 
• For further discussion please see the attached trial report.

• Parwan has been the barley of choice for spring planting in the SouthWest for a number of years. However some of the newer long season varieties are also showing promise.
• For further results please see the attached trial report.

• Oats can be included as a minor component (up to 25% on a denstiy basis) in peas with aroudn a 10% increase in yield compared to growing the crops separately.
• Higher proportions of oats are too competitive with the peas and the pea yield is greatly reduced.
• Spring sown fodder crops yield substantially less than autumn sown crops but they may be a viable option where waterlogging affects autumn sowings. 

• This demonstration was unreplicated and the results should be viewed with caution as paddock variation may have affected the yields.
• Aschocyta blight was evident in the plots and the fungicidal applications gave some benefit to the commercial variety Kaniva.
• For further results, please see the attached trial report.

• The results here and in Tasmania indicate that the later mauturing lines are the only suitable varieties for spring sowing.
• The early maturing lines just did not put on any height before they reached maturity and hence were impossible to harvest.
• Results to date are not positive for most varieties, although the lines that yielded over a tonne to the hectare should give fairly profitable gross margin.

• Yields are quite encouraging despite the dry conditions during spring.
• Silverstar appears to be the better performing variety, possibly due to its shorter maturity.
• There was no significant difference between the sowing rates, although the results would appear to indicate that the higher sowing rate is more effective. 

The data would suggest that Deep Ripping had an effect on increasing the total water content of the soil, thereby making more moisture available to the barley crop during the spring months at a time when the crop was filling the grain. This may have resulted in a higher grain yield for both Ripped and Ripped + Gypsum treatments by comparison to the Direct Drilled and Shallow Cultivation treatments (although yield difference not statistically significant). 

For further conclusions please see the attached trial report.

For results and discussion please see the attached trial report.

• The highest yielding variety for the 2008 Inverleigh wheat trial programme was Espada with 4.18 t/ha. The mean yield for hte fungicide treated trial was 3.44 t/ha, with the treated mean yield in 2007 being 4.18 t/ha.
• For the full list of take home messages please see the attached trial report.

• The average yield for the spring wheat trial at Inverleigh was 5.12 t/ha. The highest yields were achieved by the shorter seaons varieties Beaufort (6.95 t/ha) and Derrimut (6.10 t/ha). Both varieties yielded well in the 2008 wheat variety trial at Inverleigh.
• For further take home messages please see the attached trial report.

The trial germinated well with a good start to the season and weeds were well controlled with sprays.

Pre sowing comment: good rains at end of March, Good knockdown.

Early season comment: trial slow to germinate as weather cooled down. Trial looks good, weeds controlled with sprays.

Mid season comment: dry July, but trial still looks good.

Pre harvest comment: good rains and Aug and Sept finish trial off nicely, trial site clean.

Trial germinated well with a good start to the season and weeds were controlled with sprays.

Pre sowing comment: good knockdown. Good rains at end of March.

Early seaaon comment: germinated well, looks to be some simazine damage. Good rains keep growing going.

Mid season comment: dry July. Trial clean of weeds.

Pre harvest comment: good rains in August and September finishes off, trial still thin from probable simazine damage.

Artificially applied nitrogen had no significant effect on crop establishment or on early growth as determined from NIR testing 

• For further conclusions please see the attached trial report.

Velocity®, Igran®, Precept® and Lexone® provided the most effective statice control in barley.

The use of, or addition, of Group G herbicides failed to improve control.

Group C herbicides had varied results. Products containing terbutryn and metribuzin achieved a high level of control, but products containing  diuron and bromoxynil did not.

• Statice seedbanks reduced with targeted management options in three years, providing no new seeds are allowed to set.
• Crop competition and crop-topping to prevent seed set can help to control statice.
• Statice can be hard to control, so good farm biosecurity is important to prevent the introduction of statice. This includes controlling statice in non-crops areas, such as laneways and fence-lines.

