• Grain yields reached 80% of their potential water use efficiency in a decile 5 growing season.
• Variable rate strategies did not result in improved yields over blanket strategies and the costs of the inputs ensured the blanket nil fertiliser treatment was at least economically comparable to the other options evaluated.

• The purpose of 2010 was to establish this long-term trial and baseline soils analysis
• Due to limited funding no formal monitoring took place and all results and analysis was visual.
• The Spader caused the trial area to be soft and as such sowing depth was compromised. Some furrows were partially collapsed, burying the seed even deeper. This cause patchy germination on the spaded area.
• Perennials did not germinate due to lack of spring and summer rain- these may need to be re-seeded in 2011.
• Unfortunately some of the treatments were affected by aphids, eg Dalkeith and to a lesser extent Bartolo Bladder clover and Rose Clover.
• Due to a very dry finish there appeared to be very poor seed set on all treatments.
• Low clay rates of 60T without incorporation was effective in aiding establishment of seeded varieties and could be an economic option for establishing annual pasture on poorer non-wetting sands.
• At at current levels. This option produced high quality pasture which was a great improvement over the control and on a larger scale may sustain higher stocking rate and or growth rates.

• The purpose of 2010 was to establish this long-term trial and baseline soils analysis
• Due to limited funding no formal monitoring took place and all results and analysis was visual.
• The Spader caused the trial area to be soft and as such sowing depth was compromised. Some furrows were partially collapsed, burying the seed even deeper. This cause patchy germination on the spaded area.
• Perennials did not germinate due to lack of spring and summer rain- these may need to be re-seeded in 2011.
• Unfortunately some of the treatments were affected by aphids, eg Dalkeith and to a lesser extent Bartolo Bladder clover and Rose Clover.

 

• Crop production on these deep infertile sands is often well below the water-limited potential, partly because they have little capacity to hold mobile nutrients such as nitrogen but also because they are often compacted.
• However, a major limitation on these soil types is the very infertile subsoils, which prevent efficient extraction of water by crop roots.
• Adding fertilisers into this area can produce spectacular benefits to crop performance but techniques to produce these benefits need to be further refined to make them more cost-effective.
• The addition of products, which will hold nutrients near the seed, showed some promise in this trial but further testing should be conducted to assess the reliability of this approach.
• Deep ripping is usually beneficial on these deep sands.

• Soil inversion with a mouldboard plough results in a layer of repellent topsoil being buried at depth with a layer of wettable subsoil brought to the surface. Water can readily enter subsoil brought to the surface but it can take some time for the buried water repellent topsoil to wet up.
• Soil moisture measurements made just after seeding and prior to emergence indicated that at both sites the top 10cm of soil in both the furrow and the ridge was wetter in the mouldboard plough treatment compared with the control treatment.
• For further results please see the attached trial report.

Over the summer of 2002/03 soil conservation is as critical as summer weed control to ensure that your soil resource is in the best possible condition to produce high yielding crops in 2003.

Soil moisture retention granules did not influence wheat grain yield at Hart in 2009.

• N2O emissions at the Gunnedah site were approximately 10 times higher than at the Emerald site, due to the wet soil conditions and high pre-season rainfall at Gunnedah which led to denitrification of N from pre-season anhydrous ammonia application.
• Two nitrification inhibitors, DMPS (“Big N-sure”, Incitec Pivot Fertilisers) and nitrapyrin (“N-serve”, Dow AgroSciences) directly injected into anhydrous ammonia during pre-plant N application delayed the conversion of applied ammonium in the soil to nitrate for a period of 2–3 months.
• At the Gunnedah site, cumulative N2O emitted was reduced by 86% (DMPS) and 65% (nitrapyrin), compared to untreated ammonia.

Conclusions: 

In a season such as that experienced at the Emerald 2016–17 site, there were only minor environmental benefits from using a nitrification inhibitor in conjunction with anhydrous ammonia. However, these experimental conditions may not be typical as pre-plant fertiliser is usually applied earlier in the year at Emerald than it was at this site. A longer period of time between pre-plant application and plant establishment would provide greater opportunity for N2 O losses to occur, although the potential for heavy winter rainfall tends to be low in the Emerald region. While both inhibitor products clearly reduced emissions during the first two measurement periods, it was apparent that the effectiveness of these products had dissipated by the time of the second irrigation. The additional inhibitor application with the side-dressed urea boosted the N2 O reduction period for the DMPP treatment, while the application of untreated urea to the other treatments allowed further losses matching those of the untreated control after the initial pre-plant N application. The 2016–17 Gunnedah experiment provided the perfect testing conditions for nitrification inhibitors as the soil was very wet at application, and received frequent heavy rainfall during the next 3 months. These inhibitors were designed to retain mineral N from applied N fertiliser in the soil during periods of excessive rainfall that may otherwise lead to large losses of nitrate N through denitrification and leaching. Leaching occurs through downward movement of nitrate with water in the soil, but we found no evidence of this having occurred in the soil core samples we took just prior to sowing. For heavy clay soils such as this one at Gunnedah, denitrification of soil nitrate during periods of anaerobic soil conditions is the most likely major N loss pathway. The results of the gas sampling campaigns highlighted the almost complete mitigation of N2 O emissions during this period by adding nitrification inhibitors. The Big N-sure® inhibitor appeared to remain active for longer in the soil than the N-serve®.

• Field experiment to test the relative effectiveness of a zinc spray to the soil surface compared to zinc-enriched fertilizers.
• These results suggest that zinc-enriched fertilizers which are of a heterogeneous nature will not be effective at correcting zinc deficiency in the year of application, or in the following year.
• Both soil sprays of zinc pre-sowing and zinc-enriched fertilizers drilled with the seed of a homogeneous nature are effective at correcting zinc deficiency.

• The demonstration sites in 1999 received Decile 1 (lowest 10% of rainfall recordings).
• As a consequence waterloggin did not occur.
• Delayed time of sowing and inaccurate seed placement on the raised beds at a number of sites attributed to yield differenes between the treatments.

• As demonstrated by the results table (see attached trial report), yields of 5-6 t/ha where achieved in a year which included frost at the Streatham site. 
• A number of breeding lines and control varieties are included to enable comparison between yield and growing characteristics.

