There was no significant difference between the lentil counts, but there was a trend evident of some of the group C herbicides causing some slowness and even plant death. Rain events in the first month post planting were below average, it is likely that those herbicides that are known to have some level of toxicity to lentils (such as Metribuzin) were concentrated in the furrow and thus negatively affected some of the germinating plants.This apparent damage  highlights the importance of understanding how herbicides interact with the soil type, stubble loading and the planted crop.

Non-chemical methods work hand in hand with chemical methods for controlling brome grass

Non-chemical methods work hand in hand with chemical methods for controlling brome grass

• Brome grass control in wheat is difficult (except when using Clearfield technology).
• Brome grass is becoming an increasing problem and there is evidence that the problem is increasing faster under direct drill systems with an intensive cereal rotation.
• Pre-emergent herbicides such as trifluralin and metribuzine do have activity on brome grass but the effect is slight suppression only (metribuzin is not registered in wheat).

• The ecology of brome grass has changed, making it more problematic to control in crops. Higher levels of seed dormancy are allowing brome to escape pre-sowing control tactics, resulting in greater in-crop emergence.
• Increased seed dormancy associated with a requirement for cold or chilling. Under field conditions this increased chilling requirement would not be met until late Autumn or early Winter.
• Knockdown herbicides are less effective in the management of highly dormant populations of brome. Therefore, brome grass management has become heavily reliant on Group A and B herbicides, especially the Clearfield(TM) technology, which is expected to increase the risk of herbicide resistance development.
• High levels of seedbank persistence from one year to the next (approximately 25%) means multiyear control of brome grass is required to exhaust seedbanks to manageable levels. Plan a three-year rotation.

• Many techniques can be employed to deplete the brome seedbank but an integrated weed management (IWM) approach reduces reliance on herbicides (ie. imi’s).
• In the best managed paddocks, two years of effective management reduce brome grass seedbank to <50 seeds/m2 (8-32 seed/m2 ).
• The most effective rotations for reducing brome populations incorporated oaten hay, break crops, legumes and CLF cereals.

• On average for the three harvest dates there were 12 brome grass plants/m2, over 1000 brome grass seeds/m2 and 88 seeds per brome plant.
• The proportion of brome grass seed retained above the 15 cm harvest height was 59, 38 and 30% for the measurements on 7 November, 21 November and 5 December 2014 respectively.
• Harvesting the crop on these dates, combined with HWSC would potentially result in 41, 62 and 70% of brome grass seed being added to the seed bank, and possibly more if seeds above 15 cm were dislodged in the harvesting operation.
• These measurements indicate insufficient brome grass seed is retained above harvest height, especially with later harvests, to expect control techniques such as seed carts and seed destructors to be effective on their own. However, when used as part of an integrated weed management program, these techniques will undoubtedly assist in achieving brome grass control.
• Research is continuing with MSF and the University of Adelaide to evaluate the effectiveness of a range of brome grass control approaches.

• Cereal windrow burning achieved temperatures in excess of those required to achieve high levels of weed seed mortality, except in paddocks which had 11mm of rainfall the week before.'
• The open paddock burn with a high stubble load had a quicker, faster burn but still achieved the necessary temperatures of 450 degrees Celsius for longer than 60 seconds.

The six business case study growers featured in this Kwinana East RCSN-initiated publication are managing complex, multi-layered farm businesses that are well set up and function efficiently. As many of these businesses grow in size and scale in the future, these growers highlight the many positive outcomes that can be achieved from having a willingness to learn and implement new ideas and a desire for continuous improvement.

• Bees have an obvious role in honey production, but their role in pollination has yet to be truly measured in broad acre cropping.
• Inclusion of bees, as pollinators, increased crop yield between two and 3-fold, with no increase in inputs.

• Results from experimentation undertaken in southern NSW in 2011 and 2012, have demonstrated that crop sequences which include a brassica or legume break crops can be as profitable as, and in many instances more profitable than, continuous wheat.
• Canola was consistently the most profitable break crop option. However, the rotational benefits of canola were usually restricted to just the first subsequent wheat crop whereas additional wheat yields can occur for two years after a legume.
• Growing pulses for grain maximises profit, particularly in favourable seasons, but compromises grass weed control and (depending upon species) reduces N available to subsequent crops compared to brown manuring.
• Growing pulses for hay was found to be profitable across a range of season types, achieves excellent grass weed control and provides greater N inputs and higher carry-over of soil water than when the same crop is grown for grain.
• Growing pules for brown manure loses money in the year they are grown, but achieves excellent grass weed control, high N inputs, residual carry-over of soil water, provides more ground cover, and requires less labour than when grown for hay or grain.

