• Compass, Fathom and Scope CL were good competitors with weeds, which is consistent with previous years’ findings.
• Hindmarsh and Spartacus CL are poor weed competitors.
• The advantage of sowing earlier in order to increase crop competition failed to improve the competitiveness of La Trobe given the high spring rainfall.

The risk of stem frost damage can be minimised by using winter wheats if sowing prior to 20 April. Spring wheats should be kept within 5-7 days of their optimal sow date. If appropriate, risk of BYDV should be managed by backing up imidacloprid seed dressing with foliar insecticides at the start of tillering if aphids are present. New winter wheat cultivars are in the pipeline and are likely to have significant yield advantages over current ageing material.

• The Kerang site had a Potassium (K) soil level (0-10cm) that exceeded 600 ppm (Colwell K) at sowing and showed no yield response to additional K applied in crop.
• As was the case at Yenda the application of K as potassium sulphate at V4 or V8 saw no change in leaf tissue levels when compared to the control (no added K) assessed at V10 or tasselling.
• Harvest results showed no response to added potassium, indicating that the soil was able to supply the required potassium to the crop.
• There was no evidence of luxury uptake of K in tissue and grain samples (assessed in untreated, 40 (tissue only) and 80 kg /ha K).

• The Yenda site had a Potassium (K) soil level (0-10cm) that exceeded 500 ppm (Colwell K) at sowing and showed no yield response to additional K applied post sowing in crop.
• Application of K as potassium sulphate at V4 and or V8 saw no change in leaf tissue levels when compared to the control (no added K) when tissues were assessed at V8 or tasselling.
• Harvest results showed no response to added potassium, indicating that the soil was able to supply the required potassium to the crop.
• There was no evidence of luxury uptake of K in tissue and grain samples (assessed in untreated and 80 kg /ha K).

• However, the influence of seedbed N application (50kg/ha N) was evident in the crop structure scores, producing 150-200 more shoots/m2 and producing higher readings when the crop sensor Greenseeker® was passed over the trial than the GS30 stem elongation timing or the zero nitrogen controls.
• Despite a relatively low soil nitrogen reserve at sowing (43 kg/ha N 0-100cm), there was no influence of nitrogen on yield.
• In a trial subject to low levels of spot form of net blotch (SFNB), there was no response to fungicide over the untreated.

• There is no evidence to support growers grading seed into different size categories and sowing the smaller seed.
• In one trial in 2015, sowing seed of different size classes did not significantly influence the yield of PBA NasmaA. Insufficient data is currently available to make a recommendation either way on this practice, but there was a trend towards reduced size of harvested seed and yield from sowing smaller PBA NasmaA seed.

• The highest grain yields in 2017 were obtained from the first sowing date.

• In 2017, frost and rainfall had a significant influence on grain yield responses to sowing date.

• Seasonal conditions altered expected phenology responses of genotypes in 2017.

• The 2019 dry spring conditions affected genotype performance, influencing flowering time and grain yield responses.
• Current varieties were not broadly adapted across sowing dates from mid April to late May.
• Highest grain yields were achieved across phenology types in response to sowing dates, with very slow spring types maximising yield from the mid April sowing date (SD), with later sowing dates favouring faster developing spring genotypes, which achieved the highest grain yields in 2019.

• Frost significantly influenced flowering date and grain yield in 2017.

• High grain yields can be achieved from a range of genotype × sowing date combinations.

• Whilst flowering time is important in maximising grain yield potential, timing pre-flowering phases was also found to significantly influence grain yield.
 

• Crop yields declined by an average of 31kg/ha/day when sowing was delayed from 20 May to 2 June.
• There was not any significant interactions between varieties in their response to delayed sowing time from 20 May to 15 June.
• The varieties Bunnu, EGA Bonnie Rock, Espada, Fang, Lincoln and Yandanooka produced screenings greater than 5% when sown in mid June. 

• Crop yields declined by an average of 31 kg/ha/day when sowing was delayed from the 20th May to the 2nd June.
• Delaying seeding from 2nd June to the 15th June resulted in an average yields decline of 45 kg/ha/day.
• There were not any significant interactions between varieties in their response to delayed sowing time from 20th May to the 15th June. -
• The top performing AH/APW varieties were Carnamah, EGA Bonnie Rock, Espada, Katana, King Rock, Mace, Scout, Wyalkatchem and Zippy. Screenings of these varieties was less than 5% at each sowing time.
• The varieties Binnu, EGA Bonnie Rock, Espada, Fang, Lincoln and Yandanooka produced screenings greater than 5% when sown in mid June.

Take Home Messages

Whilst the trial didn’t go according to plan there were still some key messages that arose:

• Maximising seed-soil contact is the aim at sowing especially for the larger seeds that require more moisture to imbibe and germinate compared to small seeds.

• Unseasonably low June rainfall hindered establishment of partially sown beans due to a drying topsoil. These may have been

OK under normal June rainfall conditions.

• Hair pinning can be a serious issue when using a disc seeder especially when sowing into wet/ moist lodged stubble.

• Solutions to avoid hair pinning – sow when stubble is dry (good in theory), keep stubble standing, use sharp discs and ensure bar

has sufficient down force to cut through tough stubble.

• Analysis of wheat crops sown after rice harvest in the Murray Irrigation Ltd districts (MIL) found that increasing yields required different management depending on soil type and irrigation layout.
• Four management factors that limit winter crop yields were identified: waterlogging, late season water stress, under-fertilisation and low soil pH.
• In the MIL districts alone, increasing wheat yields after rice from the current median to the 80th percentile would result in an additional 20,000–30,000 tonnes per annum ($4–6 million at $200/t).
• If all rice areas were sown to wheat after harvest every year and 80th percentile yields achieved, an additional 128,000–138,000 tonnes of wheat would be produced ($26–$28 million at $200/t).