Results from the Northern Agricultural Region have shown that crops can be sown over subtropical perennial grasses without jeopardizing persistence of the perennial base. However, perennial grasses vary in their tolerance to in-crop herbicides and crop yield is dependent on effective weed control, adequate fertility and moisture, and winter dormancy (or suppression) of the perennial pasture.

Pasture cropping systems can also lift overall biomass production, improve the feed value of stubbles, provide out of season fodder, and reduce the likelihood of wind erosion and groundwater recharge on deep sandy soils.

The application of additional nitrogen can lead to greater biomass in both the annual crop and perennial pasture. However, this is dependent on seasonal conditions and the economics of applying additional nitrogen needs to be considered carefully on low moisture holding, infertile, sandy soils in the Northern Agricultural Region.

• Grain yield of field peas sown at Hart in 2010 averaged 2.5t/ha across all varieties, similar to
  2009.
• No sowing time response was observed in 2010 due to disease in early sown plots and the
  favourable season finish that promoted yield in later sown plots.
• Early sown plots with uncontrolled blackspot showed a 35% yield loss compared to the
  optimum control (fortnightly chlorothalonil), which yielded 3.6t/ha.
• Recently released early maturing varieties PBA Gunyah and PBA Twilight performed slightly
  below the site mean yield in a year which favoured later maturing types like Kaspa.
• Prospective releases OZP0703 and OZP0903 show a lot of promise, with OZP0703 performing similarly to Kaspa and OZP0903 yielding 10% greater.

• Light interception at midday was significantly higher under east-west sowing compared with north-south.
• It is plausible that sowing direction may influence weed seed set.
• To establish a competitive crop against weeds and maximise yields, growers should aim for the narrowest row spacing to suit their system.

• Light interception at midday was significantly higher under east-west sowing compared with north-south.
• It is plausible that sowing direction may influence weed seed set.
• To establish a competitive crop against weeds and maximise yields, growers should aim for the
  narrowest row spacing to suit their system.

Early sowing is essential in order to maximise yield of wheat crops grown on long (18 month) fallow. Long fallowing and early sowing are complementary practices, as the fallow reduces weeds and diseases which can be difficult to control in early sown crops, and early sowing with slow developing cultivars allows the crop to better use soil water that is stored during the fallow. Stored soil water also helps to establish early sown crops when there is minimal autumn rainfall. This fact sheet outlines how farmers can maximise wheat yield on long fallow by sowing early with slow developing cultivars, and is based on two years of GRDC funded research conducted by AgGrow Agronomy, CWFS and CSIRO in western NSW.

The 1.6 t/ha pasture residue had no impact on sowing and plant establishment in drier seeding conditions in 2014. • In 2014 there were no differences in wheat establishment, yield or grain quality due to different pre-sowing treatments with pasture residues. • The wheat stubbles have been harvested at different heights and pasture establishment and will be monitored next season.

In this trial both summer sowing and conventional seeding after the break of the season resulted in the successful establishment of serradella into perennial grass pastures. All treatments resulted in serradella seed yields greater than 600 kg/ha, which has set them up for good legume regeneration in subsequent years. The yellow serradella experimental line (87GEH72.1a) shows considerable promise as a companion legume for perennial grasses in this environment. It flowers earlier than Margurita French serradella and has a hard seed breakdown pattern more suitable for summer sowing than current yellow serradella varieties (Yelbini*, Charano* and Santorini*).  Both summer sowing and conventional sowing of annual legumes into perennial grasses after the break require good weed control. Herbicide options and the impact of perennial grass suppression require further investigation. Weed seed set control in the year prior to establishment is recommended.

• In a non-wetting sand, sowing on-row allowed seedlings to germinate in a wetter soil, with increased competitiveness against weed and disease pressures resulting in significant advantages in crop establishment and biomass production.
• Sowing on-row in sands or loam that did not express non-wetting did not capture the same level of benefits.
• Sowing crops on or very near last year’s crop row greatly suppressed grass weed populations and reduced brome grass seed set by over 70% compared to inter-row seeding.
• Early sowing in the last week of April instead of the third week of May helped to overcome the dry spring conditions and resulted in yield benefits of 28% at Loxton and up to 13% at Karoonda.
• When sowing crops on last year’s row, the potential for higher stubble borne pathogen (Take-All and Fusarium) inoculum and a greater likelihood of N tie-up after opening rains needs to be considered. However, impacts on rhizoctonia disease depend upon inherent biological fertility of soil.

• In a non-wetting sand, sowing on-row allowed seedlings to germinate in a wetter soil, with increased competitiveness against weed and disease pressures resulting in significant advantages in crop establishment and biomass production.
• Sowing on-row in sands or loam that did not express non-wetting did not capture the same level of benefits.
• Sowing crops on or very near last year’s crop row greatly suppressed grass weed populations and reduced brome grass seed set by over 70% compared to inter-row seeding.
• Early sowing in the last week of April instead of the third week of May helped to overcome the dry spring conditions and resulted in yield benefits of 28% at Loxton and up to 13% at Karoonda.
• When sowing crops on last year’s row, the potential for higher stubble borne pathogen (Take-All and Fusarium) inoculum and a greater likelihood of N tie-up after opening rains needs to be considered. However, impacts on rhizoctonia disease depend upon inherent biological fertility of soil.

• In a non-wetting sand, sowing on-row allowed seedlings to germinate in a wetter soil, with increased competitiveness against weed and disease pressures resulting in significant advantages in crop establishment and biomass production.
• Sowing on-row in sands or loam that did not express non-wetting did not capture the same level of benefits.
• Sowing crops on or very near last year’s crop row greatly suppressed grass weed populations and reduced brome grass seed set by over 70% compared to inter-row seeding.
• Early sowing in the last week of April instead of the third week of May helped to overcome the dry spring conditions and resulted in yield benefits of 28% at Loxton and up to 13% at Karoonda.
• When sowing crops on last year’s row, the potential for higher stubble borne pathogen (Take-All and Fusarium) inoculum and a greater likelihood of N tie-up after opening rains needs to be considered. However, impacts on rhizoctonia disease depend upon inherent biological fertility of soil.