• Eight trial sites were established across South Eastern Australia to investigate whether soil organic carbon levels can be increased in no-till farming systems, inclusive of adding nutrients to aid the biological breakdown of stubble into soil organic matter.
• After three or five years of treatment, no increase in soil organic carbon could be confirmed across four trial sites. However, it is well known that no-till and stubble retention protects the soil from wind and water erosion and over a longer time-frame soil organic carbon levels may increase. But, based on these results it is likely that any potential increase in soil organic carbon will be small.

• My conclusion is that Conservation Farming practices are just as applicable in a marginal environment as in a more reliable one, perhaps more so. The trick here is to establish a blend of the existing knowledge (e.g. need to store moisture when possible, weed control, fertility management, sound pasture phase, timeliness of sowing, disease management), plus the newly available technology of seeders and herbicides that can continue to grow solid yielding, but importantly more profitable crops into the future.

• Our standard package of 100 kg 18:20/ha at seeding under the seed row (to avoid fertiliser toxicity),  and two top-ups of nitrogen during the season (50 kg N/ha as broadcast urea each time) was not the right combination for wheat at our site last year. It would appear that we were far too generous with our N inputs because we could leave out all fertiliser N and not suffer any yield loss. However, some N would appear to have been necessary to maintain high protein levels.
• In addition, our standard package of one trial spray in September did not cope with the stripe rust  infection in such a susceptible crop as Wyalkatchem. A Jockey seed dressing helped but another foliar spray of Tilt at flag leaf emergence gave the best control of the options tested.
  • This trial showed that under the high productivity conditions of Kangaroo Island, P fertiliser is still a vital requirement, even if the soil has high P reserves.
  • There was no evidence that extra management options provided any further benefits to wheat performance (ie extra seed dressings, an early aphid spray, B or K fertiliser or use of a growth regulant) under the conditions of last year’s trial.
  • All yields fell far short of the French/Schultz potential yield of 8.4 t/ha (based on the growing season rainfall in 2005 of 532 mm) which suggests that we still have a lot to learn about growing wheat under Kangaroo Island conditions, although the delayed seeding date of 28 June would have contributed to the relatively low yields.

• 1995 wheat grown on a 1994 canola a chickpea stubble yielded similarly.
• From agronomic measurements taken the wheat grown on the canola stubble had a potential to yield 15% greater than that on the chickpea stubble; however, this did not eventuate.
• From one year results, wheat grown on a disease free paddock with an immediate history of either chickpeas and/or canola will yield comparably.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Amistar Xtra, Intake Hiload Gold and Prosaro provided effective blackleg control.
• No significant yield increase from these fungicides
• Need to consider economics- high cost fungicides arent justified if blackleg risk is low
• Last year’s work indicates variety selection also a good tool for blackleg control
• Blackleg is a problem in retained stubbles, fungicides and variety choice are 2 of many tools for blackleg control

Establishment was highest where stubble was removed, however sufficient plants were established for a commercial crop where stubble remained standing rather than laying on the ground.

Conditions post spreading of the seed were perfect for establishment - seed spread onto moist soil, 30 mm of rain and cool temperates post rainfall - and a similar level of success may not be achievable evry season.

• In the Upper North it will be rare that there are stubble loads high enough (7-10t/ha stubble residue) to cause a significant issue at seeding to reduce seeding efficiency.
• The stubble loads experienced in the Upper North will on average be able to be sown through and produce effective canola establishment without burning or cultivation.
• Undertaking burning or cultivation was shown in this demonstration to have a negative impact on canola plant establishment if undertaken unnecessarily (barley stubble residue ~5t/ha).

• Early sowing opportunities may provide a great opportunity to maximise canola yield, but selection of the correct variety is important.
• Understanding the drivers behind canola development will help to improve canola management and variety selection.
• Varietal maturity ratings don’t always correlate with varietal phenology.

Simulate grazing (mowing) reduced canola grain yield by 17%. The acceptability of yield loss in return for additional feed in the fomr of dry matter (DM)will depend on grain and livestock prices. The trial results highlight the importance of timely grazing management.

The grain yield of TT Tornado canola was not significantly affected by nitrogen form (urea or SOA) or timing (IBS to green bud).

• Split application of nitrogen at green bud and full flower produced the highest yields.
• The risk of a dry season can be reduced by using split fertiliser timings.
• Applying nitrogen consistently increases levels of protein in canola but reduces oil content.
• Using flutrifaol-treated starter fertiliser and in-crop fungicides increased yields of canola by an average of 0.42 t/ha.
• Fungicide use had no consistent impact on grain quality.
   