Chickpeas need to be inoculated in paddocks which have not had chickpeas before.

• The seed catcher treatment reduced the ryegrass seed bank from 2007 most effectively
• Delaying sowing in 2008 from the 29th May until the 6th June decreased the ryegrass population by 55%.

• Integrated weed management is the best approach for long-term control of herbicide resistant annual ryegrass.
• The most effective cultural control method trialled was mouldboard ploughing which was significantly better than stubble.burning or direct sowing into retained stubble in terms of in crop weed numbers.
• Sakura + Avadex Xtra IBS herbicide regime achieved the best control of annual ryegrass later into the season.
• Crop establishment, wheat yield and grain quality were not affected by the choice of weed control method in this trial.

• Pre-emergent weed control with Sakura reduced annual ryegrass populations by 85-97% compared to the control

• Combining Sakura pre-em with Boxer Gold at GS11 resulted in 97% weed control 180 days after sowing

• Sakura provides robust pre-em weed grass control and can be used as one element of an integrated weed management approach

• Other practices that can form part of an IWM strategy include paddock selection, cultural control, grazing, land fallowing and chemical rotation

• Continuous cropping and a reliance on pre-sowing weed control measures is not an effective way to manage herbicide resistant annual ryegrass over the long term.
• The increase in weed numbers over time can be limited by adopting an intensive and high cost herbicide strategy, but this will not deplete the seed bank.
• Increasing annual ryegrass density was associated with decreased grain yield.

• The use of Lucerne in the Upper Wimmera catchment and similar areas can be extended away from traditional areas such as river and creek flats.
• Introduction of lucerne into grazing systems lengthens the period of available green feed and can allow for enterprise change such as adding a lamb finishing operation to the farm business.
• Sowing time of lucerne is best suited to late winter.
• Soil testing is important to test for nutrient deficiencies and pH prior to lucerne establishment. Adequate lime and fertiliser should be applied to address deficiencies prior to establishment. Attention must be paid to ensuring that aluminium levels are suitable for lucerne production prior to sowing.
• A sub soil pH test should be taken to ensure that there are no acidity or aluminium toxicity issues at depth which could affect the lucerne plants as their roots penetrate the sub soil.
• Weed control is of critical importance before and during the establishment phase of lucerne pastures.
• Sowing depth of lucerne is important to allow an even germination. Care should be taken not to sow seed too deeply. The seed should be covered by 1 – 2 cm of soil, ensuring good soil contact.
• Control of annual grass and broadleaf weeds is of critical importance during the life of the lucerne stand if maximum production is to be achieved.
• A suitable fertiliser regime including the use of potash needs to be applied to replace nutrients removed by the lucerne system.
• Lucerne pastures can produce high quality hay which can enhance the farm’s production system if kept on farm.

Herbicide strategy 1 (HS1), which was based on atrazine pre-sowing followed by clethodim (Select) post-emergence reduced ryegrass plant density relative to the untreated control by 57%. However, use of propyzamide pre-sowing, followed by atrazine and Select + Factor (HS 2) increased ryegrass control to 77%. Canola variety had a significant effect on ryegrass spike density (P=0.002). When averaged across the sowing dates and herbicide strategies, ryegrass growing in HyTTec Trophy produced 52 spikes/m2 as compared to 78 spikes/m2 in Bonito (33% reduction). HyTTec Trophy is a new hybrid triazine tolerant variety from Nuseed, which is known for high early vigour. Herbicide strategies also had a significant effect on ryegrass spike density (P<0.001). Ryegrass grown without any selective herbicide treatment (control – HS3) produced 128 spikes/m2 as compared to 40 spikes/m2 in HS1 and 29 spikes/m2 in HS2. This works out to 69% reduction in HS1 relative to the control and 78% reduction in HS2. Herbicide strategies had the largest effect on canola yield (P<0.001). HS1 and 2 produced canola yield of around 0.8 t/ha, which was almost 50% greater than the yield obtained in the control.

Inter row sowing in no-till systems works well and can increase crop profits for wheat, lentils and canola.

Inter row sowing in no-till systems works well and can increase crop profits for wheat, lentils and canola.

Inter row sowing in no-till systems works well and can increase crop profits for wheat, lentils and canola.

Inter row sowing in no-till systems works well and can increase crop profits for wheat, lentils and canola.

• A factorial pot experiment involving four rates of soil-applied Mn (0, 0.75, 7.5 and 75 mg Mn/pot), four levels of CCN (0, 93, 186 and 372 second stage juveniles per pot) and 12 replicates of one Hordeum vulgare cv. 'Clipper' plant per pot was carried out.
• Four replicates were harvested 28, 73 and 192 days after sowing and each plant was assessed at harvest for growth, Mn content and level of CCN infection • Several plant growth parameters were measured non-destructively during growth.
• Resistance (ability of the pathogen to reproduce on the host) was not influenced by Mn nutrition of the host and equal numbers of nematodes invaded and developed to maturity on all plants despite Mn treatments resulting in plant Mn levels which ranged from severely deficient (0 Mn rate) and deficient (low Mn rate) to adequate (two highest Mn rates).
• However, tolerance (endurance of disease without severe losses in yield or quality) was considerably reduced by the combination of low Mn supply and higher levels of CCN.
• Plant height was reduced by increasing CCN numbers only at the two lowest Mn rates.
• These trends were typical of those observed in all plant growth parameters measured in the final two harvests including dry and fresh weight of roots and tops and total dry weight of grain produced per plant. Maturity was delayed in the severely affected plants.

