• The waterlogging event affected all treatments, such that both the chlorophyll content index (CCCI) and normalised difference red edge (NDRE) were similar for all treatments immediately after the water-logging event.
• The topdressed treatments recovered better after the waterlogging event than the mid-row banding (MRB) treatments.
• MRB showed an acceptable yield and apparent nitrogen recovery efficiency (ANRE) in both waterlogged and non-waterlogged conditions, but similar or less than N topdressing treatments. The topdressing treatments had surprisingly high ANRE.
• The mid-row banded nitrogen declined during the season, presumably with nitrification and uptake. Some mid-row banded nitrogen was still evident 131 days after sowing.
• The majority of the mid-row banded nitrogen was present as ammonium during the season, which allowed it survive the waterlogging event

• Growers need to be aware that glyphosate, trifluralin and diflufenican residues, plus the glyphosate metabolite AMPA, can accumulate to agronomically significant levels in certain soils.
• These findings suggest that the current risk of damage to crops in NSW is minor compared with some sites in WA that have lower rainfall and sandy soils with low organic matter.
• The risk to soil biological processes is generally minor when herbicides are used at label rates and given sufficient time to dissipate before re-application.
• However, given the frequency of glyphosate application and the persistence of trifluralin and diflufenican, further research is needed to define site-specific critical thresholds for these chemicals to avoid potential negative effects on soil function and crop production.

Growing season lengths did not necessarily influence variety feed value; both early and late maturing varieties performed equally well in the 2012 dry season. Hindmarsh barley was one of the best varieties: it consistently produced valuable feed at both sites and had highest grain yield at Birchip (ungrazed 3.1t/ha). Keeping plants fresh through rotational grazing will ensure stock nutrition requirements are being met.

Growing season lengths did not necessarily influence variety feed value; both early and late maturing varieties performed equally well in the 2012 dry season. Hindmarsh barley was one of the best varieties: it consistently produced valuable feed at both sites and had highest grain yield at Birchip (ungrazed 3.1t/ha). Keeping plants fresh through rotational grazing will ensure stock nutrition requirements are being met.

• Richmond produced an average yield 7% higher than Soya 791 in advanced variety evaluations at early sowing dates (first week in December) over six seasons.
• Richmond produced an average yield 7.7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in advanced variety evaluations at late sowing dates (mid January) over eight seasons.
• In on-farm experiments, Richmond yielded 16% higher than Soya 791 in a wide-row system on the northern slopes, and 7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in a narrow-row coastal system.
• In addition to higher yield potential, Richmond is tolerant to lodging and pre-harvest weather damage, has clean leaf drop, large seed size and high protein, and is resistant to powdery mildew. This combination of traits provides greater crop security and a full range of market options for growers, and high quality grain for buyers and processors.

Conclusions:

The Australian soybean variety RichmondA produces large grain (22 g/100 seed) with a clear hilum and high levels of protein (42% dry matter), which is suitable for all markets including human consumption and export. The traditional variety, Asgrow A6785, has small grain (<16 g/100 seed) with a brown hilum and protein levels less than 40%, which limits the range of markets to which it is suited. The traditional variety, Soya 791, has average sized grain Agronomy(19 g/100 seed) with a light brown hilum and high levels of protein (42%). Both A6785 and Soya 791 are prone to excessive vegetative growth, especially at an early sowing date. However, this is not necessarily converted into grain yield as demonstrated in the on-farm experiment at Harwood.

RichmondA is superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in terms of grain yield, tolerance to lodging, tolerance to pre-harvest weathering and clean leaf drop. RichmondA offers a summer legume option with high yield and high grain quality for early, mid or late sowing windows in northern New South Wales. The variety’s performance was not adversely affected by the range of soil types and farming systems reported in this paper; it was superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in all situations. RichmondA is resistant to powdery mildew. This package of traits represents a significant advance in soybean varieties for the North Coast, Tablelands, Northern Slopes and Liverpool Plains production regions of northern New South Wales.

The results of the on-farm experiment of RichmondA versus Soya 791 in a wide spacing, single row system at Oakwood demonstrates the variety’s ability to compensate for wide rows and the associated lower plant populations in dryland systems. Row spacing and plant population interactions of new soybean and mungbean varieties are being investigated in the current NSW DPI–GRDC project DAN00171

Key messages: 

• Richmond produced an average yield 7% higher than Soya 791 in advanced variety evaluations at early sowing dates (first week in December) over six seasons.
• Richmond produced an average yield 7.7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in advanced variety evaluations at late sowing dates (mid January) over eight seasons.
• In on-farm experiments, Richmond yielded 16% higher than Soya 791 in a wide-row system on the northern slopes, and 7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in a narrow-row coastal system.
• In addition to higher yield potential, Richmond is tolerant to lodging and pre-harvest weather damage, has clean leaf drop, large seed size and high protein, and is resistant to powdery mildew. This combination of traits provides greater crop security and a full range of market options for growers, and high quality grain for buyers and processors.

Conclusions:

The Australian soybean variety RichmondA produces large grain (22 g/100 seed) with a clear hilum and high levels of protein (42% dry matter), which is suitable for all markets including human consumption and export. The traditional variety, Asgrow A6785, has small grain (<16 g/100 seed) with a brown hilum and protein levels less than 40%, which limits the range of markets to which it is suited. The traditional variety, Soya 791, has average sized grain Agronomy (19 g/100 seed) with a light brown hilum and high levels of protein (42%). Both A6785 and Soya 791 are prone to excessive vegetative growth, especially at an early sowing date. However, this is not necessarily converted into grain yield as demonstrated in the on-farm experiment at Harwood.

RichmondA is superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in terms of grain yield, tolerance to lodging, tolerance to pre-harvest weathering and clean leaf drop. RichmondA offers a summer legume option with high yield and high grain quality for early, mid or late sowing windows in northern New South Wales. The variety’s performance was not adversely affected by the range of soil types and farming systems reported in this paper; it was superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in all situations. RichmondA is resistant to powdery mildew. This package of traits represents a significant advance in soybean varieties for the North Coast, Tablelands, Northern Slopes and Liverpool Plains production regions of northern New South Wales.