While the 2003 series of trials is largely inconclusive, they do highlight a number of take-home messages:
• Do not expect nutrients like nitrogen to work effectively where other essential nutrients like phosphorus are lacking.
• Site selection for nutrition trials is vital - conduct of trials on recently constructed beds is advised against. Ideally, trials will be conducted in situations where beds have been in a normal cropping rotation for at least 5 years.
• The jury is still out on best approach to N management for canola, but where reasonable profile N is present before sowing a crop, split applications are advisable to mitigate risk.

• Time of nitrogen application was not as important as the quantity available to the plant.
• Nitrogen is an important driver of canola yields across dune-swale soil types and must be managed in the low rainfall zone for the crop to be profitable.

 

• Hyola 50 produced high grain yields compared to other conventional varieties.
• Better yielding Clearfield varieties included 46Y83, 46Y78, 45Y82 and Hyola 571CL.
• Better yielding TT varieties were the Monolas (specialty types), plus several new hybrid TT varieties
• Several varieties that have been grown for a while are now becoming more affected by blackleg so check on fungicide options plus isolation distances from last years stubble.

• Longer season varieties had lowest yields in dry season.
• Hyola 559 TT had highest yield, oil content and gross margin.
• Need to consider gross margin over yield as seed and end point royalties (EPR) costs differ.
• Range of varietal resistance to blackleg at this site.
• Addition of stubble had no impact on performance of Crusher TT.

From this initial work it cannot be concluded that the later nitrogen timings implicit in a canopy management approach significantly influence the need for disease management.

For a full list of take home messages please see the attached trial report.

• No canopy management treatments had a positive effect on grain yield in 2014, and many caused a significant yield reduction.

• The concept of canopy management for improved disease control, fertiliser use efficiency and grain yield has been well documented in cereals, however limited research has been  onductedc on this concept in pulse crops, including faba beans.
• While large bean canopies are beneficial from a nitrogen fixation perspective, these often pose a number of problems, such as shading of flowers, poor fungicide penetration, increase disease intensity, increased plant lodging, decreased harvestability and the potential for haying off in seasons with a sharp finish.

In 2017, approximately 50% of barley grass weed seed was already on the ground (dropped) before the first swathing opportunity.

• Although high below-ground carbon input by plants is important to enhance soil organic matter, only a few studies have quantified carbon allocation dynamics in crop-soil systems in dryland regions under contrasting management practices.
• There seems to be environmental constraints and features of dryland farming systems (such as high aridity and low rainfall, low soil carbon and low moisture) that limit the extent of below-ground carbon allocation as found in this study. It is thus challenging to enhance soil organic matter stocks in the dryland regions through conservation tillage only.
• The majority of newly assimilated carbon remained in aboveground plant material, particularly in the wheat-soil system at Condobolin, which is a relatively drier climate than Wagga Wagga.
• A larger proportion of newly assimilated carbon was translocated to below-ground carbon pools in the canola-soil system at Wagga Wagga (7%−11%) than in the wheat-soil system at Condobolin (2%).
• Tillage practices had no effect on the allocation and storage of newly assimilated carbon in the crop-soil systems. Moreover, the management practices had no significant effect on grain yield, soil carbon stocks or bulk density.
• These results suggest that reduced tillage or no-till can maintain equivalent soil functionality relative to conventional tillage while reducing operational costs associated with energy and machinery inputs.

There is considerable uncertainty regarding the future of carbon trading in agriculture. The UNFS group is working on several project to help identify how growers might take advantage of the carbon market in the future. Improved production and sustainability needs to be the key driver of any management changes with carbon credits being a bonus, not the drivers of change.

• Yield and biomass can be used to assess variation and identify soil sampling points (more than five may be needed).
• However, the cause of yield variation can vary within production zones so zones may differ depending on management input targeted.
• Ground truthing is  essential including grower knowledge.

The relationship of the different layers varied across the case studies. The cause of yield variation commonly varied within production zones. EM and gamma can help interpret causes of yield variation. EM strongly correlated with yield in landscapes with highly contrasting soils i.e. sands to clays at Corrigin and Wickepin. Gamma helps delineate different soil types in combination with EM. These layers were used to determine variable ripping zones and gypsum. No layers were very useful on their own. Topsoil pH did not correlate with any data layer therefore grid sampling is recommended to accurately map pH.

Irrigators should be advised by policy makers in the strongest possible terms to utilise continual logging soil moisture monitoring in their irrigation management plans. Soil moisture monitoring should not be viewed as an optional extra in an irrigation system but rather as the control centre that determines when to irrigate and how much to apply. The role of irrigation for crop production and salinity management requires soil moisture monitoring to determine the optimal time and volumes to achieve measurable objectives. Further research is needed to qualify and quantify the use of salt leaching irrigations as well as the use of gypsum applications to manage surface compaction created by stock and irrigation impact. White clover seed producers need to improve their attention to irrigation efficiency and focus on the net $ return/ML of irrigation applied. They are also advised to review their agronomic practices including paddock selection and rotations to aid in mitigating their current high end herbicide use on the white clover seed crops.