Despite an exceptionally dry growing season (GSR Apr – Nov 235mm) first cereal barley averaged 3.6 t/ha, with Gairdner giving a mean yield of 3.50t/ha and Baudin 3.71t/ha. As a consequence of the season, disease did not develop in this trial (irrespective of variety susceptibility), meaning that it was not possible to examine the interaction between nitrogen timing and fungicide requirement.

The later maturing feed wheat Mackellar was significantly lower yield than the earlier AH category variety Chara, with mean yields of 2.35 and 2.52 t/ha respectively. Much of this difference was due to the poor performance of Mackellar under the seedbed nitrogen application, since when compared at the later nitrogen timing alone, the mean yields were 2.55 and 2.60t/ha for Mackellar and Chara respectively. Fertilising with upfront nitrogen had less detrimental effect on yield with an early maturing variety with lower tillering capacity than it did with later maturing wheat (Mackellar) that had a longer tillering window.

Dry sowing resulted in the poorest weed control at seeding and as a consequence this treatment was the weediest later in the year.

• Spray-seed drift during shielded spraying damaged the lupin plants in this trial.
• Lupins yielded well when sown in rows 50cm apart.

1. In dryland conditions, planting in February increased yield of dryland mungbeans by 475 kg/ha over December planting.
2. Irrigation treatments increased mungbean yields by a maximum of 298 kg/ha and 653 kg/ha (planted in February and December respectively).
3. Application of water during mid pod-fill increased grain yield in the December planting but not the February planting.

This trial sight was chosen as a typical regional soil type and had had a representative cropping rotation. Unfortunately the soil phosphorus levels (Colwell P) show that this site was possibly not phosphorus responsive as required for the purposes of this trial.
Adequate winter and late spring rains resulted in average grain yields. The trial was never moisture stressed and high grain protein levels indicate that the trial was not stressed for nitrogen. Visually it was difficult to pick any differences between treatments during the growing season.

• These data demonstrate a significant yield response to teh application of 20kg P/ha when compared to teh control. There were no yield differences to the various treatments. 
• The trial was moisture stressed in late spring but moderate grain protein levels indicate that the trial was not stressed for nitrogen. 
• Visually it was difficult to pick up any differences between treatments, however the poor growth control was very evident throughout the growing season and the Airseeder treatment appeared to lack early vigour, but at the end of the season this was not apparent. 
• The application of zinc as either foliar or as fertiliser at sowing (Granulock Supreme Z treatments) did not result in additional yield. 
• The liquid treatments did not prove to have any significant benefit over the solids fertilizer products; contradicting results from SFS Mininera trials in 2007 where liquid fertilisers proved to have distinct advantages as conpared to solids. 

Linseed is not new to Western Australia or the Great Southern region as it was grown in the Boyup Brook region from the 1940’s to the 1960’s. It was grown for fibre and milled at the Boyup Brook Flax Mill. Linseed (flax) Linum usitatissimum is a niche product and has the potential to offer an alternative revenue steam for producers outside of the traditional crop. Demand for Linseed has recently shifted to a health food. Linseed has several uses, it can be crushed for Linseed oil which is a rich source of linolic acid and Omega 3 fatty acid and the remaining linseed meal can then be used as livestock feed or it can also be eaten as a whole seed or ground.

Linseed also has agronomic benefits as a potential break crop that provides a disease break, the opportunity for alternative weed management strategies, provides an insect pest break and can be effective in reducing some soil borne root diseases and soil borne pathogens namely root lesion nematodes. Canadian research has demonstrated that cereal yields were higher when planted on linseed stubble compared to wheat stubble.

The aim of the project is to investigate agronomic packages which support the introduction and scale up of commercial cultivation of Linseed in the Great Southern region of Western Australia.

Consistent supply with volume is imperative to develop a market that has the ability to realise the full value of Linseed produced. Also, in order for growers to take up production it is important they have a full agronomic package available to grow the crop successfully. Finally, Linseed needs to generate an equivalent return per hectare of alternative rotational crops such as canola in order to expand into the rotation.

The key objectives of this project are:  

A: To determine if Linseed can be successfully grown under dryland farming conditions in the Great Southern region of Western Australia with the potential to scale up to commercial cultivation.

B: To determine if any investment is required into machinery and infrastructure by growers to grow linseed.

C: To develop basic agronomic guidelines to grow linseed in WA.

D: To assess the yield potential of two commercially available linseed varieties grown under dryland conditions in WA, Croxton and Bilton.

The project was conducted over two years in 2019 and 2020. In 2019 the trials were conducted in small plots across three sites. In 2020 the trials were conducted as producer demonstration sites utilising grower machinery and large-scale plots.

In 2019 three sites were located across the Great Southern Region of Western Australia covering a variety of soil types, climates, paddock histories and growing conditions. The trials sites were in the shires of Darkan, Wagin and Kojonup. The trials involved growing two commercially available varieties Croxton and Glenelg over three times of sowing (TOS) 10 to 14 days apart at three seeding rates (SR): 35, 40 and 45 kg/ha and applying three top dressed nitrogen application rates (low, optimal and high) 40, 80 and 120 units N/ha.

Over the three trial sites, the seeding rates and nitrogen application rates trialed did not consistently result in significant differences in grain yield or oil quantity and quality. Time of sowing had the greatest impact, with the earliest time of sowing generally resulting in higher grain yields. Glenelg on average had a higher grain yield and oil quantity, with Croxton having the highest oil quality.

Trial Site

Average Site Yield

t/ha

Darkan

0.562

Wagin

0.914

Kojonup

0.998

Table 1: Average Site Yields in 2019 (Below average rainfall)

The Darkan site plant counts were the highest, however this was not reflected in the yield. Darkan was the lowest yielding of the three sites. This may be due to the below average rainfall and lack of finishing rains experienced on the non-wetting forest gravel soils at this trial site. Kojonup and Wagin on average achieved nearly double the yield of the Darkan site despite lower plant counts and early plant disease.