• The 2011 season was well suited field pea at Wagga, resulting in high yields and little
  disease at either sowing.
• Field pea is less sensitive to delays in sowing compared to chickpea, faba bean & lupin.
• Yield declined by only around 11% when sowing was delayed from late May to early July.
• PBA Oura, PBA Percy and OZP819 were consistently in the top ranking group for both
  yield and seed size.

• This was a very dry but favourable field pea season at “Hillview”, resulting in erect growth, very little disease, blemish-free golden brown foliage, high DMs and grain yield.
• Varieties were only different at the earliest sowing date, where Pearl was the top yielder
• Yield dropped by around 20% as sowing was delayed from 20 May to 22 June
• Seed size increased by around 10% as sowing was delayed from 20 May to 22 June
• Seed size was greatest in Percy & Oura

• This was a very favourable field pea season at “Hillview”, resulting in high DM and grain
  production.
• There were only small differences between varieties
• Yield and seed size dropped by around 10% as sowing was delayed from 20 May to 22 June

• Early to late May was optimum for planting chickpeas at Yenda in 2010. This season was
  one of the most favourable experienced for many years. However, during a normal season in this lower rain zone, greater moisture and heat stresses will occur, later sowings will be
  more exposed to climate stress and yields will be lower. These findings support conclusions
  from the Wagga Time of Sowing trial reported above - late April to early May is the optimal
  window to plant chickpeas in southern NSW. In the drier Yenda environment (compared to
  Wagga), sowings should be targeted more towards the first half of this window.
• PBA Slasher, CICA0603 and Genesis 509 (all desi types) were the best varieties especially
  when sown in May and June. Genesis 090 and Genesis 079 (kabuli) performed well at the
  May planting only.
• Plant population had little or no affect on yield or seed size.

• Late April - early May has proven to be the optimal time to plant chickpeas in southern
  NSW. This finding has been consistent over a range of seasons (2008 to 2010). Sowing any
  earlier runs the risk of producing excessive dry matter, increases disease risk, increases
  flower abortion and consequently lowers pod set. Sowing later increases drought risk and
  reduces yield potential. The kabuli lines Genesis 079 and Genesis 114 were particularly
  sensitive to sowing delays.
• PBA Slasher, PBA Hattrick, Genesis 509, CICA0511 and CICA0603 generally yielded
  similarly and equal highest at all sowing dates.
• Kabuli varieties, particularly Genesis 079 and Genesis 114, yielded well below the desi
  varieties.
• Seed size largely reflected varietal differences, tended to fall in some varieties (particularly
  the kabuli types) at the last sowing date (16 June) and was unaffected by plant population.
• The lower plant populations (25 plants/m2) did limit yield by about 9%.

• Yield of all varieties peaked when sown between mid May and late June during the highly
  favourable season of 2010.
• Performance at the later sowings was unusually good, again due to the favourable finish.
• Early sowings suffered from excessive dry matter production, disease and the classic “selfdestruct syndrome” of peas that are too well grown.
• Yarrum was the best variety, followed by OZP0805.
• Seed size varied mainly with variety and was generally not affected by sowing date or seeding rate.

• Early sowing, concurrent with previous research, was highest yielding in 2011. There appear to be several promising new varieties available for southern Victoria, offering a range of grain types and forage options, associated with excellent yield potential. Crop topping results highlights the importance for growers and advisors to be aware of both weed and crop growth stages, otherwise significant grain yield loss could occur.

• Early sowing, concurrent with previous research, was significantly higher yielding in 2011.
• Varietal differences in this trial were minimal. Yield loss from disease, primarily black spot, was significant and economically viable control measures are important to develop.

• No foliar fungicide can make the leaf area infected turn green again so timing is critical.
• In a wheat plant, the top three leaves: flag, leaf 2 and leaf 3, contribute the most to yield. Fungicide applications must be timed to ensure protection of these leaves.

In this 2013 trial:

• Increasing nitrogen fertiliser, over 100 kg N/ha, increased canola yields.
• Nitrogen had no significant effect on oil%.
• Splitting nitrogen applications had no effect on canola yield, oil or gross margins.
• Hyola 404RR had a higher gross margin of $506/ha, compared with $436 for ATR Stingray (TT), in spite of the higher seed costs.
• To get $2 for every $1 spent on nitrogen the economic optimum rates of nitrogen at this site in 2013    were:                                                                                                                                                                # 45 kg N/ha for ATR Stingray (TT OP).

                                       # 70 kg N/ha for Hyola 4040RR (RR hybrid).

This trial has demonstrated the impact poor nozzle selection and water rates can have on herbicide efficacy. Farmers generally only use one nozzle type for all post emergent herbicide applications and water rates tend to be lower than optimal. It was found that increasing the water rate and selecting a nozzle with a fine droplet pattern and good coverage gave best results for contact herbicides and those poorly translocated within the plant (Group A herbicides eg. Verdict 520). For herbicides that move readily through the plant, coverage is not as essential allowing larger droplet size nozzles to be used without losing efficacy. For smaller grass targets it is even more important to have the correct water rate and nozzle type. Understanding how herbicides work, modes of action and movement within the plant will allow for better water rate and nozzle selection leading to more cost effective weed control and less off target impact.

This trial has demonstrated the impact poor nozzle selection and water rates can have on herbicide efficacy. Farmers generally only use one nozzle type for all post emergent herbicide applications and water rates tend to be lower than optimal. It was found that increasing the water rate and selecting a nozzle with a fine droplet pattern and good coverage gave best results for contact herbicides and those poorly translocated within the plant (Group A herbicides eg. Verdict 520). For herbicides that move readily through the plant, coverage is not as essential allowing larger droplet size nozzles to be used without losing efficacy. For smaller grass targets it is even more important to have the correct water rate and nozzle type. Understanding how herbicides work, modes of action and movement within the plant will allow for better water rate and nozzle selection leading to more cost effective weed control and less off target impact.

• Roundup at 400mL/ha alone can be very safe on medic plants; however, more work is required to confirm this.
• Roundup 400mL/ha appears to only suppress bromegrass and annual ryegrass. Hiigher rates are needed for better control.
• The additives Goad and 2,4D Ester increased medic damage; however, overall suppression of medic growth was below 50%.

All the spray nozzles trialled gave an equal level of ryegrass seed control.

