• Medic species appear to be well adapted to be able to produce pasture biomass and regenerate well after a year of cropping on the alkaline soils of the lower Eyre Peninsula {EP).

• Vetch species can produce high quantities of biomass in the year of planting and may be best suited to farming systems with more intensive cropping enterprises that have run down pasture seed reserves.

• The alternative species evaluated did not appear to be well adapted to the soil type/ environments/ farming systems that they were planted into.

• Pasture species must have a level of tolerance to broad leaf herbicides to allow for the removal of broadleaf weeds, which in some situations and soil types is seeing pasture production severely restricted with broadleaf weeds.

• Soil type differences did appear to reflect differences in pasture production, particularly getting pastures to establish on sandy soil types, but the work was unable to identify a superior pasture species beyond medic or vetch adapted to the lower EP's sandy soils.

• Novel legume species and genotypes have the potential to reduce feed gaps and provide other farming systems and livestock benefits in low to medium rainfall regions of southern Australia.
• The five-year large scale grazing systems trial established at Minnipa in 2018 is the main livestock field site for the national Dryland Legume Pasture Systems project. Five annual legume species are being tested.
• The priority for this trial in 2018 was to optimise seed set given the poor seasonal conditions, and therefore no grazing was undertaken in the establishment year, but instead will commence with sufficient pasture growth in 2019 to determine the best legume option for livestock production. 

This is a component of a five year Rural Research and Development for Profit funded project supported by GRDC, MLA and AWI;
and involving Murdoch University, CSIRO, SARDI, Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development; Charles Sturt University and grower groups.
• This trial aims to assess a diverse range of annual pasture legumes in order to determine whether there are more productive and
persistent options for the drier areas (<400 mm) of the mixed farming zone of southern Australia.
• The annual medics were the most productive pasture legume producing > 2 t/ha DM and setting > 500 kg/ha of seed. A new Tetraploid Barrel medic was the most productive.
• Astragalus was the most promising alternative legume and warrants further evaluation.

Because a crops ability to produce and finish is so tightly linked to how much water is available to it a simple yield forecast combined with how much water a crop still has left to access in the soil is surprisingly informative when it comes to reducing risks associated with forward selling decisions. At any point in the growing season it is surprisingly easy to use the data to see if the crop has access to enough water to finish, or if more rainfall is needed to reach a target yield. The graph below shows and compares the yield forecasts from each of the sites this year from when the soil probes were installed up until 20 Jan 2017.

• 2007 results showed two varieties experienced statistically significant yield penalty from mowing when medium maturing varieties were mowed at growth stage 30 (given appropriate crop management).
• Early sowing thought to be very critical to minimizing yield penalty from grazing - to be researched .
• Crop management will be different for both graze/grain versus pure grain crops - to be researched.
• Grazing crops gives pastures a chance to establish and grow at optimal growth rates during winter.
• Sheep can be used to selectively graze weeds - to be researched.

• Yield premium for Long season wheat varieties April sown vs May sown was 920 Kg/Ha
• SCF dual purpose/dual use long season HRZ wheat production package is being upgraded with each year’s research and case studies (2016-2019)
• Product testing for flour blend characteristics and feed qualities such as metabolisable energy in progress
• CBH trial offer for dual purpose/dual use long season wheat

• Project aimed to evaluate dual-purpose canola varieties, comparing two times of sowing and exploring grazing management options.
• Biomass production was greater at the earlier sowing date.
• Feed tests are important to determine feed quality.
• There were no yield differences between the two times of sowing.
   

Wheat grain yields following grazing were surprisingly high and it would appear grazing was not detrimental to grain yield. Reduced dry matter from grazing may have resulted in less water useage early in spring with more then being available during grain fill. Of the wheat varieties, the grain yield of the line 1SR594-34 was particularly high. Dry matter production (from the one cut taken) was significantly lower for the wheat varieties but given the current high grain price dual purpose wheat is an attractive option. 
 

Most varieties showed a significant reduction in biomass protein levels following grazing. This was particularly the case for Monstress triticale.