The results of the on-farm experiment of RichmondA versus Soya 791 in a wide spacing, single row system at Oakwood demonstrates the variety’s ability to compensate for wide rows and the associated lower plant populations in dryland systems. Row spacing and plant population interactions of new soybean and mungbean varieties are being investigated in the current NSW DPI–GRDC project DAN00171

 

KEY MESSAGES:

• Richmond produced an average yield 7% higher than Soya 791 in advanced variety evaluations at early sowing dates (first week in December) over six seasons.
• Richmond produced an average yield 7.7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in advanced variety evaluations at late sowing dates (mid January) over eight seasons.
• In on-farm experiments, Richmond yielded 16% higher than Soya 791 in a wide-row system on the northern slopes, and 7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in a narrow-row coastal system.
• In addition to higher yield potential, Richmond is tolerant to lodging and pre-harvest weather damage, has clean leaf drop, large seed size and high protein, and is resistant to powdery mildew. This combination of traits provides greater crop security and a full range of market options for growers, and high quality grain for buyers and processors.

CONCLUSIONS; 

The Australian soybean variety RichmondA produces large grain (22 g/100 seed) with a clear hilum and high levels of protein (42% dry matter), which is suitable for all markets including human consumption and export. The traditional variety, Asgrow A6785, has small grain (<16 g/100 seed) with a brown hilum and protein levels less than 40%, which limits the range of markets to which it is suited. The traditional variety, Soya 791, has average sized grain Agronomy NORTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2017 | 53 (19 g/100 seed) with a light brown hilum and high levels of protein (42%). Both A6785 and Soya 791 are prone to excessive vegetative growth, especially at an early sowing date. However, this is not necessarily converted into grain yield as demonstrated in the on-farm experiment at Harwood. RichmondA is superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in terms of grain yield, tolerance to lodging, tolerance to pre-harvest weathering and clean leaf drop. RichmondA offers a summer legume option with high yield and high grain quality for early, mid or late sowing windows in northern New South Wales. The variety’s performance was not adversely affected by the range of soil types and farming systems reported in this paper; it was superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in all situations. RichmondA is resistant to powdery mildew. This package of traits represents a significant advance in soybean varieties for the North Coast, Tablelands, Northern Slopes and Liverpool Plains production regions of northern New South Wales. The results of the on-farm experiment of RichmondA versus Soya 791 in a wide spacing, single row system at Oakwood demonstrates the variety’s ability to compensate for wide rows and the associated lower plant populations in dryland systems. Row spacing and plant population interactions of new soybean and mungbean varieties are being investigated in the current NSW DPI–GRDC project DAN00171

• Schooner and Gairdner have been the preferred malting barley varieties in southern NSW. Schooner generally achieves better quality in the lower rainfall parts of the cropping belt.
• Gairdner has proved to be the highest yielding malting variety, but is prone to high screenings under dry conditions, late sowing and excessive nitrogen or seeding rates.

• Barley is a valuable rotation crop as it is not susceptible to many wheat foliar diseases (yellow spot, stripe rust, septoria), suffers less yield loss from root diseases, and competes well with weeds.
• Schooner and Gairdner have been the preferred malting varieties in central NSW. Gatrdner has proved to be the highest yielding malting variety, but is prone to high screenings under dry conditions, late sowing and excessive nitrogen or seeding rates.
• Buloke, a new potential malting variety for the mid-lower rainfall parts of the region performed well in 2005.
• Fitzroy, Baudin and Cowabbie yielded well in the mid-higher rainfall areas.
• Tilga and Tantangara are high yielding feed varieties with Tilga better suited to drier areas. Binalong, Mackay and Grout are new feed grain lines particularly suited to the northern half of the State.
• Seeding rates of 70-120 seeds/m2 are likely to be a good compromise for yield and grain quality for barley; the higher rate should be used with late sowing and in wetter areas, but care is needed with Gairdner which is prone to high screenings.

• Early disease control is important for reducing initial AB infection levels in field pea crops with a yield potential above 1.5 t/ha.
• A late fungicide spray is important to control AB in spring when rainfall is conducive to disease spread and pod and seed infection.
• Early sowing into a high disease risk window with new fungicide actives evaluated in this project, were demonstrated to have improved yield benefits over later sowing in the 2017 season.

• Early disease control is important for reducing initial AB infection levels in field pea crops with a yield potential above 1.5 t/ha.
• A late fungicide spray is important to control AB in spring when rainfall is conducive to disease spread and pod and seed infection.
• Early sowing into a high disease risk window with new fungicide actives evaluated in this project, were demonstrated to have improved yield benefits over later sowing in the 2017 season.

• In 2013, all barley varieties had a similar yield response to nitrogen (N). Commander, La Trobe and Hindmarsh were the highest yielding and subsequently the most profitable varieties.
• 120kg N/ha (260kg/ha urea) was the best rate to achieve the greatest profitability at a very N responsive site at Nhill.

• At Cummins, an increase of up to 100% grain yield in wheat to 5 t/ha over the control was reached by applying 120 kg N/ha (two split applications of 60 kg/ha each at emergence and before GS31) and extra irrigation (50 mm) at GS31.
• At Lock, up to a 19% higher grain yield to 5 t/ha was achieved compared to control by adding extra irrigation (50 mm) at GS31.
• At Minnipa, an increase of up to 31% grain yield to 3 t/ha over the control was achieved by adding extra irrigation (50 mm) at GS31 and applying 120 kg N/ha in two split applications of 60 kg/ha at emergence and by GS31.
• Water use efficiency (WUE) improved with N fertilisation by GS31 at Minnipa and Cummins.
• The split application of 120 kg N by GS31 may only be a good investment in paddocks where crops with N requirements (e.g. canola) were grown in the previous season or soil N at sowing was low (less than 44 kg/ha) and with average or above average seasonal soil moisture at GS31.

The faba crop contributed a significant amount of N, resulting in less symptoms of waterlogging during winter, reduced N applied through the season but insignificant yield effects and changes to barley grain quality.

• The 2014 wheat crop at Karoonda had a harvest index of 0.4 and fertilizer N recovery was 35%.
• Wheat stubble from the 2014 crop contained 16 kg N/ha and had a C:N ratio of 95 which is common for cereal crop residues in these environments .
• Mineralization during summer resulted in the accumulation of 18-33 kg/ha of mineral N to 50cm depth across all the treatments at sowing in 2015.
• Incorporation of 2014 cereal stubble increased microbial biomass and N supply potential at sowing in the surface soil when compared with standing stubble.
• The management of cereal stubble affects the microbial activity that influences the cycling and supply of nutrients (nitrogen (N) and phosphorus) to growing crops.
• There was no significant effect of management of 2014 stubble on subsequent wheat grain yield in 2015.