Spraying small ryegrass with translocated herbicides such as Roundup, the droplet spectrum is not as critical as what was first thought. When spraying Roundup during the time of year when drift is a problem, which occurs mainly at sowing during autumn, nozzles which produce droplets which drift less such as the Air Inducted nozzles (AI) can be used (in our trials water rates were kept at 60L/ha).

Spraying small ryegrass with translocated herbicides such as Roundup®, the droplet spectrum is not as critical as what was first thought.  When spraying Roundup during the time of year when drift is a problem, which occurs mainly at sowing during autumn, nozzles which produce droplets which drift less such as the Air Inducted nozzles (AI) can be used (in our trials water rates were kept at 60L/ha).

Higher rates of Spray.Seed provided significantly greater levels of final ryegrass, radish, canola and lupin control.

The trials clearly showed that high levels of control of resistant radish populations could be achieved with a 2 spray program that used both old and new chemistries. The trials clearly showed that growers don’t need to use 2 applications of pyrasulfatole in one crop to achieve satisfactory control if small weeds are targeted with robust herbicide rates and good spray coverage.

Growers should be using a 2 spray regime on bad wild radish paddocks as a matter of course. Growers should be targeting radish as early as possible i.e. from the 2 leaf stage of the cereal crop and be coming back 3 - 4 weeks later with a second application using alternative modes of action to those used in the first spray. An example of this would be to use Velocity at 2 leaf stage of the crop and follow up with 24,D amine plus Ecopar as a second spray application.

The plan must address the target and the nature of the target. Is the target small or large, short or tall, fine or course, young or mature. Is the target stressed eg. heat, waterlogged, dry or frosted.

Previous research has shown good snail control comes from snails being able to come across baits and feed on them. The more even the bait distribution, the more likely the snails will come across a bait, feed on it and die.

It is becoming more common to apply baits aerially, but there have been no previous studies on the distribution of baits applied from aircraft.

In this study, we found the distribution of baits varied depending on the distance from the flight path of the plane and that bait application swath widths of the plane needed to be 15 metres rather than 30 metres. This trial highlighted that better calibration techniques are needed for aerially applied bait applications.

• Adding imidacloprid to standard seed treatments made a significant (P = 0.05) improvement in yield to most varieties in the absense of any visible BYDV.
• Increasing sowing rates significantly (P = 0.05) improved yield for all vareties.
• Fungicide timing was not as critical as it is in a longer growing season.
• Barley produced the best return on investment when compared to wheat.
• None of the varieties of either barley or wheat made a quality receival standard.

• The highest yielding variety for the 2008 Inverleigh wheat trial programme was Espada with 4.18 t/ha. The mean yield for hte fungicide treated trial was 3.44 t/ha, with the treated mean yield in 2007 being 4.18 t/ha.
• For the full list of take home messages please see the attached trial report.

• The average yield for the spring wheat trial at Inverleigh was 5.12 t/ha. The highest yields were achieved by the shorter seaons varieties Beaufort (6.95 t/ha) and Derrimut (6.10 t/ha). Both varieties yielded well in the 2008 wheat variety trial at Inverleigh.
• For further take home messages please see the attached trial report.

• There was significatn rain in early April.
• There were some dry periods but adequate rainfall overall. Some frosts occurred in July/August.
• Main weed problem was self-sown wheat.

Velocity®, Igran®, Precept® and Lexone® provided the most effective statice control in barley.

The use of, or addition, of Group G herbicides failed to improve control.

Group C herbicides had varied results. Products containing terbutryn and metribuzin achieved a high level of control, but products containing  diuron and bromoxynil did not.

• Statice seedbanks reduced with targeted management options in three years, providing no new seeds are allowed to set.
• Crop competition and crop-topping to prevent seed set can help to control statice.
• Statice can be hard to control, so good farm biosecurity is important to prevent the introduction of statice. This includes controlling statice in non-crops areas, such as laneways and fence-lines.

In a stem rust outbreak, fungicide is best applied before infection of the crop is visible.

Use of foliar fungicides applied prophylactically at the start of flowering (GS60) gave good control of a late stem rust infection in Yitpi, but were largely uneconomic in 2011.

• Fungicide application for stem rust control was more effective and economic where product application was made prior to visible infection in the crop.
• Where fungicide application was made at an early stage of grian fill (GS 71) disease control of stem rust was inferior to the same products applied at the same rate 16 days earlier at 50% ear emergence (GS 55).
• Higher rates of fungicide (label rates for stem rust control) need to be employed for this disease in order to give effective control; this is particularly the case with fungicides containing a single active ingredient such as tebucanazole (e.g. Folicur) or epoxiconazole (e.g. Optus).
• The strobilurin/triazole mixture of azoxystrobin/cyproconazole (Amistar Xtra) gave excellent stem rust control at its highest rate but its higher cost reduced its economic return.
• The performance of propiconazole (e.g. Tilt) against stem rest was poor in terms of disease control, relative to other products tested.

Stem rust control

• High rates of fungicide (in most cases the recommended rate on the label) gave significantly superior stem rust control compared to the low rate tested when assessed on the leaf sheaths of hte plant 27 and 50 days after applicaiton.
• Propiconazole (Tilt) gave significantly poorer stem rust control than the other fungicides tested at full label rates (or high rates).

Yield data

• The average response to fungicide was 9% at the low fungicide rate, 17% at the mid-rate and 16% at the high rate, though there was no statistical significance between fungicide rates.
• All products tested at the highest rate of fungicide application significantly increased yield, except Prosaro and Tilt Xtra. Opus and Amistar Xtra were the only two products to significantly out yield the untreated at all three rates tested.

• Fungicides can be employed successfully to control stem rust in wheat (Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici) but timing in relation to disease development is crucial.
• In susceptible cultivars fungicide application must be made at a very early stage of disease development, preferably before it can be seen.
• Fungicide activity is limited in scenarios where disease is already established in the stem at application, in these cases cultivar resistance was far more effective in defence against this disease than fungicides.
• Propiconazole (Tilt) gave significantly poorer stem rust control than the other fungicides tested at full label rates.
• Prothioconazole the partner azole to tebuconazole in Prosaro was particularly strong on stem rust, making Prosaro one of the most cost effective fungicides for control of this disease.