Yields were increased by 0.4t/ha (15%) in barley and 0.2t/ha (10%) in wheat at Horsham in 2014 by sowing east/west. Sowing direction did not alter grain quality. 

Varietal characteristics (maturity, height and growth habit) were not found to influence the yield response.

Similar findings have been found in NSW, in the presence of weeds, and WA, with or without weeds.

In a stem rust outbreak, fungicide is best applied before infection of the crop is visible.

• Fungicide application for stem rust control was more effective and economic where product application was made prior to visible infection in the crop.
• Where fungicide application was made at an early stage of grian fill (GS 71) disease control of stem rust was inferior to the same products applied at the same rate 16 days earlier at 50% ear emergence (GS 55).
• Higher rates of fungicide (label rates for stem rust control) need to be employed for this disease in order to give effective control; this is particularly the case with fungicides containing a single active ingredient such as tebucanazole (e.g. Folicur) or epoxiconazole (e.g. Optus).
• The strobilurin/triazole mixture of azoxystrobin/cyproconazole (Amistar Xtra) gave excellent stem rust control at its highest rate but its higher cost reduced its economic return.
• The performance of propiconazole (e.g. Tilt) against stem rest was poor in terms of disease control, relative to other products tested.

Under very low Rhizoctonia pressure, none of the seed treatments trialed here had an impact (negative or positive) on barley yield. EverGol® Prime is a new product that is now registered for the suppression of Rhizoctonia in wheat and barley at a rate range of 40 - 80mL/100kg of seed.

The project on the strategic use of tillage within no-till systems continued at the 4 sites in 2015: Harden, Daysdale (near Corowa), Thuddungra (near Young) and Berthong (near Cootamundra). Soil physical and chemical properties continued to be monitored throughout 2015. Establishment counts, dry matter and grain yields were also measured. The final harvest for the sites occurred in December 2015, except at the Daysdale site where we grew a vetch brown manure crop that was cut for dry matter in October. The final soil sampling at all sites will take place in autumn 2016. 

• Think of a fallow as a risk reducing investment for your property.
• Soil testing after chemical fallow is essential to determine the starting point of available nutrients in the soil.
• Good agronomic practices that maximise plant health and growth will allow crops to use water more effectively, improving yield potential.
• Weed free fallows mean increased moisture conservation leading to potentially higher yielding crops for the following year and more profitable rotations.
• The use of a residual herbicide to help suppress weeds over summer will be beneficial.
• If this trial was to be repeated, results will vary given different seasons and different soil types

• Maximise wheat WUE by ensuring as much crop flowers during the optimal period as possible – sow on time or early!
• Early sown, slow maturing varieties (winter and spring) yield as well as or better than faster maturing varieties sown later
• Including an early sown variety in a cropping program can greatly increase whole-farm yield

• Fertiliser nitrogen (N) rates should be tailored to suit paddock history and soil mineral N levels at sowing.
• Sorghum yields without N fertiliser, although high in a favourable season, were still well below those achieved using additional N fertiliser.
• At Tamworth, in-season rainfall ideally suited a split-N application strategy resulting in the highest yields.
• At Breeza, drier conditions meant that neither split N application nor slowrelease N products boosted grain yields above those reached using urea all applied at sowing.
• Gross margins for most alternative N strategies were greater than that achieved when no N was applied.
   

• Fertiliser nitrogen (N) rates tailored to suit paddock history/ soil mineral N levels optimised N2O emissions.
• At Tamworth, withholding N fertiliser on a high mineral N soil reduced N2O emissions, but did not optimise grain yield.
• At Breeza, most strategies of urea + nitrification inhibitor, polymer-coated urea and split N application substantially reduced N2O emissions. Most alternatives produced similar grain yields to the current practice of urea all applied at sowing, so the N2O emissions intensity per tonne of grain produced was also reduced.
• A 1:3 blend of urea + polymer-coated urea all applied at sowing, increased N2O emissions compared with the urea all at sowing treatment. The treatment also reduced grain yield, so potential slow-release treatments need to be carefully evaluated from both an N2O emissions and grain production point of view.