• Burning or cultivating 2015 stubbles tended to produce higher yields, however this was only significant at Ungarie.
• High rainfall and a soft finish removed the benefit of stored soil moisture that stubble retained systems may have provided.
• Nitrogen was the limiting factor for both yield and protein for 2016.
• Growers cannot let stubble negatively impact on weed control and timely sowing.
• Growers should use crop rotation to their advantage by aiming to sow the right crop into the least antagonistic stubble.
• Stubble retained systems can require more nitrogen due to increased nitrogen tie-up.

Grain legumes are ideally suited for direct drilling into cereal stubble. Cereal stubble does not affect grain legume growth or yield. The legume's large seed size and tolerance to variations in sowing depth allows them to safely emerge through stubble. Stubble should be left on the soil surface. Attempts to break up and bury it with repeated harrowing and workings will damage the soil structure, negating any benefit from retaining it.

• Resistance to Group B herbicides is common across western Victoria.
• Resistance to trifluralin is increasing.
• A new pre-emergent herbicides should become a fundamental part of an integrated weed management strategy to aid in control of multiple-resistant ryegrass.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.  

• Resistant varieties will still produce excellent yields under high disease pressure and provide growers with a low risk alternative to grow chickpeas again.
• The resistant varieties Genesis 090 and Genesis 509 produce excellent yields under high disease pressure and provide growers with a low risk alternative to grow chickpeas again.

• The mild (although dry) finish to the 2012 season suited chickpeas at this site enabling them to mature slowly and achieve relatively high yields (averaging 2.6t/ha).
• Across all varieties a 13% yield improvement from fortnightly disease control, and a 7% yield improvement from strategic control involving three applications of chlorothalonil compared to untreated plots occurred.

Grain yield results of these trials need to be treated with caution due to the adverse environmental
conditions experienced throughout the season.

• Howzat had significantly greater levels of foliar disease and pod infection levels than all resistant varieties when no fungicides were applied.
• Under high disease pressure in Howzat fortnightly sprays of chlorothalonil did not always prevent plant death from occurring.
• Maximum grain yields in Howzat treatments at Turretfield occurred in fortnightly sprays of
  chlorothalonil, however disease levels in these treatments were still higher than in untreated plots of the resistant varieties
• Resistant varieties with no fungicides applied suffered no yield loss when compared to the same varieties treated with fortnightly sprays under high disease pressure at Turretfield
• One spray at podding to reduce pod infection levels from low levels to very low levels in resistant varieties was all that was required to successfully grow the new resistant chickpeas under high levels of disease pressure last year. There was no significant difference between the fungicides used to reduce pod infection levels in the resistant types, however chlorothalonil reduced levels to a far greater extent than Mancozeb in Howzat.

Grain Yield results of these trials need to be treated with caution due to the adverse environmental
conditions experienced throughout the season.

• The trial had no disease pressure and was not harvested for grain yield due to the dry conditions which have been outlined previously.

Grain Yield results of these trials need to be treated with caution due to the adverse environmental
conditions experienced throughout the season.

• See Milestone 1 for weather interpretation.
• Infected stubble was spread throughout this trial to ensure adequate infection by ascochyta
• blight.
• The trial highlighted the excellent foliage resistance of Flip 94-090c, Flip 94-508c, Flip 94-509c and Flip 97-530. However because of late rainfall it also showed the importance of the recommended fungicide application at early podding to prevent seed discolouration. Where the plots remained untreated, there were significant levels of infection on the seed.
• Varieties that are susceptible (Kaniva) or moderately susceptible to ascochyta blight (Howzat and WACPE 2075) had significant yield reductions without the application of fungicides.

• Dry seasonal conditions did not favour chickpea production in 2006 and grain yields were below average
• Ascochyta blight infection levels were only low in the trials however the ascochyta blight resistant varieties still had lower infection levels than Howzat, Almaz and Nafice
• Susceptible and moderately resistant varieties incurred grain yield loss in nil treatments compared to fortnightly sprayed treatments at Turretfield. This did not occur in varieties rated resistant including the two new lines to be released (FLIP94-079C and CICA503)
• Previous trials show ascochyta blight resistant varieties Genesis090 and Genesis509 can be successfully grown under high disease pressure with only the need for foliar fungicide sprays during podding
• No information was obtained on podding strategies required to reduce grain yield loss in resistant varieties due to a lack of pod infection from the dry spring conditions. Further work is required in this area.
• Varieties with intermediate resistance require foliar fungicides early in the season to control ascochyta blight and prevent yield loss even in dryer years.