• Legume pasture species and management practices have been investigated to determine the most important factors for improving nitrogen inputs to the soil.
• Results have shown significant improvements in the soil available nitrogen after growing pastures with a high proportion (>75%) of legumes.
• The increased soil nitrogen from good stands of pasture legumes is also reflected in the yield and quality of wheat grown the following year.
• A short pasture (2-3 seasons) will provide a significant increase in soil nitrogen and a yield and/or protein response. A long pasture (5 seasons) may not provide more nitrogen than one of 4 seasons.
• No legume species has performed consistently better than any other species.
• Sowing a mixture of inoculated pasture legume species that are suited to the region is important to spread the risk and ensure a good stand of legumes is achieved.
• Weed control using grazing management and/or chemical control is seen as the best way to maintain a high level of legumes in the paddock and therefore increase soil nitrogen

• All varieties responded similarly to applied nitrogen.
• Hindmash and Commander yielded well; all varieties achieved malt.

• With a soil nitrogen (N) content of 103 kg N/ha at sowing, Mace wheat yielded 3.1 t/ha with no N fertiliser applied and contained 6.6% protein.
• Optimum gross margins were recorded with 75 kg N/ha, though none of the N levels up to 100 kg N/ha reached 9% protein.
• Yield response was greatest for N application timings at sowing, GS31, or a split application between GS31 and GS39.
• A crop sensor was used to measure in season nitrogen responsiveness and was able to predict the optimal N rate.

Four nitrogen fertiliser products were compared for efficacy in relation to providing the crop with sufficient N to optimize production at two sites, Birchip and Marnoo. The products compared were: granular Urea, granular Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN), liquid Urea Ammonium Nitrate (UAN) and liquid Urea. The products were applied three times (pre-sowing; at the five leaf stage and at the end of tillering).

• Grain yields of wheat were higher when additional nitrogen was applied at sowing compared to when applied at GS31.
• Timing of nitrogen application is essential to maximise plant growth and achieve yield potential.
• Grain protein was only higher when delayed nitrogen application was applied, which resulted in reduced wheat yield.
• Starting soil moisture, paddock rotation history and potential yield of crop are important factors to consider when deciding amount of nitrogen to apply and timing.
   

• Grain yields of wheat were higher when additional nitrogen was applied at sowing compared to when applied at GS31
• Timing of nitrogen application is essential to maximise plant growth and achieve yield potential
• Grain protein was only higher when delayed nitrogen application was applied, which resulted in reduced wheat yield
• Starting soil moisture, paddock rotation history and potential yield of crop are important factors to consider when deciding amount of nitrogen to apply and timing

For further information see Payne, RA and Ladd, JN (1993) Soil organic matter and nitrogen management in dryland cropping systems, Part II: Nitrogen requirements for dryland cereal crops. Dept Primary Industries of SA. Technical Report No. 212 (Agdex 536).

• Paddock variance was measured across two paddocks through EM (electromagnetic) surveys. Based on this variance, high and low EM zones were identified.
• Two small plot trials compared nitrogen (N) response in a high and low EM zone of two paddocks sown to Trojan wheat, one in Yarrawonga (sown 22 April) and the other in Dookie (sown 12 May).
• • Both paddocks had high levels of nitrogen available in the soil (120–200kg N/ha 0–60cm) irrespective of zone.
• The largest response to nitrogen (1t/ha) was observed in the high EM zone at Dookie, where the highest levels of available soil nitrogen were recorded (200kg N/ha).
• Dry matter (DM) differences and normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) readings at the Dookie site suggested the crop canopy was responding to applied nitrogen; this indicates the crop did not benefit from the high levels of soil nitrogen present (possibly as a result of later sowing or subsoil constraints).
• At the Yarrawonga site there were no significant indications from NDVI readings that a response to nitrogen fertiliser was likely; this was supported by high grain yields in the nil nitrogen plots (5.8t/ha and 6.4t/ha in the high and low EM zone respectively).
• At the Dookie low EM site, grain protein of 11.9% in the lowest-yielding treatment suggested there was sufficient soil nitrogen available to meet crop yield and protein requirements; this contrasts with in-crop NDVI measurements, which suggested the crop would respond to applied nitrogen.
• At Yarrawonga nitrogen application strategies based on NDVI readings meant nitrogen application was
• delayed until third node (GS33) in the high EM zone, which resulted in only limited uptake. A slightly earlier second node (GS32) application in the low EM zone resulted in an excellent response (0.39t/ha)to the NDVI-based approach.

Key findings:

• This site was fairly unresponsive to nitrogen (N) application. Yield and screenings did not significantly change with increasing rates of N, but there were moderate responses in grain protein to all rates of applied N in all varieties.
• The 40 kg N/ha at sowing + 40 kg N/ha in crop treatment had a significant increase in grain protein above the 40 kg N/ha at sowing only treatment in all varieties, but was not significantly different from the 80 kg N/ha at sowing treatment

Results:

There were moderate responses in grain protein to all rates of applied N in all varieties. The 40 kg N/ha at sowing + 40 kg N/ha in-crop treatment showed a significant increase in grain protein above the 40 kg N/ha at sowing only treatment in all varieties, but was not significantly different from the 80 kg N/ha at sowing treatment. Screening levels were low, with only Dart above 5% in some treatments. Dart, being the quickest variety in this trial, flowered and reached grain filling ahead of the other varieties, most likely causing it to be filling grain and losing green leaf during the hotter and drier part of September. The slower varieties probably benefited more from the late spring rains in this season

Key findings:

• This site was only moderately responsive to nitrogen (N) application. Yield and protein generally increased in all varieties with the 20 kg N/ha and 40 kg N/ha rates. However, yield decreased with higher application rates.
• Protein and screening levels increased with N rates above 40 kg N/ha.
• KioraA produced the highest screening levels. The sowing date of 5 May at Nyngan is probably a bit late for KioraA, which would have exacerbated screenings.
• Varieties with comparatively lower biomass such as DartA, LancerA, SpitfireA and SunmateA maintained higher yield and lower screening levels even with the higher N application rates with a corresponding lower impact on harvest index also observed in these varieties.

Conclusions:

Conditions at sowing were very wet. There was no effective in-crop rainfall after August and combined with temperatures above 35⁰C in September resulted in a hard finish to the season.