• Fertiliser nitrogen (N) rates tailored to suit paddock history/ soil mineral N levels optimised N2O emissions.
• At Tamworth, withholding N fertiliser on a high mineral N soil reduced N2O emissions, but did not optimise grain yield.
• At Breeza, most strategies of urea + nitrification inhibitor, polymer-coated urea and split N application substantially reduced N2O emissions. Most alternatives produced similar grain yields to the current practice of urea all applied at sowing, so the N2O emissions intensity per tonne of grain produced was also reduced.
• A 1:3 blend of urea + polymer-coated urea all applied at sowing, increased N2O emissions compared with the urea all at sowing treatment. The treatment also reduced grain yield, so potential slow-release treatments need to be carefully evaluated from both an N2O emissions and grain production point of view.

• Fertiliser nitrogen (N) rates tailored to suit paddock history/ soil mineral N levels optimised N2O emissions.
• At Tamworth, withholding N fertiliser on a high mineral N soil reduced N2O emissions, but did not optimise grain yield.
• At Breeza, most strategies of urea + nitrification inhibitor, polymer-coated urea and split N application substantially reduced N2O emissions. Most alternatives produced similar grain yields to the current practice of urea all applied at sowing, so the N2O emissions intensity per tonne of grain produced was also reduced.
• A 1:3 blend of urea + polymer-coated urea all applied at sowing, increased N2O emissions compared with the urea all at sowing treatment. The treatment also reduced grain yield, so potential slow-release treatments need to be carefully evaluated from both an N2O emissions and grain production point of view.

• Very dry conditions during the 2013−14 summer meant that much of the nitrogen (N) fertiliser applied was not taken up by the sorghum crop, especially if it had been applied in-crop at booting. Between 46–65% of the applied N remained in the soil at harvest in 2013−14.
• A following crop of unfertilised sorghum accessed the remaining N for crop growth and, at rates of 100 kg N/ha and above in the 2013−14 crop, increased grain yield and protein above the control. Late N application by topdressing in the 2013−14 crop gave similar crop production results to treatments where N was sidebanded at sowing.
• Two-year gross margins showed a significant benefit from N application as urea either at sowing or incrop.
   

• For three seasons, we applied isotope-labelled urea (15N) to sorghum in small (0.75–1.0 m2) plots, then calculated nitrogen (N) recovery by comparing the amount applied with the total 15N found in grain, crop residues and soil.
• Between 55–85% of the N fertiliser applied was recovered at harvest, meaning a 15–45% loss, presumably during wet soil conditions when nitrate denitrification led to N2 and N2O gaseous losses.
• In very wet conditions, little of the applied N remained in the soil at harvest, while in a dry season there was more of the applied N found in the soil at harvest than in the plant.

• Do not become complacent about rust; have a strategy/budget in place.
• Resistant varieties are the best method for combating stem and stripe rust.
• Some ofthe new release varieties,resistantto stem rust, are equalto Yitpi in yield performance and are worth keeping an eye on to reduce the risk of stem rust.

• The risk of rust outbreaks in 2007 will be high if there is a build up of inoculum on volunteer cereals over summer.
• Rust diseases will need to be managed to protect returns.
• Resistant varieties are the best form of management where possible.

These results suggest that the broader spectrum in-furrow and seed dressing treatments will return a significant return in yield over the narrower spectrum products even under low disease pressure situations.

Stripe rust can be managed in 2004 using a combination of inoculum reduction (removal of volunteer cereals), varietal selection, seed or fertiliser treatment and crop monitoring with a view to fungicide application if necessary.

• Be vigilant and monitor every paddock – they can be very different ƒ
• Do not spray after head emergence – the damage has been done ƒ
• Use early season treatments in the Wimmera and be prepared to apply one spray in crop if it is required. ƒ Stripe rust is a permanent fixture in our environment
• We must all be prepared to control the disease WHEN (not IF) it occurs in 2006.

Select a wheat variety with good stripe rust performance.