• Howzat, Sonali and Almaz had significantly greater levels of foliar disease, pod infection levels, yield loss and seed size reductions than all three resistant varieties when no fungicides were applied at both sites.
• Under very severe disease pressure levels fortnightly sprays of chlorothalonil did not always prevent plant death from occurring in Howzat, Sonali and Almaz.
• One spray of chlorothalonil at the podding stage in the resistant varieties was sufficient to control high levels of ascochyta blight disease pressure and prevent yield loss and seed size reduction, up to eight sprays were required in moderately susceptible lines and four sprays in moderately resistant varieties.
• Genesis090 and Genesis508 can be successfully grown in SA with only the need for one fungicide spray during podding except for in cases where very severe levels of disease pressure exist early in the season and then more frequent spraying in flowering and podding may be required.
• Varieties with partial resistance to ascochyta blight like Almaz can be successfully grown in SA however they will require a proactive regular fungicide spray strategy including early season fungicide sprays when disease is present.
• The treatment based on spraying according to forecasted rainfall amounts and variety disease susceptibility (predictive) was successful for moderately susceptible varieties under high levels of disease pressure, however needs further refining for severe disease level conditions and varieties with moderate or greater levels of resistance to ascochyta blight.
• Chlorothalonil was superior to mancozeb as a podding spray treatment.

• No disease was present in the trial this year, therefore no effects of fungicide management regime were seen.

• Dry and hot conditions prevailed throughout late winter and spring limiting disease spread and plant growth.
• There was no fungicide treatment effect on grain yield in 2007.
• Fungicide treatments at early podding (pod), early and late podding (podplus) and strategic sprays (strat) had larger seeds than the control, but not significantly larger than fortnightly or systemic sprays.

• No disease was present in the trial this year, therefore no effects of fungicide management regime were seen.

• Significant levels of disease were present in the trial this year, but due to the high temperatures in November causing a short finish, it appears that potential yield differences were negated.
   

• Generally early sowing and higher plant densities resulted in highest yields.
• Wider row spacing’s with standing stubble (60 and 30 cm) produced 10% higher grain yields than slashed stubble treatments (19.5 cm and 30 cm) for chickpeas in 2009.

• Chickpeas are again a valid crop option with a number of varieties with improved ascochyta blight resistance, high yields and good adaptation now available to growers.
• Variety selection must be based on ascochyta blight pressure, yield and marketing opportunities, and understanding that disease management is critical to success.

• Chickpea variety selection must be based on ascochyta blight pressure, yield and marketing opportunities.
• If considering early sowing, it is essential to select a variety with excellent ascochyta blight resistance or ensure an excellent disease management strategy is implemented. 

• New varieties have improved ascochyta resistance, but still need careful management.
• Avoiding early infection is critical to managing ascochyta effectively.
• A two spray fungicide strategy will provide reliable control.

Due to the lack of rainfall during spring, the resulting yields were very disappointing. Yields were too low to make any reasonable comparisons and consequently, the statistical analysis found no significant difference between treatments.

Yield increases were the result of stripe rust control and the associated green leaf retention achieved with fungicide treatment.

• In 2013 there was no evidence of changes in soil condition or organic carbon associated with the application of compost at up to 3 t/ha in 2012. Potential changes in soil organic carbon and other soil properties will be determined in February 2014.
• This trial will be continued in 2014 to assess changes in soil condition and future production.

• In 2013 there was no evidence of changes in soil condition or organic carbon associated with the application of compost at up to 3 t/ha in 2012.
• Potential changes in soil organic carbon and other soil properties will be determined in February 2014.

In 2007, wider row spacings (400mm vs 200mm) significantly (P<0.01) reduced yield (4.36t/ha vs 4.69t/ha) when averaged across five barley varieties and two nitrogen timings, suggesting that the benefits of wider row sowing for crop residue management practices are coming at a significant financial cost ($100/ha+, using current prices). However, the barley variety WI with nitrogen applied at
sowing (GS00) achieved the opposite result, as wider row spacings (400mm vs 200mm) significantly (P<0.05) increased yield (5.15t /ha vs 4.31t/ha).

Study Conclusions

Potential nitrogen contributions are assumed to be 40% of the total nitrogen contribution, assessed from the dry weight and nitrogen content (N% tissue) of the green manure crops measured at anthesis. Legume crops provided the most potential nitrogen of all treatments, due to high tissue nitrogen and moderate to high biomass production. Oats had the highest biomass but were low in tissue nitrogen and potential nitrogen benefits were therefore negligible. Any benefits from this type of crop, would be largely associated with the contribution of organic carbon to the soil. Emergence of both canola and mustard was poor, whilst the lathyrus and vetch competed poorly with weeds due to slow initial growth.