In 2020 four demonstration/bulk up sites were established across the Great Southern Region covering a range of soil types, rainfall, rotations and growing conditions. The four sites were located in Katanning, Wagin, Darkan and Kojonup.

The methodology in the second year of the project was to bulk up the Linseed seed for future commercial production and to also integrate high level variety comparisons between the two varieties being utilized in the project Bilton and Croxton. Two sites, Wagin and Darkan, incorporated replicated plot treatments as a variety trial with the other 2 sites being predominantly bulk up sites.

The key outcome of any variety demonstration is the final yield result. Due to operational difficulties within the demonstration some yield data is not available however the key findings from the data available was:

• Bilton yielded on average 0.95 MT/Ha and 85% of Canola
• Croxton yielded on average 0.86 MT/Ha and 72% of Canola.
• Bilton out yielded Croxton on both sites.

The seasonal conditions may have contributed to Bilton out yielding Croxton. Bilton is a slightly shorter maturing variety and the below average rainfall received in 2020 is expected to have favoured shorter season varieties.

The project has successfully set in the place the ability for growers in the Great Southern region to scale up production of Linseed and demonstrated its ability to fit within the current rotations with the additional benefit of assisting in the long-term management of soil borne root pathogens.

However, for the scale up of the commercial cultivation of Linseed there is the requirement for beyond farm gate systems to be in place before producers will scale up production. An active market to determine a fair price, storage and handling facilities off farm to enable harvested grain to be stored before delivery to consumers, supply chains in place which enable efficient delivery of the grain anywhere around the world and long-term buyers/processors who will receive the grain year in year out. There is still a lot of process to be put in place before Linseed production will scale up to a considerable level.          

Grower adoption beyond the project has continued with over 60 Ha planted in southern WA in 2021 across 4 growers. Confidence in the supply chain beyond the farm gate remains as the major obstacle stopping increased uptake and requires addressing before increased production can be expected.

• Chelated iron applied to the soil before sowing increased active iron in leaves by 42% and dry matter by up to 46% early in the season.
• The 9% increase in grain yield following iron application to soil was not significant.
• Foliar iron had no significant on activeFe, leaf colour or photosynthesis.
• Lime induced iron chlorosis was suspected.

• Wider row spacing will decrease yield but the decrease was not significant until large changes were made.
• Canola yields prove to be stable despite different plant populations but seasonal differences could change the outcome.

• Trial yields averaged 4.03 t/ha
• The performance of the various herbicide groups ranged from 3.2 t/ha  for the triazine tolerant varieties, 4.5 t/ha for the Clearfields, 4.6 t/ha for the conventionals and 4.8 t/ha for the Roundup Ready varieties.
• The early-mid to mid maturity varieties tended to be the highest yielding from an April 18th sowing.

• Winter canola had greater DM production compared to spring canola.
• Time of sowing significantly influenced canola grain yields.
• Grazing Manning did not result in a yield penalty, but grazing Trojan wheat did; need to be careful not to graze outside of the “safe” grazing window.

Population had no effect on yield. Populations as low as 130 plants/m2 had similar yields to that of 180 plants/m2.

Plant establishment varies greatly with conditions post sowing. The long term average for cereals at the ICC Trial Block is 70%, but colder soil temperatures and soil moisture can see establishment fall to 50%.

• Minnipa Agriculture Centre results showed significant yield advantage with earlier sowing in trial data even in a great season.
• Weeds can have a large effect on early sown crops, but most farmers try to have some paddocks set up to sow early.
• If early sowing is an option take advantage of it.

• The wheat yields were quite acceptable considering the time of year they were sown. The average yield of 3.2 t/ha is still economic, even if feed prices are used. 
• The four winter wheat varieties grown in the trial are not suited for a July sowing, as the risk of stem rust carrying over summer, to infect the following years crop, is too high. In addition, if sowing has to be delayed into July, then a shorter season variety with the potential to make milling quality should be the preferred option. Winter wheats should only be grown if they can be sown early to maximise their high yield potential. 
• If the yield loss between the June and the July sowing at the Hamilton site is analysed, then an average yield loss of 26 kg/hectare/day is obtained. In other words for every week you delay sowing you are losing 180 kg/ha of wheat yield. 

• Kikuyu has the potential to become a valuable addition to pasture mixes on parts of KI
• Kikuyu may provide many economic as well as environmental benefits
• Early spring sowing plus weed and insect control is essential for successful establishment (and the odd rain dance won’t go astray either!)
• Kikuyu is less likely to become an environmental weed if the adjacent native vegetation is fenced and is in good condition.

• 2015 - Plots with-out lime were consistently lower yeilding than plots with lime irrespective of incorporation treatment. Threatments with incorporation tended to have higher yield than where lime is left on the surface.
• 2014 - sowing setup remains the weakest link when using deep tillage. Depth of sowing is critical and fifficult to control on ameliorated soils. A good establishment density is critcal for reducing erosion potential at both ends of the season.

This demonstration investigated knockdown weed control options prior to sowing. For the knockdown control of ryegrass, canola and wild radish prior to sowing, glyphosate is quite effective and no additional herbicides are generally required. Glyphosate is weak on marshmallow and a group G herbicide is required as a mix with the glyphosate. To reduce the risk of group M (glyphosate) resistance developing in ryegrass it is strongly recommended to use the ‘double knock’ approach (glyphosate followed four to seven days later by SpraySeed®) on at least some paddocks every year.

• It is no longer a question of whether ryegrass will become resistant; it is when! 
• Double knock was the most effective treatment for managing this ryegrass population  (98% control).
• Alternative crop options should be integrated into the rotation to manage weeds and reduce the reliance of glyphosate. 
• High water rates, spraying closer to evening and no later than 7-10 days after the initial knockdown are essential when using Paraquat.