Under very low Rhizoctonia pressure, none of the seed treatments trialed here had an impact (negative or positive) on barley yield. EverGol® Prime is a new product that is now registered for the suppression of Rhizoctonia in wheat and barley at a rate range of 40 - 80mL/100kg of seed.

• Think of a fallow as a risk reducing investment for your property.
• Soil testing after chemical fallow is essential to determine the starting point of available nutrients in the soil.
• Good agronomic practices that maximise plant health and growth will allow crops to use water more effectively, improving yield potential.
• Weed free fallows mean increased moisture conservation leading to potentially higher yielding crops for the following year and more profitable rotations.
• The use of a residual herbicide to help suppress weeds over summer will be beneficial.
• If this trial was to be repeated, results will vary given different seasons and different soil types

• Very dry conditions during the 2013−14 summer meant that much of the nitrogen (N) fertiliser applied was not taken up by the sorghum crop, especially if it had been applied in-crop at booting. Between 46–65% of the applied N remained in the soil at harvest in 2013−14.
• A following crop of unfertilised sorghum accessed the remaining N for crop growth and, at rates of 100 kg N/ha and above in the 2013−14 crop, increased grain yield and protein above the control. Late N application by topdressing in the 2013−14 crop gave similar crop production results to treatments where N was sidebanded at sowing.
• Two-year gross margins showed a significant benefit from N application as urea either at sowing or incrop.
   

Stripe rust if not controlled in a susceptible variety can result in large yield losses. At the Laen trial site the treatments which controlled stripe rust yielded 1 t/ha more compared to the treatments with no or little control (3.6 t/ha compared to 2.6 t/ha). The best seed dressing for reducing the infection of stripe rust was Jockey at the registered rate of 0.45L/100kg of seed, Impact-in-Furrow treatments at the full (0.4L/ha) and half rate reduced stripe rust infections to minimal levels. Foliar fungicides applied at full flag leaf emergence, Triad, Bumper, Folicur and Opus, resulted in complete control of stripe rust.

These results suggest that the broader spectrum in-furrow and seed dressing treatments will return a significant return in yield over the narrower spectrum products even under low disease pressure situations.

Stripe rust can be managed in 2004 using a combination of inoculum reduction (removal of volunteer cereals), varietal selection, seed or fertiliser treatment and crop monitoring with a view to fungicide application if necessary.

• Be vigilant and monitor every paddock – they can be very different ƒ
• Do not spray after head emergence – the damage has been done ƒ
• Use early season treatments in the Wimmera and be prepared to apply one spray in crop if it is required. ƒ Stripe rust is a permanent fixture in our environment
• We must all be prepared to control the disease WHEN (not IF) it occurs in 2006.

Select a wheat variety with good stripe rust performance.

Fungicides applied as a seed treatment and/or as a foliar application provide cost effective control of stripe rust.

Grow varieties with the highest SR resistance.

Use a seed dressing on all varieties to protect against SR and smuts.

SR treatments prior to Z39 are unlikely to have a direct yield or income benefit.

• When dealing with annual ryegrass populations, it is a numbers game; the more you can control the better.
• Higher water rates in retained stubble resulted in increased efficacy of pre-emergent herbicides.
• Initial findings suggest that using speedtillers to retain stubble in the system does not result in any negative effects

• When dealing with annualryegrass populations, it is a numbers game; the more you can control the better.
• Higher water rates in retained stubble resulted in increased efficacy.
• In 2014, although canola establishment was lower in plots where stubble was retained; there was no significant yield difference at harvest.

• In 2007, herbicides applied to burnt stubble were more effective than those applied to slashed stubble. In 2008, there was no effect of stubble management on efficacy or crop safety.
• All herbicide treatments gave adequate control ofryegrassin both years, but TriflurX® 1.5L/ha + Avadex Xtra® 1.6L/ha gave the best control in both 2007 and 2008.
• Improved control of ryegrass did not increase yield, and the most profitable treatments were the lower rates of trifluralin.
• Standing stubble substantially increased grain yield relative to slashed stubble (0.41 and 0.47t/ha in 2007 and 2008 respectively).

• Subsoil manuring resulted in consistent grain yield increases across the network of sites in the HRZ of Victoria. In years with drier finishes, the yield of the commercial control crop was constrained due to water deficits during grain filling, while the subsoil manured crops were able to access additional subsoil water. Thus, these crops were not constrained and significantly higher yields were achieved.
• Please see attached trial report for further comments.

• Subsoil manuring resulted in consistent grain yield increases across the network of sites in the HRZ of Victoria. In years with drier finishes, the yield of the commercial control crop was constrained due to water deficits during grain filling, while the subsoil manured crops were able to access additional subsoil water. Thus, these crops were not constrained and significantly higher yields were achieved.
• For further results and discussion please see the attached trial report.

Canola yields in low and medium rainfall regions of south-western Australia are inherently low and variable.  We have shown that although N fertilisation increases the yield of canola, the yield increases are often relatively low.  Nitrogen also reduces the concentration of oil in the seed of canola and the rate of decrease can be rapid in low rainfall areas. 

The combined effect of N on yield and oil, along with the current payment structure for high oil canola, results in uncertain economic returns from N fertilisation in low to medium rainfall areas. 

We found that 90% of maximum gross margin was achieved at an average nitrogen rate of 17 kg N/ha, and the first 10 kg N/ha gave a return on investment in N greater than $1.50 per $1 in 80% of occurrences (experiments x variety combinations).  The next 20 kg N/ha applied gave a return on investment in N of $1.25 for every $1 spent on N in 80% of occurrences, and further increases were most likely to breakeven. 

We have shown that while farmers should continue to plan to apply N onto canola within the first eight weeks, delaying top-up N until 12 weeks after sowing – when the canola crop is near flowering, is a viable second option which provides some level of risk management for canola growers in low and medium rainfall areas in south-western Australia.

The growing season rainfall in 2019 was below average at Perillup, and the summer cropping demonstration did not suffer from water-logging.

Grain growers in this region believe that the soil drying effects from growing summer crops has the greatest potential benefit to winter cropping yields.

In 2019, there was a 770kg/ha barley yield increase above the control from the plots where cowpea was grown in the summer.

There was a 470kg/ha decline in winter barley yield in the plot that was planted to canola between January 30 and May 9, 2019.