The percentage of undecomposed material remaining on the soil surface at seeding in 1999, varied from approximately 35% for oats down to 10% for lathyrus. The general pattern was that the crops with higher tissue nitrogen content broke down quicker. This indicates the microbial degradation of legume crops is likely to be faster than for brassica or cereal crops.

Differences in water infiltration observed may indicate the potential for treatments to increase the initial sorptivity of soil (ability for more rapid entry of rainfall) and decrease the flow rate through the soil (effectively increasing moisture retention). This may allow earlier sowing after summer rains, increased moisture availability during the growing season and potentially longer availability under dry finishing conditions. These results are variable and subject to trial/operator error. Further evaluation of these attributes is required prior to evaluation of renovation techniques.

The high cost of seeding and maintenance of the green manure crop, can significantly influence the gains or losses experienced over this three year period. It may be most economic, to green manure legume crops in seasons with low potential returns (poor yield potential or price).  The cost of harvesting a lupin crop for example may prove less beneficial than using it as a green manure to improve wheat yield and quality, where prices are depressed or where disease/season has reduced yield potential. Strategic use of green manure crops as a tool in integrated weed management or potential productivity gains through addressing specific problems may result in little or no short term economic gain where employed in better performing paddocks and must be viewed as a long term strategy to overcome yield constraints. However, strategic use of these techniques for poor performing paddocks, or paddock that would have otherwise been ‘rested’, are likely to result in economic responses, particularly where using low cost crops or pasture has been employed as there is no requirement to recover the cost of foregone yield – only those associated with growing a crop and the implementation of techniques.

Data supports the hypothesis that a green manuring:wheat:wheat rotation, may be as profitable as a legume:wheat:wheat rotation using either a field pea or Lathyrus crop. Given this assessment does not include any additional benefits that may be gained from green or brown manuring in terms of additional weed control and potential improvement of soil characteristics such as the addition of organic material, improved soil structure and longer term productivity gains, these techniques are likely to prove both economical and sustainable by providing additional benefits that may be observed in lower herbicide costs through better weed management, improved soil health and a more flexible farming system.

Over all four trials both Sakura treatments maintained a positive $ROI/ha with Sakura + trifluralin ($78.50) slightly ahead on average $ROI/ha to the standalone Sakura ($73.48)

Sakura 118 g/ha recorded a $55.08 increase in $ROI/ha over Boxer Gold across the four trials. Boxer Gold $ROI was generally in line with that of the prosulfocarb treatments in three of the sites, except from Waddy Forest where prosulfocarb 2.5 L/ha recorded a higher yield. Why this occurred is not clear as results were cross checked back with the contractor to ensure there was not a transcription error.

Trifluralin, due to its poor weed control, especially at Cunderdin, returned a slight positive $ROI/ha ($7.20) across the four trials.

All four sites to some extent were affected by frost which may have affected yield outcomes.

Getting weed control right is the key to ensuring the longevity of any herbicide but it also allows the crop it’s best possible chance of achieving its yield potential. Using a program of effective knockdowns and a product with a long residual activity like Sakura can deliver higher yields and returns across a variety of soil types and locations as seen across the four trials conducted during the 2016 season.

Overall, early growth was a function of a number of constraints. In the fully retained stubble plots plant establishment was poor due to large straw windrows creating major problems at sowing and mice damage. In surface stubble treatments lower soil temperatures and higher populations of vulpia resulted in reduced plant vigour. Where stubble was fully retained this effect was less than when most stubble was removed through cutting and baling.

The use of trifluralin as part of an integrated herbicide management program for the control of Group A resistant annual ryegrass populations has increased dramatically over the past decade. The requirement of incorporating Triflur 480 within 4 hours of application has imposed management issues during the busy sowing period, however, the advent of Crew (a slow release trifluralin formulation) offers greater management flexibility with an incorporation period of 24–48 hours.

Magenta yeilded higher than Mace in Both seeding systems.

• Single row yielded higher than twin row at Binnu, also looked much healthier (better) through-out the season. This has not been a consistent observation in other research trials. Likely cause is poor P nutrition due to fertiliser placemnt in twin row and low P site.
• Increasing seeding rates reduced the yield potential of Magenta. In contrast, plant desities of 150 plants/m2 were the most productive for Mace.