• The use of eNtrenchTM, adequate sulphur at sowing, AwakenTM foliar all should be considered to enhance hay yields.
• A more complete approach to nutrition (sulphur, zinc & copper) is only beneficial if the nutrition is managed within the environment provided. This is what AwakenTM, eNtrenchTM & Pro Gibb take advantage of.
• By stabilising the nitrogen, big gains in utilisation were able, which results in more efficient use of land for hay production which could be adopted easily as all changes fit with existing operations.
• The extra costs are easily returned in yield, even in a poor rainfall season.
• The adoption of these products is not difficult as they fit as part of existing regimes.

Crop yields were dissapointing due to the frost in late October.

good nodulation in the uninoculated treatments, and the absence of growth or yield responses to inoculation in this trial, indicated that pulses have been grown sufficiently often in this particular paddock (lentil in 2007 and pulses every two/three years previously) to maintain appropriately high rhizobial populations in the soil. as the numbers of rhizobia decline in the soil over time, consider inoculation based on, paddock history and length of time since growing the last legume crops. Pulses often benefit from inoculation if there has not been a legume grown in the paddock for six years. where rhizobial populations are low in the soil, inoculation of legumes at sowing is extremely important to ensure adequate nitrogen fixation

• In all but Paravic and Ascot, the innoculated crop yielded better than the uninnoculated crop. In fact, the average gross return for the innoculated crops was $346 per hectare, versus $247 per hectare for the uninnoculated crops. This represents an extra return of $99 per hectare. 
• It is therefore recommended that in all cases, legume crops should be innoculated with the correct strain of rhizobia prior to sowing. It is very cheap insurance against the bacteria not being present in the soil. 

• Lentil and field pea yields were similar at Hart in 2011 and averaged 2t/ha.
• Sowing date and site location significantly affected variety yield performance with early sowing favouring higher yields at the ‘poorer’ site.
• The late September rain was critical for the yield of later flowering varieties at the late sowing date and the western site but was of limited benefit to the early maturing PBA Blitz.
• PBA Jumbo was the highest yielding lentil variety when sown early and PBA Blitz and Nipper were generally the lowest yielding varieties in 2011 at Hart.

• Lentil varieties yielded similarly in varying soil types and at different times of sowing.
• New early maturing lentil varieties PBA Flash (3.6 t/ha) and PBA Blitz (3.57 t/ha) were highest yielding.
• Lentils were equal or higher yielding than PBA Gunyah field peas under favourable conditions in 2010.

The BCG have undertaken trials with lentils for two years, in both years the lentils have failed due to very poor conditions. The results of the two years of trial work show that lentils should be sown from early to mid May. at 50kg/ha. Row spacings are best as narrow as possible so that the lentils stand up better at harvest. Optimum sowing depth is 7 to 8 cm. It is always best to sown lentils into a relatively clean and flat paddock.

The BCG have undertaken trials with lentils for two years, in both years the lentils have failed due to very poor conditions. The results of the two years of trial work show that lentils should be sown from early to mid May. at 50kg/ha. Row spacings are best as narrow as possible so that the lentils stand up better at harvest. Optimum sowing depth is 7 to 8 cm. It is always best to sown lentils into a relatively clean and flat paddock.

• Delaying sowing from 22nd May until 16th June led to an average 0.39t/ha yield reduction in 2012.
• Field peas had higher grain yields than lentils at both sowing times and both sites.
• At the lower yielding western site earlier maturing lentil varieties outperformed later maturing varieties Nipper and Nugget.
• All field peas and field pea blends produced similar grain yields at each site and time of sowing.

• Delaying sowing from 22nd May until 16th June led to an average 0.39t/ha yield reduction in 2012.
• Field peas had higher grain yields than lentils at both sowing times and both sites.
• At the lower yielding western site earlier maturing lentil varieties outperformed later maturing varieties Nipper and Nugget.
• All field peas and field pea blends produced similar grain yields at each site and time of sowing.

• At both trial sites due to very dry spring conditions and high levels of moisture stress no disease occurred last year. Hence there were no significant interactions between treatments at either site apart from an overall time of sowing difference which was reported on in the time of sowing by seeding rate experiment.

• Dry and hot spring conditions suppressed lentil plant growth at both sites.
• No foliar diseases occurred at either site and hence there was no response to fungicide treatments.
• However, variety and sowing time treatments did have an effect on grain yield and quality at both sites.

• Early sown lentils consistently out-yielding those sown later, as the heat wave event in early
  November compromised yield of late sown lentil crops by terminating seed fill prematurely.
• The 2009 data was inconclusive in determining whether foliar fungicides for BGM control
  can be delayed until after the canopy closure stage in situations where conditions are not
  conducive for disease development at canopy closure (ie less than 10oC at night and 18oC
  during the day).
• The rapid finish to the season favoured early maturing varieties PBAFlash and CIPAL610 at
  both sites, averaging 5-32% above site means across sowing dates.
• Canopy closure sprays with follow up sprays dependent upon disease observation were
  successful in reducing BGM in all varieties tested at Paskeville, even at the early sowing
  date.

• No disease was present in the trial this year, therefore no effects of fungicide management regime were seen.
• Trial was not harvested.

• No disease was present in the trial this year, therefore no effects of fungicide management regime were seen.
• Grain yields were less than 0.5 t/ha.

• The late break (11 June) and prevailing seasonal conditions were unfavourable for the spread of botrytis grey mould at both sites in 2005
• Traces of botrytis grey mould were found at both sites but had no impact on yield. A late season ascochyta blight outbreak did occur at Melton however control sprays may have been applied too late to induce a fungicide response.
• No significant difference was recorded between any of the different fungicide spray strategies between varieties or at different sowing times.