This site had a high background starting N level (233 kg N/ha) which was surprising given the history of continuous cropping – 17 years of crop (Wheat 40%, canola 20%, barley 20%, pulse 20%) with additional N (above starter fertiliser application) only applied once in 1999. The lower rates of 20 and 40 kg N/ha gave modest yield increases in most varieties however rates higher than this tended to reduce yield and also caused screenings levels to increase in this trial. Protein levels increased with N application rates of 40 kgN/ha and above as seed size decreased.

Biomass and harvest index data (data not shown) showed that increasing N rate in heavier strawed varieties such as EGA_Gregory, Viking, Kiora produced more dry matter with comparatively less grain yield i.e. lower harvest index.

Key mesages:

• There was a decline in yield with all rates of applied nitrogen (N), which was likely to be associated with high levels of residual soil N at the site.
• Grain protein increased with all rates of applied N in all varieties, most likely due to decreased grain size.
• Sowing time had the greatest influence on yield, with the earlier sowing time yielding close to 1 t/ha better than the later sowing time for each variety.

Conclusions:

This trial site had a high starting soil N level of 233 kg N/ha (0–120 cm) which probably contributed to declining yield with increasing rates of N application. However, protein levels still increased with increasing rates of N application, but this was most likely due to decreased grain size. Most varieties yielded almost 1 t/ha higher with TOS 1 compared with TOS 2. Sunmate and Suntop generally performed similarly at both sowing times. They were the highest yielding varieties at each sowing date, but also had lower protein achievement. Lancer and Spitfire also performed similarly at the two sowing dates and were generally lower yielding than Sunmate or Suntop at each sowing time, but obtained higher grain protein levels.

• The experiment was highly responsive to nitrogen application (N).
• Averaged across the two sowing dates, yield ranged from 0.89 t/ha in LRPB DartA without applied N to 4.95 t/ha in LRPB FlankerA with the highest application rate of 160 kg N/ha.
   

• Urea increased wheat grain yield significantly over the nil when banded at sowing.
• There was no significant difference between urea, UAN or MAXamFLO when applied at the same rate of nitrogen and incorporated by sowing, banded or applied at pre-sow, banded and post.

With extremely dry conditions following both sowing on 6 June and nitrogen application, there was no response to nitrogen application in this trial, despite the low level of available soil nitrogen (52kg/ha N, 0-130cm) recorded at the start of the season. • With yields in the range of 1.3-1.6t/ha, there was no response to applied nitrogen regardless of the timing or product used. • There was no evidence to indicate that, under these conditions, liquid fertiliser (Easy N - 32% w/w (16% urea, 8% nitrate and 8% ammonium) or Green Urea 14 (an agrotain urease inhibitor coated urea) were superior to straight urea (46%N).

• Later applications of nitrogen (GS30 & GS37) were the most profitable with the highest yield and quality, for malt barley in 2010.
• There was no significant differences in yield of varieties between early and later sowings.
• Crop sensors provide a good measure of nitrogen response and can improve nitrogen use efficiency.

• Although increasing the frequency of N applications appeared to slightly increase grain yield (machine harvested) compared to all “up front” in seedbed yield differences were not statistically significant.
• As a general comment, timing of N application did not affect the grain yield, whether it be all up front or split over 4 timings up to V6.
• The nil applied N treatment yielded 9.49t/ha.
• However N content of the grain at harvest was greater where split applications involving later timings were compared to all the nitrogen applied at sowing indicating greater N fertiliser efficiency
• However, unless there is a premium for the maize protein in the grain resulting from later N timings the difference may be of little value to the grower.
• Soil N prior to sowing and watering up was 25 kg N/ha (0-60cm). The nil treatment contained a total of 147 kg N/ha at harvest, suggesting in-crop mineralisation resulted in 122 kg N/ha released to the crop.

• The highest grain yield (machine harvested) achieved was 16.36 t/ha with the applied N rate of 240 kg N/ha in a crop producing 30.63 t/ha dry matter at 50.45% harvest index.
• N applications above 240kg N/ha were uneconomic in the trial.
• The nil control treatment yielded 10.89 t/ha in a crop producing 26t/ha dry matter at 51% harvest index.
• Available Soil N prior to sowing and watering up was 34 kg N/ha (0-60cm). The nil control N offtake at harvest was 241 kg N/ha, suggesting in-crop mineralisation resulted in 207 kg N/ha of the N taken up.
• At the highest level of N (560kg N/ha) there was no advantage to applying 80 Kg N/ha of the dose very late at tasselling.

• Header grain yields averaged 18.2t/ha with no yield benefit observed from applying pre-drill urea in the trial when N was applied post sowing as fertigation.
• In a trial with an overall dose of post sowing N of 207 kg N/ha applied via fertigation there was no significant yield increase from the earlier pre-drill N applications of between 0 – 315kg N/ha.
• The economic optimum level of nitrogen applied was 252kg N/ha (45N pre-drill + 207kg N as fertigation).
• No significant differences were recorded in total dry matter (DM) content at V6 or at harvest with an average DM content of 34.6t/ha.
• The N content at harvest revealed an average N content of 462kg N/ha with a range of approximately 415-530kg N/ha in the crop, but there were no statistical differences.
• The N offtake at harvest indicated soil mineralisation provided up to 165kg N/ha to grow the crop with lower N efficiency recorded from applied fertiliser at higher overall N rates.
• There were no significant differences in test weight (mean 81.1) or harvest index (mean 51.7%).

•  Delaying post sowing applications of nitrogen (92 kg/ha N) to the flag leaf stage for both Kellalac and MacKellar at the Gnarwarre site, resulted in the best grain yield and grain quality.
• Application of nitrogen (35 kg/ha N) to barley at the early jointing stage (GS32), gave the best grain yield and quality at Gnarwarre.
• Late nitrogen applications appeared to result in more flower sites (florets) filling with grain for both wheat and barley. 
• For further conclusions please see the attached trial report.

• Work conducted in low and medium rainfall environments indicate that N2O emissions are low from an overall national perspective. • Results showed that there was no clear response of N2O emissions to nitrogen applied at sowing and post sowing. • High pre-seeding soil mineral nitrogen raises the possibility of higher N2O losses over the fallow period following significant rainfall.

• Work conducted in low and medium rainfall environments indicate that N2O emissions are low from an overall national perspective. • Results showed that there was no clear response of N2O emissions to nitrogen applied at sowing and post sowing. • High pre-seeding soil mineral nitrogen raises the possibility of higher N2O losses over the fallow period following significant rainfall.