Nutritional requirements of summer crops need to be considered when selecting species. Cowpeas fixed useful nitrogen in the 90 growing days.

2019 Demonstration Key Messages

• The growing season rainfall in 2019 was below average at Perillup, and the summer cropping demonstration did not suffer from water-logging.
• Grain growers in this region believe that the soil drying effects from growing summer crops has the greatest potential benefit to winter cropping yields.
• In 2019, there was a 770kg/ha barley yield increase above the control from the plots where cowpea was grown in the summer.
• There was a 470kg/ha decline in winter barley yield in the plot that was planted to canola between January 30 and May 9, 2019.
• Nutritional requirements of summer crops need to be considered when selecting species. Cowpeas fixed useful nitrogen in the 90 growing days.
• The growing season rainfall in 2019 was above average in Williams, and the summer cropping demonstration site was severely water-logged.
• Buster Radish could also be a perfect non-machinery deep ripping tool with its great root system.

2018 Demonstration Key Messages

• The summer cropping demonstration sites were sown at two different timings. The Ryansbrook trial, 35km south west of Kojonup, was sown 4th October 2018 into moisture and the Woodgenellup trial was dry sown on the 30th January 2019 prior to a predicted rainfall event.
• According to our producer rainfall records, since 2003, every 4 out of 5 years they have had summer rainfall events in January and February. Unfortunately, in the 2018/19 summer there was minimal summer rainfall and the summer crops at the Ryansbrook site failed. The C4 grasses (millet and sorghum) persisted better with little to no moisture in the soil profile compared to the broadleaf crop types (canola and cowpea).
• At the Woodgenellup site germination was patchy however, plants have developed reasonable biomass.
• Winter season in-crop measurements will be taken at the Woogenellup site to determine the effect of the summer crop on water logging. Due to the failure of the summer crop at the Ryansbrook site, no further measurements will be taken at this

• After stem elongation, mature prickly lettuce plants are difficult to control.
• Controlling mature prickly lettuce plants early achieves better results.
• No single treatments, except paraquat, achieved 100% control of mature prickly lettuce plants that emerged after a wheat crop was harvested. The paraquat, either used alone or as a follow-up application, was the only outstanding treatment, achieving 100% control.
   

• Wheat yield increased from 2.6 t/ha in controls to 3.2 t/ha in plots receiving the equivalent of summer rainfall decile 5 (50mm) or decile 9 (100mm) in a single event in February.
• Stubble treatments (bare ground control, standing 2 t stubble/ha, flat 2 t stubble/ha, flat 5 t stubble/ha) did not affect the dynamics of soil water nor grain yield.

• Traditionally, forage legumes are sown after the main cropping program is completed and require the application of a pre-sowing knockdown herbicide to control established weeds.  This treatment seriously reduces early winter pasture production which is then compounded by the slow growth rate of legumes under the cold winter conditions. 
• Summer sowing offers early winter grazing in a mixed enterprise farm. The technique has the ability to lift the legume component in a pasture which has degraded through a range of factors such as drought and/or intensive cropping. On a farm without grazing animals, summer sowing can be used to produce a green fallow with a high legume content that can be brown manured to provide  high nitrogen residues  and maximise the organic matter for the benefit of subsequent crops.
• Summer sowing reduces establishment cost by firstly, minimising seed processing particularly in the case of serradella where seed extraction is difficult and expensive and secondly, sowing does not require a pre-sowing application of herbicide.
• The requirement to sow hard-seeded cultivars in summer or early autumn does lose some of the flexibility to tactically respond to seasonal conditions and this needs to be balanced against the clear productivity advantages demonstrated.

• Traditionally, forage legumes are sown after the main cropping program is completed and require the application of a pre-sowing knockdown herbicide to control established weeds.  This treatment seriously reduces early winter pasture production which is then compounded by the slow growth rate of legumes under the cold winter conditions. 
• Summer sowing offers early winter grazing in a mixed enterprise farm. The technique has the ability to lift the legume component in a pasture which has degraded through a range of factors such as drought and/or intensive cropping. On a farm without grazing animals, summer sowing can be used to produce a green fallow with a high legume content that can be brown manured to provide  high nitrogen residues  and maximise the organic matter for the benefit of subsequent crops.
• Summer sowing reduces establishment cost by firstly, minimising seed processing particularly in the case of serradella where seed extraction is difficult and expensive and secondly, sowing does not require a pre-sowing application of herbicide.
• The requirement to sow hard-seeded cultivars in summer or early autumn does lose some of the flexibility to tactically respond to seasonal conditions and this needs to be balanced against the clear productivity advantages demonstrated.

• Summer sowing into perennial grasses is showing some promise, but the results are inconsistent.  We need to develop guidelines for the required soil conditions (including soil fertility) and there is a need to reduce weed competition by controlling the seed-set of annual pasture weeds in the preceding year.
• Results from these trials plus a range of other summer sowing sites demonstrate that serradella pods need to be drilled for successful establishment. Broadcasting pod is not a reliable alternative.
• The experimental line of yellow serradella (72.1A) was slow to establish in the first year at Badgingarra but has has really gone ahead in the second year.  This yellow serradella is unique in having a very different hard seed breakdown pattern compared with the commercial yellow serradella varieties (i.e. Yelbini, Charano, Santorini) and is suitable for ‘summer sowing’.  It is earlier flowering (80 to 90 days compared to 105 to 115 for Margurita) and yellow serradella is hardier than French serradella.
• Summer sowing using pod avoids the need for de-hulling, so seed is cheaper, but higher sowing rates are required.  Consequently the concept relies to a large extent on farmers being able to source or to produce their own hard-seeded serradella pod at low cost

• The results for summer sowing into an established perennial grass pasture were encouraging in a season with minimal spring rainfall. The results were negatively impacted by the low rainfall in spring. Drilling pod was more successful than broadcasting pod and then using animals to trample it into the soil.
• This was the first summer sowing trial into perennial grasses in WA so it is too early to develop recommendations, but it appears that you need to use 20 to 40 kg pod/ha to achieve a good seedbank. The mid-March sowing time is at the end of the ‘sowing window’ for summer sowing. Sowing in early February is desirable to maximize the time for hardseed breakdown.
• With summer sowing using pod rather than seed there is no need for de-hulling, so there is a cost saving per kilogram, but higher sowing rates are required as the seedlings need to compete with annual grasses, broadleaf weeds as well as the perennial grasses. The summer sowing method requires relatively high sowing rates and the concept relies to a large extent on farmers producing hard-seeded serradella pod on-farm at a low cost.After these promising results in 2010, similar trials will be undertaken in 2011 with local producers.