Fungicides applied as a seed treatment and/or as a foliar application provide cost effective control of stripe rust.

Grow varieties with the highest SR resistance.

Use a seed dressing on all varieties to protect against SR and smuts.

SR treatments prior to Z39 are unlikely to have a direct yield or income benefit.

Increased rates of N resulted in increased biomass, but the relationship between stubble N content and applied N was poor.

Higher applied  N resulted in higher Harvest Index

Harvest Index ranged from 0.45 to 0.47. 

Stubble direction and height (plus or minus stubble) had no effect on crop establishment or grain yield for Blitz and Ace lentils

Adding 70 kgN/ha prior to stubble incorporation addressed in crop N tie-up.

• Grazing stubbles with sheep speeds up N cycling and reduces N tie-up by the stubble.  When yield is N limited, tyhis increases grain yield and quality.
• Burning stubble decreased the amount of water stored over the summer fallow and the crops used by 8 to 21 mm, but this did not always decrease yield due to frost damage, N limitation or adequate subsequent recharge.
• Over the six year experiment grazing and then retaining (not burning) stubble has been the most profitable treatment.

• In 2017, don’t let stubble compromise the big things (weeds, disease, timeliness)
• If the intent is to retain stubble:
◊ Pro-actively manage the stubble for your seeding system
◊ Diversify (add legumes to rotation), deep band N and manage invertebrates. Mice could also be a major problem
◊ For tined seeders, reduce stubble load by mulching, incorporation + nutrients, baling, grazing and consider sowing at 15-19 degree angle to previous sown row
• If stubbles are too thick to sow through, consider strategic late burn, especially before 2nd wheat crop or if sowing canola into large stubbles
• Early monitoring is essential to see how effective actions are to allow for re-planning

• When dealing with annual ryegrass populations, it is a numbers game; the more you can control the better.
• Higher water rates in retained stubble resulted in increased efficacy of pre-emergent herbicides.
• Initial findings suggest that using speedtillers to retain stubble in the system does not result in any negative effects

• When dealing with annualryegrass populations, it is a numbers game; the more you can control the better.
• Higher water rates in retained stubble resulted in increased efficacy.
• In 2014, although canola establishment was lower in plots where stubble was retained; there was no significant yield difference at harvest.

• Different methods of stubble handling had little impact on yield.
• Early soil testing allowed good decision making for crop nutrition and budgeting.
• Soil biota were more active in the in-row root zone, as opposed to the mid row zone.

• In 2017, don’t let stubble compromise the big things (weeds, disease, timeliness).
• If the intent is to retain stubble:
• Pro-actively manage the stubble for your seeding systemDiversify (add legumes to rotation), deep band N and manage invertebrates. Mice could also be a major problem.
• For tined seeders, reduce stubble load by mulching, incorporation + nutrients, baling, grazing and consider sowing at 15-19 degree angle to previous sown row.
• If stubbles are too thick to sow through, consider strategic late burn, especially before second wheat crop or if sowing canola into large stubbles.
• Early monitoring is essential to see how effective actions are to allow for re-planning.

No real conclusions can be drawn from 2005 data, although the use of scratch tillage at the Inverleigh and Mingay sites showed some promise, but did come at a financial cost if implemented on raised-beds. 

• For different 2013 treatments, the amount of stubble ranged from 2.4 to 4.0 t DM/ha at harvest and from 1.6 to 3.0 t DM/ha at the subsequent sowing. The only statistically significant effect of 2013 treatments on 2014 pre sowing stubble was a difference between wheat and vetch stubble, 2.7 t DM/ha and 2.0 t DM/ha, respectively, reflecting faster breakdown of vetch than wheat stubble.
• Despite significant differences in the amount and types of stubble generated in 2013, and remaining at sowing in 2014, there was no statistically significant effect of 2013 treatments on 2014 soil moisture at sowing or 2014 crop yields.
• There were significant differences between crop types in 2014. Significantly more wheat plants established than canola (49 and 15 plants/m2 respectively) and wheat had a significantly higher grain yield than canola (1.2 and 0.3 t/ha respectively). Both wheat and canola were affected by the dry spring and associated frosts, plus canola had poor establishment.
• Research conducted previously at Walpeup in the 1980s found that maintaining 2 t/ha stubble increased the amount of water stored in the soil at sowing, at depth 0–140 cm, by 16 mm in 1 year of 3. This increase in soil water availability was not reflected in increased crop yield.
• The recent experiment at Ouyen, together with the previous research at Walpeup, indicate that Mallee crop yields are unlikely to be increased by retaining higher levels of stubble, although there can be benefits of reduced soil erosion.