• A lack of foliar disease pressure, due to dry seasonal conditions, prevented the assessment of differing fungicide regimes on varieties in 2006.
• Previous agronomic trials and observations from evaluation trials suggest Nipper can be sown earlier than Nugget and Northfield without the need for high fungicide inputs due to its improved disease resistance.
• Further work on optimum sowing dates and fungicide strategies for maximising yield and quality of the large seeded green lentil type Boomer is still required.

• A high level of crop safety exists in PBA Herald XT to both post-sowing pre-emergent (PSPE) and post-emergent (PE) applications of imazethapyr. This high level of crop safety was shown to most but not all of the group B herbicides (e.g. Imi-4).
• Nipper showed up to 100% yield loss in some treatments where tolerant lines showed no yield loss. Nipper incurred yield losses from all herbicide treatments at Pinery but not all at Arthurton. Flumetsulam and single rates of Imazethapyr and Imi-2 were less damaging at Arthurton, but other treatments generally caused similar yield losses between the two sites.

• Interactions between herbicide and application rate did not have differing responses for grain yield, biomass yield, or gross margin at Minnipa, 2018.
• Combined herbicide and application timing treatments did show differences in grain yield, biomass yield and gross margin.
• Metribuzin and Diuron treatments indicated increased safety levels (58-466% higher biomass and 6-161% higher grain yield) and lower economic risk compared to Terbuthylazine treatments.
• For herbicide applications incorporated by sowing, Metribuzin was of lower economic risk (45% higher gross margin) than Diuron.

• There was diversity in phenology between varieties.
• Early sowing extended the crop vegetative period, but increased exposure to frost damage during flowering.
• Dry conditions severely limited lentil grain yield in 2019, but favoured early maturing varieties, particularly with mid May sowing.
• High yielding lentil varieties were PBA AceA, PBA BoltA and PBA Hurricane XTA at Wagga Wagga, and PBA Hallmark XTA and PBA BoltA at Leeton. NipperA demonstrated broad adaptation at Wagga Wagga.

• All varieties behaved similarly for grain yield in response to changes in plant density.
• This result was also found in the 2005 and 2006 trials, and indicates that the current recommended rate of 120 plants per sq.m is adequate for optimising yields at standard sowing dates in the new varieties Boomer and Nipper.
• The effects of sowing time indicate that in some seasons to maximise yields when sowing late plant densities can be increased, however this may not always be economical and in some cases could increase risk of disease.
• Lower rates could also be used when sowing early but
  again this result could vary with seasonal conditions.

• Low yields – no data.

• Early sowing generally produced the highest yield for lentils in 2007.
• Lentils varieties generally all responded similarly to plant density, in that, at the May sowing date, lower densities produced higher yields, while at the July sowing date, higher densities produced highest yields.

• The take home message from the lentil production trial in a disease-free year is that lentils should to be sown prior to mid June, preferably in the late May to mid June period to achieve optimum yields.
• A difference of 1t/ha was achieved between sowing in late May compared to an early July sowing. However it must be remembered that with an early sowing if crops are reaching canopy closure in late winter/early spring then significant levels of disease could be expected under conditions conductive to disease.
• Fungicide applications made no improvements to yield regardless of fungicide type, application timing or the number of applications made.
• However, if the season had been wetter with a higher disease incidence, then crops may have benefited from one or more fungicide applications.

• A dry and late start to the season led to the first time of sowing at both sites being dry sown in early June.
• The opening rains at both sites arrived on the 11th June, which was the effective sowing date for the first time of sowing.
• This sowing date was more in line with a mid sowing time for the Sandilands area and a mid too late sowing date for the Melton area.

• Results from this experiment and previous research have proven that lentils can be successfully grown in southern NSW with sound agronomic planning and management.

• Across all varieties tested there was no significant difference between the 4 May and 20 May sowings, which validates the current sowing window recommendation from late April to mid May for the western region of southern NSW. Previous experiments have shown yield decline with a late May sowing.

• PBA Hurricane XTA, PBA Jumbo2 and PBA Bolt were the highest yielding commercial varieties, while PBA Ace was significantly lower yielding in this experiment, which is not consistent with previous research.

• There was a significant reduction in seed weight when sowing was delayed for all varieties except PBA Ace, which showed no significant effect.

• A favourable growing season in 2016 produced results that supported previous work showing the importance of sowing within the recommended sowing window.

• No significant yield difference was found when lentil was sown on 6 May and 17 May, when averaged across varieties.

• Delay in sowing from 6 May to 2 June resulted in a 34% yield reduction and from 17 May to 2 June a 26% yield reduction across varieties.

• PBA Hurricane XT, PBA Jumbo2 and PBA Ace were the highest yielding commercial varieties, when averaged across sowing times.

• The results from this experiment indicate the importance of sowing within the recommended sowing window to maximise the height from ground level to bottom pod to maximise the ease of harvest.

• Results from 2004 were strongly influenced by the rapid dry finish to the season. Generally
  CIPAL203 performed similarly to Northfield for its response to sowing time last year, while no
  response to seeding rate occurred last year. Due to its superior disease resistance and relatively lower biomass production CIPAL203 is likely to benefit to a greater extent from earlier sowing dates than Northfield, providing the risk of metribuzin damage is avoided. Further evaluation is required in seasons with more average finishing conditions.

Lentils need to be sown prior to mid June, preferable late May to achieve optimum yields. Sowing rates equivalent to the current recommendations of 120 plants/m2 appear adequate for cultivars used in this trial.

Sowing depth for lentils to be sprayed with Lexone is critical, a minimum depth of 5cm is required.