Preliminary results showed the level of nitrous oxide emissions did not increase over the 2013 winter as a result of near capacity soil water contents coupled with increased nitrate nitrogen levels resulting from seeding and in-crop nitrogen applications on the canola compared with a pulse crop and legume pasture.

Preliminary results showed the level of nitrous oxide emissions did not increase over the 2013 winter as a result of near capacity soil water contents coupled with increased nitrate nitrogen levels resulting from seeding and in-crop nitrogen applications on the canola compared with a pulse crop and legume pasture.

• Wheat established by no-till yielded at least as well as full cut sowing on stony soils in 2009.
• Seed scattered on soil surface germinated at Lock in 2009!
• Hydraulic tines, K-Hart discs and Canadian designed points are excellent options for no-till on stony soils.

• Noodle wheat production was not suited to this paddock due to the high soil nitrogen levels. Milling wheat production was a much better choice for this paddock as evidenced by the performance of Mitre. High soil nitrogen levels resulted in protein levels too high for the noodle varieties to achieve their ASWN potential for all plots at the site except Lorikeet with no urea at sowing.

• The variety Janz outyielded both other varieties at both times of sowing. 
• The earlier time of sowing outyielded the later time of sowing. 

1. The district practice Baseline system is the most profitable to date. However apart from the 2016 winter crop there is very little difference between the seven grain systems.
2. Water use efficiency is higher for cereals than pulses and is highest in high-yielding crops.
3. Subsoil constraints are limiting PAW extraction by pulse crops.

Key findings:

• Faba beans sown to target 20 plants/m2 appears to optimise yield in northern regions of NSW.
• Faba beans sown to target 30 plants/m2 appears to optimise yield in central regions of NSW.
• Faba beans sown to Doza appears more prone to frost damage than either PBA Warda or PBA Nasma get 30 plants/m2 appears to optimise yield in central regions of NSW.

Conclusions:

Limited data from the first year of trial results in 2015 suggests that for northern and western sites, 20 plants/m2 is a preferred target plant density, while in central areas 30 plants/m2 is a better option to achieve optimum yield with faba bean grown under dryland cropping conditions. Large seed does not necessarily confer higher yield, with PBA Nasma out yielding PBA Warda at only one location, Trangie, in 2015. Doza appears more prone to frost damage than either PBA Warda or PBA Nasma. Frost tolerance is a key attribute for the faba bean breeding program in northern NSW, with new releases (particularly PBA Nasma) targeted at having better tolerance than Doza, which was apparent in these trials in 2015.

• Sowing date, uniform sowing depth and weed control are just as important to maintain yields in a wide row system as in conventional systems.
• The results in 2001 indicate that the wide-row system has potential at the yield levles typically achieved in the central-northern Mallee.

• Nutrient omission experiment at 7 sites.
• Take homes messages were that phosphorus was a limiting factor to grain yield in 2015. Zinc was limiting yield at three locations.
• Iron was a limiting factor on a grey-brown vertosol with a 50 year cropping history.
• 12 treatments were; Zero nutrients, All nutrients, - N, - P, - K, - Ca, - B, - Cu, - Zn, - Mn, - Mg, - Fe.
• Application method varied between nutrients. Both P and N were applied at sowing, at 10 kg P/ha as Trifos and 10 kg N/ha as urea, respectively. Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn, Cu and Fe were applied as chelates in a foliar spray. K was applied as Potassium citrate and B as Boron ethanolamine as foliar sprays. N and P applied at sowing, all other nutrients sprayed at mid vegetative stage. PBA HatTrick was sown at all sites at 30 plants/m2.
• Sites differed in responses.
• Rowena showed no significant responses to applied nutrients.
• The Trangie, Edgeroi and Coonamble sites showed yield responses to applied Zn of, 28, 18 and 7%, respectively. Coonamble, Nowley, Moree and North Star had responses to applied P of, 4, 15, 15 and 11%, respectively.
• Also at the Coonamble site, a grey-brown vertosol which has been cropped since the early 1960s, also showed an 8% yield response to applied Fe.
• Older cropping country is showing responses to applied P as well as Zn and in one instance Fe.

• Wheat fertilised with DAP placed with seed yielded 0.5 t/ha (20%) less than wheat with DAP placed below seed in 2017 at Loxton but had no effect at Karoonda.
• Using 50 kg DAP/ha with the seed and 35 kg Urea/ha deep was better than 50 kg DAP/ha and 35 kg Urea/ha all below the seed on sand at Loxton.

• The main issue that needs to be kept in mind when interpreting the results is the relative maturity of varieties.
• The 5 June sowing date means that faster maturing varieties like Grout, Hindmarsh, Tilga and Schooner have an advantage over slower varieties like Gairdner and Tantangara and the results need to be interpreted in this context.

• Hail in early October negated the effect of early sowing due to increased shattering losses in the early canola over the later sown canola.
• Aphids were very damaging in the podding stages and would have significantly reduced yield and possibly oil content also.

• Variety differences were not statistically significant other than the lower yielding Sunkota which was the most severely affected by Yellow leaf spot.
• Despite the early sowing of several of these varieties, frost was of minor significance in this year.

• Seeding date had a greater influence on oat grain yield, oat grain quality and return per hectare ($/ha) than variety selection or seed rate in 2015.
• Delaying seeding from early May to early June reduced grain yield by 32% and return per hectare by 45%.
• In lower rainfall environments Bannister is a better option than Carrolup, Williams and Yallara.
• When released, WA02Q302-9 will be a useful oat variety in situations where low hectolitre weight is consistently a problem or with later seeding opportunities.
• Maximum return per hectare was achieved between a target density of 100 to 200 plants/m2, which is in line with the suggested target density for grain oats in low rainfall areas of 160 plants/m2.
• The return per hectare of Bannister oat was maximised at a higher density than for Carrolup, WA02Q302-9, Williams and Yallara, suggesting Bannister should be sown at a higher target density than those varieties. This is a preliminary observation and more research is needed to confirm the optimum target density for the new milling oat varieties.

• Time of sowing had a greater influence on oat grain and hay yield, and oat grain quality than variety selection or level of applied nitrogen in 2015.
• High screenings limited the ability of grain to meet Oat1 quality standards, this was due to the detrimental impact of delayed seeding and/or applied nitrogen in excess of that required in lower rainfall environments.
• Applying more than 20 kg N/ha did not improve the return per hectare ($/ha); rather, applying 80 kg N/ha consistently reduced return per hectare ($/ha).
• Screening of Williams and Carrolup were more sensitive to applied nitrogen than WA02Q302-9, Bannister and Yallara.
• WA02Q302-9 appears a suitable replacement for Yallara and Carrolup, and should achieve a better hectolitre weight than Bannister at similar or lower yields.