• In 2007, herbicides applied to burnt stubble were more effective than those applied to slashed stubble. In 2008, there was no effect of stubble management on efficacy or crop safety.
• All herbicide treatments gave adequate control ofryegrassin both years, but TriflurX® 1.5L/ha + Avadex Xtra® 1.6L/ha gave the best control in both 2007 and 2008.
• Improved control of ryegrass did not increase yield, and the most profitable treatments were the lower rates of trifluralin.
• Standing stubble substantially increased grain yield relative to slashed stubble (0.41 and 0.47t/ha in 2007 and 2008 respectively).

• Rainfall over the summer fallow period will cause nutrient leaching from stubbles.
• Stubble crop type determines initial value of stubble and what may be leached due to rainfall.
• It is important to consider other loss pathways such as microbial breakdown and volatilisation as well as leaching when calculating stubble nutrient value following the summer fallow period.

• In wet years, barley sown into cereal stubble can suffer badly from yellow leaf spot.
• In dry years, this is not a problem.
• However, the barley still performed better where the wheat stubble has been burnt.

Temperature results from both sites have demonstrated that stubble loads above 2t/ha increased the severity and duration of some frost events. Analysis of results on yield and frost damage is ongoing and will be presented.

Temperature results from both sites have demonstrated that stubble loads above 2t/ha increased the severity and duration of some frost events. Analysis of results on yield and frost damage is ongoing and will be presented.

• In 2016, a Decile 10 season, stubble load had no effect on soil mineral nitrogen or soil water.
• The presence of stubble resulted in higher soil mineral nitrogen over the summer fallow period.
• Wheat yields were higher following peas or fallow than they were after wheat or canola in 2016.

• The combination of stubble burning and post-emergent use of a Group A herbicide has effectively controlled ryegrass in plots continuously cropped for 21 years at Condobolin.
• This combination worked well in both cultivated and direct drilled systems.

• Glasshouse experiments indicate that phosphorus deficiency is likely.
• Zinc deficiency is not likely to be widespread but could be marginal on some soils.
•  Boron, molybdenum, copper and manganese deficiencies are unlikely on these soils.

• On black soil the average wheat yield increase due to zinc was of the order of 240 kg/ha between 1939 and 1949.

• The best yield response by wheat was to zinc. 
• Zinc induced early maturity and produced better root systems than without zinc.
• The increase in yield was mainly related to superior root development which in turn had some effect on the severity of eelworm and root rot.

• PPS believes that the results in the Jallukar trial show that the technique of sub soil amelioration has potential to produce large increases in productivity in certain soils in the Upper Wimmera region.  
• The drier than average springs allowed for only one dry matter cut each year; more favourable seasons may have altered the results. 
• For further discussion please see the attached trial report.

• Subsoil manuring resulted in consistent grain yield increases across the network of sites in the HRZ of Victoria. In years with drier finishes, the yield of the commercial control crop was constrained due to water deficits during grain filling, while the subsoil manured crops were able to access additional subsoil water. Thus, these crops were not constrained and significantly higher yields were achieved.
• Please see attached trial report for further comments.

• Subsoil manuring resulted in consistent grain yield increases across the network of sites in the HRZ of Victoria. In years with drier finishes, the yield of the commercial control crop was constrained due to water deficits during grain filling, while the subsoil manured crops were able to access additional subsoil water. Thus, these crops were not constrained and significantly higher yields were achieved.
• For further results and discussion please see the attached trial report.