• Grazing once early in the season did not affect grain yield.
• Grain yields were reduced when varieties were grazed late in the season.
• Oats and barley showed better early vigour than the wheat varieties.

• Grazing once early in the season did not affect grain yield.
• Grain yields were reduced when varieties were grazed late in the season.
• Oats and barley showed better early vigour than the wheat varieties.

Dual purpose cropping can have a role in an intensive grazing operation if crops can be sown on an early break – early growth is essential whilst conditions are still warm. The season will have to have a mild finish otherwise yield will be lost from the early grazing. More work needs to be done in the Wimmera and Mallee to see whether it is commercially viable to graze cereal crops early in the season, without suffering a yield penalty at the end of the season. It might only be a proposition in those areas which have a regular early start to the season and a longer wetter finish.

• Second year of a 3-year project funded by SAGIT and managed by SARDI.
• Project aims to evaluate dual-purpose canola varieties, comparing two times of sowing and exploring grazing management options.
• Trial site waterlogging resulted in variable results, interpret results with caution.
• Feed test results appear to vary between varieties and varieties at different times of sowing, indicating the importance of feed tests.
• Conventional canola varieties dry matter (DM) production was greater at time of sowing (TOS) 1 compared to TOS 2. Grain yield differences were not measured between varieties or TOS.
• There was a significant difference in DM production between the Triazine Tolerant varieties and TOS. Average grain yield was greater at TOS 2, than TOS 1.
• Greater DM was removed at TOS 1 compared to TOS 2 for Clearfield canola. Hyola 970 CL showed a significant difference in grain yield between TOS, with TOS 1 having a greater yield compared to TOS 2.

• Initial year of a new 3-year project funded by SAGIT and managed by SARDI.
• Project aims to evaluate dual-purpose canola varieties, comparing two times of sowing and exploring grazing management options.
• Trial site waterlogging resulted in high variability and confounding results, which should be interpreted with caution.
• Difference in feed test results were measured within a variety at different TOS and grazing dates, indicating the importance of getting feed quality tested.
• Dry matter production was low, maximum production recorded was Conventional 434 kg/ha, Triazine Tolerant 357 kg/ha and Clearfield 589 kg/ha.
• Conventional and Clearfield canola grain yields did not vary between TOS or varieties. • Triazine tolerant varieties had higher yields at TOS 1 and Hyola 750TT was the highest yielding TT variety.

Please see attached report for results.

The 1999 results highlight that Janz generally out yields Wollaroi. This is also supported by the findings of other trials.

• Fathom barley was more competitive than Hindmarsh barley, bread wheat and durum
• New durum variety Tjilkuri was no more competitive with ARG than older variety Tamaroi
• Increasing seeding rate reduced ARG head density and increased grain yields in all durum varieties; low seeding rates led to large numbers of ryegrass heads
• Narrower row spacing increased yield and reduced ARG head density in durum
• Early applied N improved early vigour, and reduced ARG head densities, but led to yield penalties due to induced moisture stress

• Varieties responded similarly in yield and many quality measurements to applied nitrogen, but showed large differences in grain screenings.
• Large amounts of early applied nitrogen predisposed WID803 with inherent small grain to quality downgrading due to high screenings, varieties with inherent larger grain (Tjilkuri and Caparoi) were not downgraded across N treatments.
• The strategic approach to nitrogen management was a more effective method to maintain grain size and achieve 13% protein rather than applying all nitroen at stem elongation.

DBA Vittaroi had higher grain protein than DBA Aurora under similar N management

Both varieties lodged where a PGR was not applied

Sowing rate did not affect yield or grains per head.

Graind per head averaged 2.1g or 2.1 t/ha per 100 heads/m2

• High yielding, water efficient DR1 durum was achieved in most of the 18 benchmarked fields.
• Grain protein, Hard Vitreous Kernels, Test weight, 1000 grain weight, falling numbers, semolina colour and semolina yield all fell within desirable limits.