• Hay crops can be used for both risk management and as part of an integrated herbicide resistant grass management program.
• Paddock selection is important. It is best to select a paddock with a low weed burden; there are limits to the amount of ryegrass that is accepted for export oaten hay.
• For quality oaten hay it is important to minimize stem thickness; this can be achieved by the use of high seeding rates. Cross sowing may be necessary to ensure windrows are supported by stubble for bailing, especially if sowing using wide row spacings.

• For the fourth year running, on-row sowing proved it has potential as a brome management tool on non-wetting sands, reducing brome grass seed set by 55%.
• The use of trifluralin with metribuzin reduced the brome density in July but did not reduce seed set.
• On-row sowing resulted in more soil water and nitrogen supply potential near the crop,  improved crop establishment and higher crop biomass.
• On-row sowing did increase root disease incidence, but there were low levels of disease for both on- and inter-row sowing in 2017.

• Onion weed is a significant pest and competitor of medic pastures. In mixed farming systems, control in the pasture phase is often reliant on cultivation.
• None of the herbicides evaluated in this trial provided adequate onion weed control in the medic pasture phase without unacceptable reduction in medic biomass.
• The use of non-selective herbicides and their mixes, combined with strategic cultivation if required, is still the most effective short term strategy in reducing the impact of onion weed on crop/pasture systems on Eyre Peninsula (EP).

The response to nitrogen in these trials should encourge the application of urea for wheat crops in these regions when the deep soil N test shows that the soil is low in available N prior to sowing in relation to the target yield set for the crop.

Opportunistic summer cropping can make use of summer rainfall that may otherwise be lost to evaporation.

There was no significant difference in the grain yield from cut and uncut early sown Mackellar wheat and May sown wheat, all sown at 200 plants/m2. Early sown uncut wheat at a density of 50 plants/m2 yielded significantly lower than 125 and 200 plants/m2. With lower plant densities and cutting treatments imposed, there were less tillers and ears/m2, however this resulted in reduced soil water usage and more moisture being available for grain fill. Plant height was significantly greater with the highest plant density in early sown wheat and the incidence of lodging was significantly greater for this treatment.

• Flowering time is determined by plant genetics and interacts with time of sowing and the environment.
• Matching variety and time of sowing to ensure flowering occurs at an optimal time in spring is critical to maximising yield.
• Sow longer season varieties mid-April to May and shorter season varieties May to June.

• The highest yielding treatment was Trojan sown on the 26th May at 5.96 t/ha.
• RAC2341 has shown good adaption to SA conditions as a Winter variety and its potential release could provide growers with an earlier sowing option.

• Despite damage from frosts, the highest wheat yield in this trial came from Trojan sown in late April at Hart.
• Based on two years of trial data across SA, Trojan complements Mace in a cropping program and allows growers to sow earlier and achieve higher yields (0.7 t/ha) than could be achieved with Mace alone.
• Across nine trials in SA (2014 and 2015) there was an average yield penalty of 28 kg/ha per day for every day sowing is delayed past the end of the first week of May.

Barley yield is less sensitive to time of sowing than wheat and in this trial highest yields came from faster maturing cultivars sown in early-mid May

There was no response to fungicide in this trial and few significant effects on grain quality. Disease levels were extremely low and a stem green area score at senescence revealed no consistent preservation of green tissue with the use of fungicides.

• Scepter (6.17t/ha) yielded the highest from the 20 April sowing date; Cutlass (4.38t/ha) yielded the highest from the 19 May sowing date; and Viking (3.22t/ha) yielded the highest from 1 June sowing date. 
• The 20 April sowing date germinated and established well before the waterlogged conditions occurred during late May and early June causing reduced germination and poorer establishment for the 19 may and 1 June sowing dates (SD).  This low establishment resulted in reduced yields between sowing dates of 0.78t/ha from SD1 and SD2 and 1.01t/ha from SD2 and SD3.
• Grain yields of varieties were highest when they were sown in their recommended sowing window. 

• Highest yields were obtained when flowering started in early to mid-August. Treatments that flowered in July were affected by frost and treatments that flowered in September were affected by heat and drought.

• The strongest yield response to nitrogen was on treatments that flowered in early to mid-August.

• Hybrids tended to recover better from frost damage than open-pollinated (OP) triazine tolerant (TT) varieties, but flowering date and nitrogen management were more important to maximise yield potential than variety type.

• The highest oil concentration was obtained from varieties that flowered in early to mid-August.
 

• Standard inoculation practices are unlikely to deliver satisfactory nodulation where pulses are sown into dry soils.
• Pea and chickpea sown late (26 June) had the higher nodulation and crop production than those sown dry. Where the soil remained dry for 20 days after sowing nodulation was poor, regardless of the inoculation strategy used.
• Nodulation of pea was low regardless of sowing time at Minnipa in 2018. Both peat applied to seed and granule formulations resulted in similar nodule numbers per plant.
• Nodulation can be improved when dry sowing if inoculation rate of peat is increased. Doubling the rate of inoculation significantly improved pea nodulation. 
• The performance the rhizobial granules was inconsistent. A granule produced at SARDI was more effective in one experiment, but not the other. Two commercial granules provided no advantage compared to peat applied to seed.

EGA Wedgetail can successfully be grown for grain only or dual purpose use and achieve yields competitive with recently released main season cultivars sown in May.  Growers wishing to graze EGA Wedgetail should use high plant densities (at least 100 plants/m2 on 305 mm row spacing, higher on narrower spacing) and some N fertiliser at sowing (particularly if soil mineral N is low) to maximise forage yield.  Gorwers who wish to grow EGA Wedgetail for grain only should defer N fertiliser application until after Z30 to reduce early vegetative growth.  Neither of these experiments or any others during the early sowing project have found a yield benefir from reducing plant populations, and target plant density should be kept at 100-150 plans/m2 (less on wide rows, more on narrow rows) in order to better compete with weeds.

Phosphorous fertiliser is rapidly fixed into unavailable forms after sowing when the soil wets up in winter. There were no phosphorous fertiliser responses in a wide range of crops on sites with good fertiliser histories. At the Donald site, which has a poor fertiliser history, the phosphorous responses were significant, especially for the pulse crops, less for barley, and none for wheat.