• Incorporating clay that has high calcium carbonate (lime) content has potential to cause extreme manganese deficiency although this can be addressed with addition of micronutrient fertiliser either shallow or deep.

• Chlorsulfuron (e.g. Glean) was found to reduce wheat yields at some sites.
• No Zinc (Zn) responses were recorded at any of the sites.
• Phosphorus (P) response was closely correlated with soil P levels.
• Increasing Zn and P nutrition did not reduce the Chlorsulfuron effect.

• When superphosphate was the commonly used cropping fertiliser, adequate sulphur nutrition was assured. With the move to high analysis fertiliser such as MAP and DAP sulphur deficiencies have become more common. Of all winter crops canola is most prone to show sulphur deficiency. Canola has high requirements for sulphur.
• It is twice that of pulses and five times greater than wheat for the same yield. At Sea Lake in 1999, a product or group of products that supplied a balanced level of phosphorus, nitrogen and sulphur produced the highest yields, however DAP proved the most economic

Early vigour – no significant difference. 

NDVI, 3 September - no significant difference.

Yield – see results.

Canola yields in low and medium rainfall regions of south-western Australia are inherently low and variable.  We have shown that although N fertilisation increases the yield of canola, the yield increases are often relatively low.  Nitrogen also reduces the concentration of oil in the seed of canola and the rate of decrease can be rapid in low rainfall areas. 

The combined effect of N on yield and oil, along with the current payment structure for high oil canola, results in uncertain economic returns from N fertilisation in low to medium rainfall areas. 

We found that 90% of maximum gross margin was achieved at an average nitrogen rate of 17 kg N/ha, and the first 10 kg N/ha gave a return on investment in N greater than $1.50 per $1 in 80% of occurrences (experiments x variety combinations).  The next 20 kg N/ha applied gave a return on investment in N of $1.25 for every $1 spent on N in 80% of occurrences, and further increases were most likely to breakeven. 

We have shown that while farmers should continue to plan to apply N onto canola within the first eight weeks, delaying top-up N until 12 weeks after sowing – when the canola crop is near flowering, is a viable second option which provides some level of risk management for canola growers in low and medium rainfall areas in south-western Australia.

1. Summer cover crops can be very profitable; improving ground cover and increasing fallow water storage in long fallows to improve grain yields and boost returns in northern farming systems.
2. A later spray-out produced additional levels of a cover that is more resilient and stored more water in the longer fallow. Delaying spray-out too long reduced fallow water storage considerably.
3. Using a summer cover crop saved two fallow herbicide sprays and dramatically improved establishment of the subsequent wheat crop.
4. Yields and returns were increased by the cover crops, and yields were well in excess of those expected from the increased soil water storage alone.

The growing season rainfall in 2019 was below average at Perillup, and the summer cropping demonstration did not suffer from water-logging.

Grain growers in this region believe that the soil drying effects from growing summer crops has the greatest potential benefit to winter cropping yields.

In 2019, there was a 770kg/ha barley yield increase above the control from the plots where cowpea was grown in the summer.

There was a 470kg/ha decline in winter barley yield in the plot that was planted to canola between January 30 and May 9, 2019.

Nutritional requirements of summer crops need to be considered when selecting species. Cowpeas fixed useful nitrogen in the 90 growing days.

2019 Demonstration Key Messages

• The growing season rainfall in 2019 was below average at Perillup, and the summer cropping demonstration did not suffer from water-logging.
• Grain growers in this region believe that the soil drying effects from growing summer crops has the greatest potential benefit to winter cropping yields.
• In 2019, there was a 770kg/ha barley yield increase above the control from the plots where cowpea was grown in the summer.
• There was a 470kg/ha decline in winter barley yield in the plot that was planted to canola between January 30 and May 9, 2019.
• Nutritional requirements of summer crops need to be considered when selecting species. Cowpeas fixed useful nitrogen in the 90 growing days.
• The growing season rainfall in 2019 was above average in Williams, and the summer cropping demonstration site was severely water-logged.
• Buster Radish could also be a perfect non-machinery deep ripping tool with its great root system.