• Hyperno (3.44 t/ha) and WID802 (3.50 t/ha) were the highest yielding durum varieties in this trial at Hart.
• Nitrogen application timing did not influence grain yield at Hart in 2009.
• Durum grain yield was reduced by 17% in the presence of ryegrass.
• Grazing in the absence of ryegrass increased durum grain yield.

• The presence of ryegrass reduced grain yields by 25%.
• Reduced sowing rates did not affect the grain yield or quality of new or standard durum varieties.
• A split application of nitrogen at GS31 and GS37 produced a significantly higher yield, 1.3t/ha.
• Growth regulants did not improve grain yield.

• Applying nitrogen to durum later in the season (GS47) was the most economically viable treatment maximising both yield and quality.
• A late tillering (GS30) application of N reduced grain plumpness in new varieties, WID803 and hyperno.
• A GS30 and split N application between GS30 and GS47 produced the lowest yields in all varieties. 
• WID803 and Saintly were highest yielding while Caparoi and Kalka produced teh best grain quality. 

There are no established markets for Durum in Victoria.

The high soil nitrogen levels at this site and follow up topdressing applications produced protein levels high enough for durum quality, however, yields were approx 0.8t/ha lower than Mitre grown at the same site.

High yielding, but failed to make the required protein levels. The PGR was the only treatment to be statistically different due to the lodging in almost all other treatments.

• Low levels of stripe rust at mid flowering GS65 (less than 10% flag leaf infection) did not significantly increase grain yield in this variable trial.
• The stripe rust control data indicated that 2 units of fungicide either applied as two foliar sprays at GS31 & GS39 or flutriafol with a follow up foliar spray at flag leaf provided effective protection for DBA Vittaroi.
• There was a very small advantage for stripe rust control from using two foliar fungicides but differences were extremely small.
• Systiva at sowing with a follow up foliar spray gave less effective stripe rust control than flutriafol and Jockey with a flag leaf follow up.
• Fungicide application had no significant effect on grain quality in this trial.

• Stripe rust was present in the trial in the untreated plots but little to no infection was observed in the fungicide treated plots.
• Fungicide strategy did not affect yield or grain quality when compared to the untreated control.
• This result contrasts with the results of the sister trial D21-07-2 located at the same site where fungicide application did result in improved yields over the untreated control.

• DBA Vittaroi developed higher levels of stripe rust infection than DBA Aurora but levels at mid flower were still below 5% on the flag leaf (3.5% v less than 1% on flag leaf at mid flower).
• The low levels of stripe rust infection did not generate any significant yield increases (p=0.3) when controlled with different fungicide strategies.
• The trend with DBA Vittaroi was non-significant yield increases associated with fungicide application with increases of 0.24 – 0.59t/ha with the two spray approach being the most reliable for yield and stripe rust control.
• Fungicide strategy had no significant effect on grain protein (range 14.3-15.0%) which averaged 14.7% (not shown)
• DBA Aurora at 13.9% had significantly less grain protein than DBA Vittaroi at 15.5% (not shown) but was significantly higher yielding than DBA Vittaroi at (8.04 vs 6.46 t/ha).
• The GS31 fungicide was very important to reduce initial infection but there was little additional value of Systiva seed treatment in this trial.

• Stripe rust was present in the trial in late August just prior to flag leaf emergence.
Infection/green leaf loss was higher in DBA Vittaroi than DBA Aurora.
• Multiple fungicide application strategies improved yields over single spray strategies.
• Despite little green leaf loss, foliar fungicides did improve the yields in the MR for stripe rust rated DBA Aurora.
• Three units of fungicide, either 3 foliar sprays or Systiva plus two foliar sprays produced the highest yields when both cultivars were considered.
• The yield increases of the fungicide treatments diluted the grain protein such that the untreated crop produced the highest grain protein.

• Neither previous chickpea sowing rate or pre-sowing stubble management had any significant effect on the following durum wheat yields or grain protein.
• Calculated stubble residues showed no difference as a result of variable chickpea seeding rates.
• NDVI measurements demonstrated that there was little influence on canopy development from either previous seeding rate or pre-sowing preparation.
• Durum wheat has a considerable requirement for N to achieve DR1 quality and so the contribution from the chickpea stubble is a relatively small part of the total N budget.
• Water use efficiency was 17.8 kg/mm.