• Lentils were better at establishing and reaching target plant densities than canola.
• Canola was considerably more responsive to converting increasing sowing densities into yield than lentils.
• Seeder type had no consistent effect on establishment and yield.
• The differences in yield response to plant numbers suggests that it is more critical to get it right in canola than lentils.

1. Heat and drought significantly influenced phenology and grain yield responses in 2018.
2. Higher grain yields were achieved by faster developing genotypes, with significant reductions in grain yield with delayed sowing (associated with later flowering dates).
3. Whilst 2018 conditions favoured faster-developing genotypes, some newer genotypes such as LongReach MustangP and SunprimeP showed flexibility with stable grain yields across a wide range of sowing dates.
4. It is important to consider long-term data to determine suitability of varieties based on matching phenology and sowing time for your growing environment.

• Significatn variation was observed with tiller counts from one time of sowing to another.
• Early sowing provided a clear yield advantage over the later sowing dates.
• Revenue wheat was the highest yielding variety in the trial and adaptable to sowing time variation.

• Fertilising above the optimum plant nitrogen (N) demand level reduced N-use efficiency and increased environmental impact.
• Despite receiving 8–9 irrigations as well as several intense rainfall events in a season, there were typically only 3–4 significant nitrous oxide (N2O) flux periods during the season, with most occurring early in the season, i.e. irrigations 1 and 2.
• Other significant N2O emissions events occurred mostly in response to adding in-crop N fertiliser followed by irrigation and/or intense rainfall.
• Initially, higher N2O emissions came from the beds where N fertiliser had been applied pre-sowing. Later in the season, emissions often peaked in the non-irrigated furrows after rainfall and irrigation events, particularly after additional N was added in the irrigation water.
• Farmers’ N rates were at least 25% higher than necessary to achieve the same lint yield in 2014–15, i.e. 50–100 kg N/ha. Less N fertiliser could have produced the same amount of cotton.
• Increasing N rates increased total N2O emissions, especially in prolonged wet conditions.
   

• Drying soil conditions at the time of sowing, caused a poor initial germination of seedlings.
• Grain yield tended to increase as the rate of phosphorus fertiliser applied increased.
• The liquid NP source performed no better or worse than the solid NP source.

• The early crop vigour results in this trial demonstrates the need to apply fresh phosphorus to crops at seeding to ensure good plant shoot and root growth during the early stages of crop growth.
• There was no difference observed between potassium drilled with the seed or topdressed immediately after sowing.  Good rainfall conditions early in the season may have rapidly moved the topdressed potassium into the root zone of the crop therefore overcoming any differences due to placement.  Subsoil testing for potassium may be important to determine the size of the soil potassium pool.

• Seeding depth uniformity is influenced by both seed placement quality within the furrow and the consistency of added soil cover
• Many machinery design and operating parameters affect the uniformity of seeding depth across a paddock
• Deep sowing (eg. beyond 50-6omm) can significantly affect crop emergence and final grain yield
• Many paddock situations can soon suffer a 5-10% yield loss as a result of inadequate seeding depth, with more extreme situations suggesting possible yield penalties of 15-20% or more.

• Commercially acceptable grain yields can be achieved from pasture cropping systems in Southern Victoria.
• At this stage, traditional winter crops sown into a lucerne stand has the best fit for our environment..
• Lontrel can be successfully used to inhibit lucerne growth during the crop phase.
• Barley returned the best grain yield averaging 5.5 t/ha and topping at 6.3 t/ha.
• Wheat averaged 4.3 t/ha and canola averaged 1.7 t/ha.
• Lucerne on wide row spacings (30 cm) can help to improve yield and grain quality.
   

• Pasture cropping is an option for KI producers wishing to maximise grazing/cropping options.
• If you want to remove kikuyu from a paddock use roundup – if you want to pasture crop use other herbicides.
• Excellent lamb growth recorded 250g/hd/day.
• Producers now have a range of herbicide options toast will enable them to establish a crop without killing the kikuyu.

• The MLA trials demonstrated that early summer seeding (January) of Serradella pod was a viable option. The summer sowing of Serradella pod has outperformed the twin sowing methods in the two trials conducted by SCF growers
• The current district practice of dry seeding pasture seed in Autumn on sandplain soils has severe limitations compared to summer pod sowing or seeding when soil is moist after full seasonal break. This was confirmed in the 2014 season in the MLA trial where the second time of sowing (into moist soil) outperformed the first time of sowing in total legume biomass production and this advantage has carried right through to seed set in Year 3 (in M1 trial Santorini and Margurita plots).
• The performance of a precision seeder for sowing Serradella in a 2015 trial demonstrated that modifications of conventional seeding systems could improve plant establishment efficiency by more that 35%.
• The hard seeded Serradellas are performing well in specific treatments in the MLA trials even on the lower fertility, acidic and non-wetting sandplain soils. Mixed maturity Serradellas like cv Margurita lose significant pod set with spraytopping ryegrass compared to Cadiz or Santorini.

• Further examination is necessary to determine to what degree winter cleaning in the final pasture year will improve the nitrogen status of the soil.
• These conclusions will need to be verified over several more seasons before reliable relationships can be confirmed.

• At present, there is inconsistent evidence to suggest that seed size at sowing can affect grain yield in the faba bean cultivar PBA Nasma, with a positive yield benefit associated with sowing larger seed at Trangie, but no significant yield effect at Tamworth in 2015.
• Seed size at sowing appears to be positively related to seed size at harvest.
• Further experimentation is required.
   

Although the results were inconclusive at the Tottington site, the group believes that use of the triple pack program in normal years is likely to improve perennial pasture establishment in this drier northern region. It could also be relevant in other areas, where run down low fertility paddocks have a low legume content and have become dominated by onion and silver grass.

Further cost benefit analysis is warranted for the Triple Pack system before it is widely promoted to producers. PPS were unable to conduct a cost benefit analysis at Tottington due to the extreme seasonal conditions affecting results.

• Establishment of perennial pastures is relatively expensive and represents a high risk activity during years with very low spring rainfall. • Ideally Lucerne and pasture grasses should be established by sowing early in paddocks with low weed populations, such as may occur after several years of a well managed cropping program.
• Press wheels will improve establishment in some soil types.Establishment of perennial pastures is relatively expensive and represents a high risk activity during years with very low spring rainfall.
• Ideally Lucerne and pasture grasses should be established by sowing early in paddocks with low weed populations, such as may occur after several years of a well managed cropping program.
• Press wheels will improve establishment in some soil types.