2018 Demonstration Key Messages

• The summer cropping demonstration sites were sown at two different timings. The Ryansbrook trial, 35km south west of Kojonup, was sown 4th October 2018 into moisture and the Woodgenellup trial was dry sown on the 30th January 2019 prior to a predicted rainfall event.
• According to our producer rainfall records, since 2003, every 4 out of 5 years they have had summer rainfall events in January and February. Unfortunately, in the 2018/19 summer there was minimal summer rainfall and the summer crops at the Ryansbrook site failed. The C4 grasses (millet and sorghum) persisted better with little to no moisture in the soil profile compared to the broadleaf crop types (canola and cowpea).
• At the Woodgenellup site germination was patchy however, plants have developed reasonable biomass.
• Winter season in-crop measurements will be taken at the Woogenellup site to determine the effect of the summer crop on water logging. Due to the failure of the summer crop at the Ryansbrook site, no further measurements will be taken at this

Tedera did not have enough biomass to take in any of the two samples in August and November, which was due to frost damage.Balansa and Serradella produced the same amount of biomass, and both were more productive than ryegrass. However, it was observed that ryegrass was severely grazed by kangaroos, so samples were not reflective of what the true biomass would normally be.

• After stem elongation, mature prickly lettuce plants are difficult to control.
• Controlling mature prickly lettuce plants early achieves better results.
• No single treatments, except paraquat, achieved 100% control of mature prickly lettuce plants that emerged after a wheat crop was harvested. The paraquat, either used alone or as a follow-up application, was the only outstanding treatment, achieving 100% control.
   

• Wheat yield increased from 2.6 t/ha in controls to 3.2 t/ha in plots receiving the equivalent of summer rainfall decile 5 (50mm) or decile 9 (100mm) in a single event in February.
• Stubble treatments (bare ground control, standing 2 t stubble/ha, flat 2 t stubble/ha, flat 5 t stubble/ha) did not affect the dynamics of soil water nor grain yield.

• The presence of stubble did not increase stored soil moisture, regardless of the size and number of irrigation events.
• In 2010 additional soil moisture at sowing did not generally increase final grain yield.
• Additional soil moisture can increase crop demand and response to nitrogen.

• Traditionally, forage legumes are sown after the main cropping program is completed and require the application of a pre-sowing knockdown herbicide to control established weeds.  This treatment seriously reduces early winter pasture production which is then compounded by the slow growth rate of legumes under the cold winter conditions. 
• Summer sowing offers early winter grazing in a mixed enterprise farm. The technique has the ability to lift the legume component in a pasture which has degraded through a range of factors such as drought and/or intensive cropping. On a farm without grazing animals, summer sowing can be used to produce a green fallow with a high legume content that can be brown manured to provide  high nitrogen residues  and maximise the organic matter for the benefit of subsequent crops.
• Summer sowing reduces establishment cost by firstly, minimising seed processing particularly in the case of serradella where seed extraction is difficult and expensive and secondly, sowing does not require a pre-sowing application of herbicide.
• The requirement to sow hard-seeded cultivars in summer or early autumn does lose some of the flexibility to tactically respond to seasonal conditions and this needs to be balanced against the clear productivity advantages demonstrated.

• Traditionally, forage legumes are sown after the main cropping program is completed and require the application of a pre-sowing knockdown herbicide to control established weeds.  This treatment seriously reduces early winter pasture production which is then compounded by the slow growth rate of legumes under the cold winter conditions. 
• Summer sowing offers early winter grazing in a mixed enterprise farm. The technique has the ability to lift the legume component in a pasture which has degraded through a range of factors such as drought and/or intensive cropping. On a farm without grazing animals, summer sowing can be used to produce a green fallow with a high legume content that can be brown manured to provide  high nitrogen residues  and maximise the organic matter for the benefit of subsequent crops.
• Summer sowing reduces establishment cost by firstly, minimising seed processing particularly in the case of serradella where seed extraction is difficult and expensive and secondly, sowing does not require a pre-sowing application of herbicide.
• The requirement to sow hard-seeded cultivars in summer or early autumn does lose some of the flexibility to tactically respond to seasonal conditions and this needs to be balanced against the clear productivity advantages demonstrated.