• Variety: there was no difference between the yield of Digger and Northfield (0.56 vs 0.57 t/ha respectively)
• Row spacing: there was no significant difference in the yield of lentils sown at 18 cm (7") or 36 cm (14") (0.59 vs 0.54 t/ha respectively). However, the crop sown at 18cm (7") was much easier to harvest and stood up better.
• Sowing rate: there was a significant negative effect of sowing rate on yield - the 50kg sowing rate had the higher yield compared to the 100kg/ha sowing rate (0.62 vs 0.51 t/ha respectively).

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Weeds have the biggest impact on summer water storage.
• Over the last two summers, the method of weed control had little effect on moisture storage
• Even under adequate growing season rainfall, weed control is necessary because weeds tie up and/or prevent significant amounts of nitrogen mineralizing, which cost 0.5t/ha of the canola yield.

Controlling summer weeds conserved both water and nitrogen and doubled wheat yields in 2011 on both sand and clay soil types. Retaining or removing stubble has only minor effects on wheat yield. Complete control of summer weeds pays, and there is no excuse for weedy paddocks during summer in the Wimmera and Mallee!

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Conserving summer rain is one of the most effective ways of improving crop yield.
• Summer weeds have the biggest impact on how much summer rain is stored and made available to crops.
• The presence of stubble has never been shown to have a large positive effect on the storage of summer rain in southern Australia, but it might lengthen the sowing window after the break and improve establishment.

• Overall imposing a fallow allowed for a small amount of extra water to be stored in the soil and a small amount of extra nitrogen. As a result there was a small yield gain of 0.2 t/ha in 2012. 
• In this trial the fallow treatment was planted then sprayed out in August to replicate what is known as an ‘opportunistic’ fallow compared to a ‘strategic’ fallow where no crop is planted for 18 months. 18 month fallows would have different results to the ones reported here.
• Other benefits of fallow that were not recorded in this trial but could have contributed to the yield gain are improved weed control, disease breaks and opportunity for early sowing. 

• This is the second season in which this trial has been run and the fallow has yielded higher than continuous cropping in both 2011 (0.4 t/ha) and 2012 (0.2 t/ha). Other research indicates that fallows produce yield benefits in dry seasons which are not the case in the crop in 2011, which received 231mm for the growing season. The yield difference in 2011 was therefore more likely to have been the result of extra nitrogen in the soil, or weed or disease control rather than soil water benefits, however, these were not measured.
• Farm economics need to be carefully considered before implementing a fallow, the opportunity cost of not producing a crop needs to be weighed up, and benefits of yield, extra N, weed control and disease breaks carefully factored into the decision. 
• In 2012 the yield benefit from fallow was 0.2 t/ha and likely to be due to extra nitrogen and water being present in the soil. However, this is an unreplicated demonstration and thus it is hard to tell whether yield differences are the result of fallow or random variation in the paddock. 

• Many views exist as to whether continous cropping is sustainable.
• Results from a long term tillage trial at Condobolin indicate direct drilled crops are outperforming crops using tillage.
• Stubble retention compared to burning gives mixed results for yield, although more weed build up is evident with retained stubble.
• Wheat yields are higher when grown after peas than after wheat in succession.

• 10 new soil demonstration and trials to be established in the south east over the next 2 years.
• Opportunities for farmers to access expert soil advice and information through a series of community meetings, workshops and field days. 

• Continuous wheat can be successfully grown.
• Stubble has been burnt to reduce the incidence of yellow leaf spot in the following crop.
• In most years the crop has been direct drilled.
• Disease levels are still low and the crop is checked at flowering every year for root diseases.
• Continuous wheat has been relativley low risk - after 7 years it has not failed (except for the drought year in 2002).
• Thus far there is no problem with grass weeds or soil borne diseases.

• Sunflower grain yield averaged 1.07 t/ha at this site with the highest yields obtained from the control and the treatments where only the bottom one third (1/3) of leaves were removed.
• The total leaf removal treatments had the largest effect on yield, at worst yielding only 0.16 t/ha.
• Removing all leaves at budding or at the start of the flowering growth stages had the largest effect on plant structures.
• Total leaf removal at the end of flowering had the largest effect on 1000 grain weight and test weight.

• Sunflower yields were greatly affected by the various defoliation treatments, ranging from 0.12 t/ha to 0.97 t/ha.
• Reductions in yield, of between 55% and 82% compared with the control resulted from total leaf removal at all three of the targeted growth stages (budding, start of flowering and flowering completion) as well as removing two-thirds of the leaves at budding.
• There was no negative effect on grain yield from removing the bottom third of leaves at budding or the start of flowering. Removing the bottom third of leaves at the start of flowering actually provided a slight yield advantage over the control treatment. The largest effect on plant height, head diameter and head arc length were caused by removing all leaves at the budding stage.