• New late maturing non-commercial lines were amongst the highest yielding, with yields greater than 6 t/ha.
• The winter-spring crosses K50058 and K50058 and winter types AGF437 and AGF484 have performed consistently well across a number of seasons at Hamilton and Inverleigh.
• Optimising sowing times may provide additional yield increases.
• High yields were achieved from poor plant establishment numbers, showing that canola has the ability to compensate from low plant numbers if the seasonal conditions are favourable.

• Canola following two years of wheat yielded 2.08t/ha despite establishing 50% fewer plants than canola grown during 2009, which yielded 1.59t/ha. The higher yield achieved during 2011 was attributed to more stored soil moisture at sowing. 
• The higher biomass produced with the narrower row spacing (22.5cm) did not translate into higher grain yield with the same yield achieved across the narrowest (22.5cm) and widest (37.5cm) row spacings.
• About 102-122kg nitrogen/ha was removed in aboveground biomass (straw and grain). There was no statistical difference in nitrogen off-take between the 22.5cm and 37.5cm row spacings.  

• Gauntlet wheat sown as the second wheat crop after canola yielded between 3.84–4.44t/ha with 232mm of growing season rainfall (Apr-Oct) and an estimated 118mm of stored water at sowing (total 350mm).
• Moving from a narrow row spacing (22.5cm) to 30cm and 37.5cm row spacings reduced yield by 13% and 11% respectively in the 2012 season.  In 2011, moving from a 22.5cm spacing to 30cm and 37.5cm spacings reduced yield by 4% and 10% respectively for the second wheat trial grown in the same paddock.
• It was estimated that the narrow row spacing (22.5cm) resulted in better water use efficiency (WUE) than the widest spacing (37.5cm), despite having a lower harvest index (44% vs 47%) than the widest rows.  

• Canola varieties differ in their flowering times depending on when they are sown. Sowing a variety too early can lead to flowering when the risks of frost and disease are high; sowing a variety too late can lead to heat or moisture stress.
• Matching a variety’s phenology to its sowing time is critical for flowering to start during the optimum flowering period for that region, which is when environmental and disease risks are balanced for the highest yield potential. More information on sowing windows to suit variety phenology can be found in the DPI’s Winter crop variety sowing guide 2020.
• Previous research has shown that the time from sowing to the start of flowering could be different in any one year in response to temperature and solar radiation.
• This phenology experiment will be repeated in 2020 with a slightly different variety set, including a number of unreleased lines that are also in the National Variety Trials (NVT).

• Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plant development which cannot be effectively applied post sowing. Because of this it is imperative that decisions on its application are made now.
• P should be applied at rates necessary achieve the yields being targeted in a given paddock for a given year.
• Information to assist you in determining how much P is in your soil includes fertiliser history, removal through production previous yields, soil tests and paddock history.

The Rand site was sown on the 12th May 2010 with 8 treatments of various amounts of seed and P fertilizer. The variety was Lincoln and the sowing fertilizer was MAP. The site had grown canola in 2009 and had been summer sprayed for weeds. It was direct drilled into the canola stubble. The site had an N rich strip of 50hg/.ha of N applied about 5 weeks prior to the assessment in July 2010.

• In 2003, a three week delay in sowing after mid/late May resulted in a 0.3t/ha (Murtoa) and 0.5t/ha (Birchip) yield penalty.
• Further delay in sowing (to July) caused similar decreases in yield.

 

• During 1997 make the most of the technology and services available.
• Soil testing prior to sowing.
• Monitoring your crops with sap nitrate testing, NIR analysis, plant tissue and grain tissue testing during the season will enable you to make informed decisions and to capitalise on the opportunities presented.

Throughout the eastern Australian grain belt the 1994 season has now been confirmed as one of the worst Winter growing seasons ever.

• Bidgee and Djakal performed best at 45 plants/m2.
• N005A-80 and Snowy performed best at 30 plants/m2.
• Severe lodging occurred in all varieties at the 60 plants/m2 sowing density.
• Snowy has poor resistance to lodging, which was exacerbated at higher sowing densities.

The polymer coated canola had very poor germination, even after 60 mm of rainfall in the month post sowing. More work needs to be done on the coating thickness and cost before polymer coating could be considered as an early sowing tool in our growing conditions.

• Biodegradable polymer films retain soil moisture and increase soil temperature.
• Polymers allow crops to be grown out of season and expand the planting window.
• Sorghum and millet successfully germinated under the film failed to germinate in the absence of the film.

• Compared to the pre-emergent ryegrass control trial, conducted alongside, the post emergent application results were very poor, below 60% control.
• Boxer Gold applied post sowing pre-emergence at either 1.5 or 2.5 L/ha produced the greatest in-row ryegrass control (78%).

• Preliminary results have shown that post sowing use of some pre-emergence herbicides can improve control of late emerging ryegrass and could be beneficial as a late salvage exercise where ryegrass has escaped earlier control.
• Although no damage to the wheat crop was observed, these treatments present a higher risk to crop safety, depending on soil type and rainfall after application.
• Post sowing use of these herbicides is currently off label & requires further investigation before registration can be granted.

Standard farmer practice of 'pasture topping' in the previous year, followed by a knock down around the seasons break, remain the best practice before sowing saltbush or bluebush by seed.

Diuron at 1L or 2L applied post sowing pre-emergent in a wheat crop was not effective in controlling fop and dim resistant ryegrass. However, Diuron with Dual Gold or Dual Gold on its own (especially at the 0.5L rate) had better control of ryegrass. The level of control was not sufficient in a commercial sense but it may be in combination with trifluralin or with other ryegrass control strategies. Dual Gold is a Group K herbicide and will not initially add to a resistance problem.

• This trial produced a 0.9 t/ha yield response to potassium (K) fertiliser (trt 1 v 6).
• Early rains and a wetter than average season contributed to waterlogged growing conditions through June/July and most likely to significant leaching losses of nitrogen (N).
• Topdressed MoP treatments lacked the early vigour of plots sown with potassium (K) banded with K-Till Plus. This was despite about 50mm of rain falling between the date of topdressing (12 April) and sowing (16 May).
• As the season progressed, crop growth improved up to the highest rate of MoP (144 kg/ha) applied.
• There were no significant yield differences between strategies supplying between 9 and 24 kg K/ha (trt 2, 3, 4, 5).
• There was no response to magnesium (Mg) supplied by kieserite (trt 7).

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