• Summer sowing into perennial grasses is showing some promise, but the results are inconsistent.  We need to develop guidelines for the required soil conditions (including soil fertility) and there is a need to reduce weed competition by controlling the seed-set of annual pasture weeds in the preceding year.
• Results from these trials plus a range of other summer sowing sites demonstrate that serradella pods need to be drilled for successful establishment. Broadcasting pod is not a reliable alternative.
• The experimental line of yellow serradella (72.1A) was slow to establish in the first year at Badgingarra but has has really gone ahead in the second year.  This yellow serradella is unique in having a very different hard seed breakdown pattern compared with the commercial yellow serradella varieties (i.e. Yelbini, Charano, Santorini) and is suitable for ‘summer sowing’.  It is earlier flowering (80 to 90 days compared to 105 to 115 for Margurita) and yellow serradella is hardier than French serradella.
• Summer sowing using pod avoids the need for de-hulling, so seed is cheaper, but higher sowing rates are required.  Consequently the concept relies to a large extent on farmers being able to source or to produce their own hard-seeded serradella pod at low cost

• The results for summer sowing into an established perennial grass pasture were encouraging in a season with minimal spring rainfall. The results were negatively impacted by the low rainfall in spring. Drilling pod was more successful than broadcasting pod and then using animals to trample it into the soil.
• This was the first summer sowing trial into perennial grasses in WA so it is too early to develop recommendations, but it appears that you need to use 20 to 40 kg pod/ha to achieve a good seedbank. The mid-March sowing time is at the end of the ‘sowing window’ for summer sowing. Sowing in early February is desirable to maximize the time for hardseed breakdown.
• With summer sowing using pod rather than seed there is no need for de-hulling, so there is a cost saving per kilogram, but higher sowing rates are required as the seedlings need to compete with annual grasses, broadleaf weeds as well as the perennial grasses. The summer sowing method requires relatively high sowing rates and the concept relies to a large extent on farmers producing hard-seeded serradella pod on-farm at a low cost.After these promising results in 2010, similar trials will be undertaken in 2011 with local producers.

• The results for summer sowing into an established perennial grass pasture were encouraging in a season with minimal spring rainfall.  The results were negatively impacted by the low rainfall in spring.
• Drilling pod was more successful than broadcasting pod and then using animals to trample it into the soil.  This was the first summer sowing trial into perennial grasses in WA so it is too early to develop recommendations, but it appears that you need to use 20 to 40 kg pod/ha to achieve a good seedbank.  The mid-March sowing time is at the end of the ‘sowing window’ for summer sowing.  Sowing in early February is desirable to maximize the time for hardseed breakdown.
• With summer sowing using pod rather than seed there is no need for de-hulling, so there is a cost saving per kilogram, but higher sowing rates are required as the seedlings need to compete with annual grasses, broadleaf weeds as well as the perennial grasses.  The summer sowing method requires relatively high sowing rates and the concept relies to a large extent on farmers producing hard-seeded serradella pod on-farm at a low cost.
• After these promising results in 2010, similar trials will be undertaken in 2011 with local producers.

Traditionally, forage legumes are sown after the main cropping program is completed and require
the application of a pre-sowing knockdown herbicide to control established weeds. This treatment
seriously reduces early winter pasture production which is then compounded by the slow growth
rate of legumes under the cold winter conditions.

For further comments please see the attached trial report.

For most effective weed control of heliotrope an early applied residual herbicide such as Glean, Ally or Atrazine (be careful with plant backs for different crops!) is most effective. For grass and heliotrope control later in the season, weeds have to be sprayed before they are fully grown and flowering.