• There was a significant difference in lentil yield from sowing depth (shallow yielded none).
• There was no effect of herbicide use.
• Commercial practice would still indicate a minimum sowing depth of 6cm is required for lentils.

• The low mean yield at this site (0.69 t/ha) was largely attributed to drought, and was exacerbated by late sowing conditions and suspected herbicide damage.
• Small yield and normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) increases closely reflected increases in seedling density. 
• PBA Giant and PBA Jumbo2 produced more grain and green foliage cover, closely followed by PBA Ace. These ranking reflect the long term, multi environment trial (MET) yield analysis for lentil varities for this region (Figure 5).
• Care should be taken when applying and incorporating herbicides on acidic, light textured soils, particularly when straw is present. Under these conditions, it is advisable to sow deeper to position seed below the herbicide band. 
• Furher lentil sowing rate investigations are required in this region to better understand variety responses to plant density, earlier sowing, season conditions and different environments.    

• The optimum sowing time for lentils in the southern Mallee is mid May.
• The current recommendation for a sowing rate of 50kg/ha should be followed.

• Earlier sowing generally resulted in highest yields. Similar to Minyip ,there were no major differences in yield with wider row spacings (30cm c.f. 19.5cm).
• However, an increase in pod height in the wider rows and standing stubble was only recorded at the second sowing date.

• In 2009, earlier sowing resulted in highest yield and best grain quality, particularly due to the extreme heatwave in November.

• Average grain yields across all varieties in retained stubble treatments (Slashed and Standing) were equal or greater than Removed stubble treatments in all years of testing.
• There was generally a greater yield response from the Standing treatment than the Slashed treatment.
•  The yield response from stubble retention was generally the greatest at the Late sowing date.

• Optimum plant density rates for the new lentil varieties Nipper (red) and Boomer (green) are the same as for current varieties.
• Lower than optimum plant densities resulted in lower grain yields particularly at later sowing dates.
• The new green lentil variety Boomer is well adapted to the more favourable lentil growing areas
• Nipper performed similarly to Nugget and Northfield last year in the absence of foliar diseases.

The optimum time for sowing lentils, for the 1996 season, was in early to mid May.

• PBA Ace and PBA Jumbo2 performed very well across a range of agronomic characteristics compared with the other varieties in this experiment. 
• Sowing time was a critical management factor in the 2015 season.
• Sow lentils in early to late May at 120 plants per square meter in the eastern cropping region of southern NSW to avoid yield penalties. 

• Sowing time is a critical management factor in this environment.
• Sow lentils in late April - 10 May in the south western cropping region of southern NSW.
• Target plant populations of 120 plants per square meter.
• Commercial lentil yields of 1,2-1,5 t/ha on acidic red brown earths of south western NSW are now realistic giving growers the confidence and economic viability to introdce the pulse into their cropping rotations.  

When selecting a variety, growers also need to consider their individual farm and paddock situation and the access and availability of likely target markets and to make their selection on all available information.

Key message: Herbicide damage symptoms were not observed in PBA Hallmark XT due to herbicide treatments at Wudinna and Warnertown, 2019. This is likely due to the dry seasonal conditions, which lowered herbicide mobilisation within the soil. Consequently, effects of zinc sulphate on herbicide damage recovery were not visible. Average grain yield of PBA Hallmark XT was 0.71 t/ha at Wudinna and 0.93 t/ha at Warnertown.

Key message: Herbicide damage symptoms were not observed in PBA Hallmark XT due to herbicide treatments at Wudinna and Warnertown, 2019. This is likely due to the dry seasonal conditions, which lowered herbicide mobilisation within the soil. Consequently, effects of zinc sulphate on herbicide damage recovery were not visible. Average grain yield of PBA Hallmark XT was 0.71 t/ha at Wudinna and 0.93 t/ha at Warnertown.

There would be significant benefit in combining improved group C herbicide tolerance with the ‘imidazolinone’ tolerance of varieties like PBA Hallmark XT, providing a more complete herbicide management package for lentils into the future. Results suggest that the use of Group C products at sowing in the ‘imidazolinone’ tolerant varieties may increase sensitivity to in crop use of ‘imidazolinone’ products.

• PBA Hurricane XT lentils continue to show tolerance to all group B herbicides tested in this trial, presenting an opportunity for flexibility in crop rotations.
• PBA Hurricane XT lentils displayed small amounts of yellowing and stunting from some herbicides, most evident following ‘SU2’ applied at 4 node, however they recovered quickly. No grain yield reduction was observed in PBA Hurricane XT from any of the herbicides applied in this trial.
• PBA Jumbo 2 displayed a significant yield reduction from terbuthylazine incorporated by sowing (IBS) in comparison to simazine applied IBS. As would be expected, the application of ‘SU1’ post-sow preemerge (PSPE) and ‘Imi2’ at 4 node significantly reduced grain yield in comparison to all other treatments.
• Early in the growing season, both varieties showed slightly more damage from terbuthylazine than simazine both applied IBS.
• ‘Imi1’ and ‘SU2’ both displayed the worst physical herbicide damage but recovered over time. 

•  All results need to be treated with caution, due the dry conditions, frosts and weed burden at the trial site. Similar to previous research PBA Hurricane XT showed tolerance to imidazolinone herbicides and improved tolerance compared with PBA Jumbo2 to sulfonylureas and sulfonamide herbicides. Flowering applications, as expected generally had the most significant reduction on grain yield. The improved weed control in several of the herbicide treatments meant that significant yield gains were commonly observed in the herbicide treatments. 
   