• Grazing stubble with sheep speeds up N cycling and reduces N tie-up by the stubble. When yield is N limited, this can increase grain yield and quality.
• Over the seven year experiment, grazing and retaining stubble has been the most profitable treatment, with an annual Gross Income 172 higher than un-grazed, stubble retain (assuming a grazing value of the stubble) or $55 higher if no grazing value assumed.
• Over the seven years, there was on average a 0.5 t/ha reduction in wheat grain yield in the 2nd wheat crop where stubble was retained and not burnt – mostly related to N tie-up.

The trial establishment was variable early due to some non-wetting soil and the crop was sown too deeply due to furrow fill from significant rain after sowing. Early crop vigour as a result was low with blackleg further reducing plant establishment; this coupled with high levels of Vegetable beetle damage also reduced the evenness of the plots.

According to the DAFWA sporacle model spore maturity occurred on approximately the 22nd May which meant this trial was at very high risk of significant disease risk as emergence coincided with high spore levels being released from last year’s stubble.

• Two years of full wild oat control did not exhaust the seedbank to a manageable level.
• A selective post emergent herbicide or an early hay cut were the most effective strategies for reducing the wild oat seedbank.

• One year of full wild oat control reduced the wild oat seedbank to 8 seeds per square metre in 2010.
• A selective post emergent herbicide or an early hay cut were the most effective strategies for reducing the wild oat seedbank.

The program demonstrated that:
• At some sites where copper deficiency was historically assumed, no response to any form of copper application was observed. Copper response is likely to vary by site and season.
• Yield loss caused by copper deficiency can be devastating to wheat yield.
• Soil and tissue testing can be useful in helping to detect low levels, but are not always definitive. Copper response appears to be dependent on other complex interactions such as soil moisture, yield potential and other constraints (N fertility etc.) and thus soil/tissue tests alone are not a definitive guide to future responses.
• Foliar applications performed better than in-furrow liquids.
• Chelate and sulphate products performed equally well when applied as foliar applications.
• Timing did not appear to be critical, with a wide band of opportunity from mid-tiller to early head emergence providing similar results

• There is little difference between the three cropping systems in terms of grain yield and quality.
• The drought over recent years has particularly affected the livestock data.
• Differences between the systems prior to the drought no longer exist as the sheep have spent about half their time off the trial due to lack of feed.
• Other research across Australia is supporting the management issues of some farming systems that have been highlighted by this trial.

• Ornithopus sativus (French serradella) was capable of yielding as much as Trifolium subterraneum (subterranean clover) with 30% less phosphorus (P).
• Ornithopus compressus (yellow serradella) required 30% less P than T. subterraneum to produce the maximum yield, however its maximum yield was often lower than that of T. subterraneum

• Crop establishment was not improved by on-row seeding or by increasing seeding rate in 2016.
• Higher seeding rate increased early dry matter but this effect declined during the growing season.
• In 2016 row placement or seeding rate did not affect grain yield or grain quality.
• Sowing on-row may be an advantage on non-wetting soils with low moisture at seeding.

Neither crop establishment, grain yield nor quality were changed by on-row seeding or by increased seeding rate in 2017, similar to results in 2016.

Crop establishment in the non-wetting soil was poor in 2017.

In 2015, with low moisture at seeding, improved crop establishment from on-row seeding in the non-wetting soil increased crop competition and lowered brome grass weed seed set.

• Deeper sowing at 3-4 cm achieved better early dry matter and increased grain yield in a later sowing.
• Frost damage may have lowered yield with early sowing, but inter-row placement at TOS1 had the highest yield.
• TOS 3 placement in row achieved better early plant growth and higher grain yield.
• Later sowing reduced brome grass numbers, and the size of the panicles, so it substantially lowered returns to the seed bank.

• Crop establishment increased with on row sowing. Stubble from the previous season helps soil moisture infiltrate into non-wetting sands and into a position closer to the seed.
• Initial germination of brome grass weeds was higher with inter row sowing.
• Late brome grass weed numbers was also greatest with inter row sowing. Sowing on row may also increase crop and weed competition as will a higher seeding rate.

• Commercial viability has been difficult to demonstrate.
• Field trials demonstrated that the H Senor was able to accurately classify annual ryegrass in several broadleaf crops, including canola, faba bean, lentil and field pea.
• Other grass weeds such as brome grass and wild oats were also correctly identified as grasses in these crops.
• Broad leaf weeds were accurately classified in cereal crops, however this was more difficult due to the overlapping nature of the cereal crops at the time when the broadleaf weeds had emerged.
• Classification accuracy was lower for detection of grass weeds in cereal crops and broadleaf weeds in broadleaf crops, and these scenarios were not pursued for that reason.