• The results for summer sowing into an established perennial grass pasture were encouraging in a season with minimal spring rainfall.  The results were negatively impacted by the low rainfall in spring.
• Drilling pod was more successful than broadcasting pod and then using animals to trample it into the soil.  This was the first summer sowing trial into perennial grasses in WA so it is too early to develop recommendations, but it appears that you need to use 20 to 40 kg pod/ha to achieve a good seedbank.  The mid-March sowing time is at the end of the ‘sowing window’ for summer sowing.  Sowing in early February is desirable to maximize the time for hardseed breakdown.
• With summer sowing using pod rather than seed there is no need for de-hulling, so there is a cost saving per kilogram, but higher sowing rates are required as the seedlings need to compete with annual grasses, broadleaf weeds as well as the perennial grasses.  The summer sowing method requires relatively high sowing rates and the concept relies to a large extent on farmers producing hard-seeded serradella pod on-farm at a low cost.
• After these promising results in 2010, similar trials will be undertaken in 2011 with local producers.

Traditionally, forage legumes are sown after the main cropping program is completed and require
the application of a pre-sowing knockdown herbicide to control established weeds. This treatment
seriously reduces early winter pasture production which is then compounded by the slow growth
rate of legumes under the cold winter conditions.

For further comments please see the attached trial report.

• Based on current prices, adjuvants can account for 5-50% of the total cost of application.
• Vegetable oils in general performed better than BS1000, Hot-up and Companion.
• Based on cost, Infiltrator was the best adjuvant to accompany Roundup CT.

For most effective weed control of heliotrope an early applied residual herbicide such as Glean, Ally or Atrazine (be careful with plant backs for different crops!) is most effective. For grass and heliotrope control later in the season, weeds have to be sprayed before they are fully grown and flowering.

• The benefit of summer weed control can vary across soil types and conditions.
• Conserving summer soil moisture is generally money in the bank and can prove invaluable when there is a dry finish, although the benefits seem to differ according to soil type.
• Higher glyphosate prices meansthat growers need to become more efficient when controlling weeds. Targeting weeds while they are young and fresh will help with reducing glyphosate rates. The addition of residual herbicides, such as Ally, will reduce the need for follow-up spraying.

Results from a demonstration in December of 2012 suggest weed control had an impact on stored soil moisture and consequent yield in 2013 across a range of soil types at seven locations across the Eastern Wheatbelt. Another factor that could have been quantified in this work, was the effect of weed control on nitrogen status (and consequent effect of N on yield). Opening values were collected at the beginning of the trial but no closing N values were measured. Removing summer weeds has an impact on the nitrogen levels in the soil, and this will be further quantified with more field work in 2014.

• Weed counts were taken before and after treatments were applied and no significant difference in weed numbers was recorded.
• This was only a demonstration, further studies are needed.

• Controlling summer weeds improves crop yield.
• Summer weeds like Heliotrope use large amounts of stored soil water and nitrogen, which is then not available to the following crop.

• Time of weed removal at the high rainfall site did not affect canola yield but the canola had a higher biomass when weeds were removed earlier.
• The medium rainfall site had consecutively higher wheat yields with earlier times of weed removal; however these were not significantly different.
• At the low rainfall site plots sprayed for summer weeds had significantly higher oat yields than unsprayed plots. Timely control of summer weeds increased soil moisture and nitrate conservation.

• In dry regions, summer fallowing is not just about controlling weeds but mainly about conserving moisture!
• Cultivation conserved the most amount of soil moisture over the summer period. ƒ
• The three treatments which controlled summer weeds: (i) cultivation every three weeks; (ii) cultivation when required; and (iii) knockdown when required, had a significantly higher yield (0.4 to 0.7 t/ha) compared to the treatments where there was no or poor summer weed control. ƒ
• Greater than 80mm of available moisture was lost under heavy heliotrope and melon populations

• All fertiliser treatments significantly lifted grain yield from the untreated control with 15cm working depth.
• There was no significant response to applied potassium.

Liquid fertiliser significantly increased grain yield above the control at equivilant P rates.

• The more area of leaf removed, the greater the yield loss in sunflowers.
• The greatest effect on yield was from total leaf defoliation at the start of flowering or the end of flowering, which reduced yield by 1.16 t/ha (78%) and 1.02 t/ha (66%) compared to the control.
• Removing the top 10 leaves at the end of flowering had no effect on grain yield or any of the quality parameters measured.

During 2006 and 2007, a field trial designed to quantify the effect of two different surface drainage strategies of pasture (hump & hollow and raised beds) on farm productivity, profitability and sustainability was conducted on a commercial farm near Derrinallum. Under the rainfall conditions experienced for the two years of the trial, it is concluded that the use of raised beds for the growing of pastures for grazing has little to offer the sheep industry. On the basis of the data obtained in this trial, it is recommended that the hump & hollow system is the preferred method of surface drainage for sheep grazing systems in this environment and should be promoted in the region. Major findings included:

• In both years, total annual pasture dry matter (DM) yields from the raised bed treatment were substantially less than for the undrained and the hump & hollow treatments.
• In the drought year of 2006 the raised bed treatment grew 37% (2.8 t DM/ha) less while the hump & hollow treatment grew only 7% (0.6 t DM/ha) less than the undrained (total of 7.6 t DM/ha).
• In the higher rainfall 2007 year the raised bed treatment produced 15% (1.6 t DM/ha) less pasture than the undrained. In contrast, the hump & hollow grew 10% (1.1 t DM/ha) more than the undrained (total of 10.7 t DM/ha) in 2007.
• The reasons for the lower than expected pasture yields on the raised beds are speculated to be a combination of low yields in the furrows, poorer plant establishment and density on the beds, and a reduction in the water holding capacity of the soil relative to the other treatments.
• Soil physical health was however considerably better on the raised beds than the other treatments. Aeration porosities at field capacity in November 2007 were a very healthy 16.3% in the raised beds, a moderate 11.8% for the hump & hollow and a poor 7.0% for the undrained.
• No significant differences in ewe or lamb weights at weaning were found between treatments in either year. This was most likely due to the set stocked sheep having pasture on offer in excess of requirements for most of the spring. In 2006 however, the raised beds were stocked at around 1 ewe/ha less due to the lower pasture growth rates.
• From a catchment and general environmental health perspective, the water run‐off results raise some concerns about the environmental impact of growing and grazing pastures on raised beds.
• The raised beds proved to be very effective in removing excess water from the pasture. Over 2007, the raised bed treatment (47.1 mm) had 170% more runoff water than the undrained (17.4 mm) while the hump & hollow (26.7 mm) had 53% more runoff.
• Both drainage treatments had considerably higher concentrations of, and total loads of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) in runoff water. Of particular concern were the losses of 0.5 and 0.4 kg P/ha for the raised bed and hump & hollow treatments respectively compared to 0.1 kg P/ha for the undrained in 2007. For N, corresponding losses were 6.3, 2.1 and 0.9 kg N/ha for the raised beds, hump & hollow and undrained respectively.
• It is recommended that if raised beds are to be used for grazed pastures, then the best practice recommendations developed for raised bed cropping also be applied to pasture.

• The survey received 224 responses from growers aligned with the different farming systems groups participating in this project.
• 39% of the grower respondents identified barley grass as having a medium to high impact on their cropping systems.
• 40% of the grower respondents feel that barley grass emergence patterns have changed over the last 10 years and that it now emerges later in the season.

51% of growers thought barley grass had become more common in their cropping paddocks. Some of the factors responsible for the increase in barley grass include delayed emergence and early seed-set, low efficacy of pre-emergence herbicides, particularly during dry starts to seasons, resistance to group A herbicides, continuous cereals in the system and wide crop row spacing

Both invertebrate pests and beneficials are found in association with chaff in paddocks. However, the species composition depends on the location of the paddock. Paddocks located in the Albany port zone are more likely to have higher densities of pests associated with chaff, whereas paddocks located in the Kwinana East port zone had the least pest densities and highest numbers of seed-harvesting ants associated with chaff.

The most abundant beneficials were weed seed harvesting ants which were found in close association with chaff. As these ants predate on weed seeds and live in holes in the ground, it is unlikely they are using chaff as a refuge, it is more probable that they are foraging in the chaff. This trend presents an opportunity to investigate in greater detail whether seed-harvesting ants provide an economic benefit to growers by consuming weed seeds from HWSC systems left to rot-in-situ.

Pitfall trapping was able to capture a higher diversity of invertebrate species than direct sampling of chaff. As pitfall trapping did not rely on samplers locating an invertebrate, it is more likely to be a more accurate representation of species presence and diversity in a paddock. However, this technique does rely on invertebrates moving and falling into a pitfall trap.

Leaving chaff to rot-in-situ does not affect abundances of pests such as desiantha weevil. However, other pests do use chaff as refuges. For instance, pest beetles, Rutherglen bugs, European earwigs were found in association with chaff. It is unlikely these species are feeding on chaff, but rather are using chaff as a refuge. This survey was not able to determine if long term retention of chaff will increase abundances of these pests.

• Inoculum are living bacteria.
• Survial of rhizobia is vital for inoculation and effective nodulation of crop and pasture legumes.
• Chemicals and fertilisers can affect survival and persistence of rhizobia in the soil.
• Therefore, ensure high numbers of rhizobia are sown, especially where chemicals are used.

• Chickpea pods can split open when harvest is delayed (harvest date (HD)3 and HD4), allowing easy access for water and an easier exit for seeds that can drop to the ground before or during the harvest process.
• HD3 averaged 28.6% split pods per plant (varietal range of 2.8–51.9%) while HD4 averaged 46.0% split pods per plant (varietal range of 30.0–64.9%).
• Averaging across HD3 and HD4 for the desi chickpeas, Howzat had the least split pods (10.5%) and PBA SeamerA had the most (55.6%). For the kabuli chickpeas, Genesis™ 090 had the least split pods (22.5%) and Genesis™ KalkeeA was the worst affected (55.6%).
• Loss of seed from split pods and pod abscission, seed shattering and reductions in grain weight caused from delaying harvest were shown to reduce grain yields by up to 44%.
• A delay of six days with one rain event (44.2 mm) was enough to reduce the grain yield in chickpeas (averaged across varieties) by 2%, due to lower seed density.
• Growers should aim to harvest chickpeas on time to avoid yield losses and grain quality penalties at receival.
   

• The 2013 Tamworth and 2014 Trangie environments were not conducive to high levels of seed markings, with all varieties having <5% tiger stripe/blotches.
• The later sown chickpeas had a lower incidence of seed markings in two of the three environments.
• The 2015 Tamworth experiment was conducive to seed markings for the first sowing date (SD1). In this case, the most susceptible commercial varieties were PBA PistolA and PBA BoundaryA, with 9.7% and 6.7% of individual seeds having tiger stripe/blotches respectively.
• All five kabuli varieties did not display any seed markings in any of the three environments.
• All desi varieties showed at least low levels of tiger stripe/blotch type markings in one or more of the three environments and two sowing dates

Conclusions

Time of sowing and variety influence the amount of seeds showing the tiger stripe/blotching type markings in chickpea. Kabuli chickpeas do not suffer from this defect. Desi chickpeas sown in mid-June at Tamworth and Trangie had a lower incidence of this type of seed marking. Research is ongoing to identify both the genetic basis and the environmental triggers of tiger stripe/blotch type markings in desi chickpeas to minimise any potential risk to the Australian chickpea industry.

The Sustainable Land Management Demonstration Sites in the Mallee have been established to demonstrate improved farming practices through a better understanding of crop management and water use to reduce groundwater recharge and soil erosion.

• In 2016 only 40% of the barley grass was greater than 17 cm tall and had the potential to be collected by early swathing, or 60% of the barley grass seed had already shed or was below harvest weed seed collection height.
• Sampling of the swathed paddock area showed slightly better barley grass weed seed collection using swathing than from the rest of the paddock which was harvested normally.
• Seed capture at both swathing and harvest is higher with annual ryegrass than with barley grass.