• Group B herbicide application timing significantly influenced the level of herbicide damage and subsequent yield loss in lentil varieties. PBA Jumbo2 incurred significant herbicide damage and a subsequent yield loss of 33-100% from all the treatments except PSPE application of SU1 and incrop application of Sulf at 4 node, 8 node and flowering stages. In contrast, PBA Hallmark XT had significant herbicide damage and yield loss only from application of SU1 at flowering and SU2 at 8 node and flowering stages. PBA Hallmark XT was able to recover from damage caused by some of the herbicide treatments and produce grain yield equivalent to the nil treatment.
• Establishment and Plant growth: Establishment was favoured by adequate soil moisture at sowing and good rainfall conditions after sowing. Assessment of establishment about 7 weeks after sowing showed significant difference between the varieties, however the impact of the PSPE herbicide treatments on establishment was not significant. Averaged across herbicide treatments, PBA Hallmark XT had about 18 more plants/m2 than PBA Jumbo2 (Table 2). Plant growth was average despite drier spring conditions and a few frost events during vegetative and reproductive growth stages.

• Applications of metribuzin PSPE significantly reduced lentil establishment compared to IBS and the untreated control (see Figure 1 in attached trial report summary).  Across all varieties and sowing depths, establishment following the PSPE application was 75 plants/m2 while the IBS and untreated treatments had a plant establishment of 100 plants/m2.  Damage following PSPE application of metribuzin was particularly severe in the PBA Hurricane XT lentils.  The 4 node treatment had similar establishment to the control as the in crop herbicide treatment had not been applied at the time of the establishment assessment. 
• See attached trial report summary for further results and interpretations.

• Key Messages: SP1333 and PBA Hallmark XT showed little to no signs of herbicide damage at x0.25 gai/ha and 376 gai/ha. At higher herbicide rates SP1333 showed lower herbicide damage than PBA Hallmark XT, but grain yield results were unreliable due to shattering in SP1333.

• Establishment and Plant Growth: Application of ‘Gp C’ PSPE had little or no impact on emergence and early plant growth. Lentils had optimum establishment and growth as a result of adequate soil moisture at sowing and favourable conditions during the rest of the season. Growth, development and yield were not affected by the few frost events, which occurred in the spring.

• Herbicide Damage: Both varieties did not show symptoms of herbicide damage at lower rates (x0.25 and x0.5 gai/ha) irrespective of the time of application (Table 1). However, at higher rates (x1 and x2 gai/ha) the new variety SP1333 showed less damage than PBA Hallmark XT. At x2 gai/ha, PSPE damaged SP1333 more whereas application at 4 node stage was more detrimental for PBA Hallmark XT.

• Number of weeds: Better control of weeds were achieved when ‘Gp C’ was applied as PSPE or 4 node applications at rates above x0.5 gai/ha (Table 2). Almost full weed control was seen in the x1 gai/ha and above for both PSPE and 4 node treatments. Weed densities were not different between varieties.

• Biomass at flowering: At flowering varieties were not significantly different in biomass. In PBA Hallmark XT biomass improved when low rates (x0.25 and x0.5 gai/ha) were applied as PSPE spray but decreased at the highest ‘Gp C’ rate (x2 gai/ha) applied as PSPE or 4 node stage spray, compared to the plants which did not receive herbicides (Table 3). This indicates that application of ‘Gp C’ at lower rates as PSPE sprays in PBA Hallmark XT can effectively control weeds without the crop damage or biomass loss, as oppose to higher rates. However, rates or times of herbicide application did not cause any biomass change in SP1333.

The application of inoculant at sowing has proven to be of high importance in optimising pulse production. Providing adequate level of available phosphorus boosts pulse production. Application of calcium shortened mature lentil plants diminishing harvestability, as pods formed closer to the ground.

Delayed sowing resulted in 25% of grain yield loss in PBA Jumbo2 and 15% loss in PBA Hurricane compared to sowing early. TOS did not influence grain yield of other varieties. Grain yields were not affected by sowing density when sown early as the dry finish to the season resulted in biomass loss in denser plots. However, lower plant densities resulted in grain yield losses in delayed sowing.

Average yield of autumn sown lentils were 1.7 t/ha in 2019 with a range from 1.0 to 2.1 t/ha between cultivars. PBA Hallmark XT, PBA Bolt, Jumbo2 and CIPAL1701 had the highest yields of the eight varieties tested (Table 2).

Average yield of autumn sown lentils were 1.7 t/ha in 2019 with a range from 1.0 to 2.1 t/ha between cultivars. PBA Hallmark XT, PBA Bolt, Jumbo2 and CIPAL1701 had the highest yields of the eight varieties tested (Table 2).

• Lentils are not traditionally grown in the Victorian HRZ. Mid-season vigour was good and suggested a promising fit for lentils in the region, but late rain in November caused lodging and significantly reduced yields, highlighting the importance of sowing into standing residue.
• Sowing on May 14 increased crop biomass compared to sowing on May 31, but this did not translate into greater grain yields.

•  Lentils are not traditionally grown in the Victorian HRZ. Growth vigour was good and suggested a promising fit for lentils in the region, but unfavourable weather during reproductive stages, and late rain in November that caused lodging reduced grain yields.
• Large numbers of pods were dropped before harvest, with more than twice the number of pods dropped in plots sown on May 17 compared to June 6.  
   

• Grain yields of varieties and breeding lines were very low due to dry seasonal conditions. Hence, results of these trials should be interpreted with caution.
• Several frosts during the flowering and podding phase significantly impacted grain yields, particularly the earlier sown treatments which were further advanced in the reproductive phase and unable to recover. As a result, the trends observed in 2018 are completely opposite to long term trial results in low rainfall environment for lentil, which generally indicate significant benefits from earlier sowing.
• The mid/late maturing breeding lines CIPAL1504 and CIPAL1522 have consistently performed well in the Mallee across multiple seasons, highlighting the yield potential of advanced lines coming through the breeding program.