• There were no significant advantage in grain yield of durum following the cultivation of faba bean stubble from the year previous, however cultivation did result in significantly higher grain proteins where faba bean stubble were incorporated.
• Prior to this trial area being established in durum it grew four different plant populations of faba beans in 2020.
• In the previous year higher seed rates of faba beans led to higher plant populations and higher NDVI measurements but did not result in higher yield (range 16 – 23 plants/m2).
• With the following durum crop there was no significant effect of the different faba bean populations on durum wheat yields.
• Speed tilling to incorporate faba bean stubble in autumn 2021 (resulted in a trend to slightly lower plant establishment of 135 plants/m2 of durum compared to 144 plants/m2 where the residues were left on the surface and the durum was direct drilled into a firm seedbed.
• NDVI measurements taken in the durum at early tillering (GS21) showed a higher reading for the plots where the stubble was incorporated, however this may have been due to stubble interfering with the reflectance measurements. By stem elongation and crop ground cover the differences in NDVI had dissipated.
• There were no differences in dry matter recorded at flowering at a result of cultivating the previous years faba stubbles (not shown).
• Incorporating the faba residues resulted in significantly higher grain protein (15.5%) than where the durum crop was direct drilled plots (14.9%).
• There was a trend to lower grain protein at higher plant populations of the previous faba bean crop when the durum was direct drilled, although this was not statistically significant.

• A number of PGR strategies based on Moddus Evo (trinexapac ethyl), Errex (chlormequat) and a coded PGR were noted to significantly reduce lodging in irrigated DBA Aurora.
• Reduction in lodging whilst significant did not significantly impact yield relative to the untreated control, since lodging occurred late in grain fill (GS87 late dough).

• Grazing twice at tillering and at pseudo stem erect (GS22 &30) prevented lodging and was as effective as a number of PGR programmes, however it significantly reduced yield relative to the control.
• Grazing durum plots produced lower grain protein (12.3%) compared to the PGR treatments (13.2-13.9%)
• At the earlier time of sowing, a single application of Moddus Evo and Errex at GS31 recorded a reduction in lodging when followed by an application of FAR PGR 20/01 at GS39 compared to the single application alone. This late PGR treatment also had an increase in grain protein (13.9%) compared to the untreated (12.9%)
• There was no difference in grain protein in any of the treatments in the later time of sowing.
• Applying trace elements and potassium had no impact gave no improvement in lodging control or yield in comparison to plant growth regulation.

• Grazing was effective in reducing crop height, but resulting grain yield was lowest in the trial, although it was not significantly different to the untreated control.
• Treatments did vary in their effect on lodging, but increased lodging did not necessarily result in decreased yield.
• Highest yield was from treatment 3 (split application of Errex 750 @ 0.65 l/ha + Moddus Evo @ 0.1 l/ha applied at GS30 and GS32) which was also the most effective treatment for reducing lodging.
• The application of the micronutrients manganese and copper had no effect on lodging.
• All PGR treatments did not influence grain protein, screenings or test weight.

• Following the wet winter soil N cores in late August revealed only 47kg N/ha in the 90cm profile with approximately 30kg N/ha in the top 30cm.
• As a result, all N fertilised plots were significantly higher yielding than the unfertilised control which yielded 4.87t/ha at 10.3% protein with a total N offtake of 138kg N/ha at harvest.
• The indication from the unfertilised plots were that the soil mineralised an additional 80kg N/ha on top of the 46kg N/ha available in the soil in late August.
• In N fertilised plots there were no significant differences in yield between 100 – 350kg N/ha applied with a yield range covered by 0.34t/ha.
• In contrast, grain protein levels continued to increase as the applied N fertiliser increased with over 13% achieved with 200kg N/ha, 150 N applied producing 12.5% protein.
• The highest grain proteins were achieved with 350 kg N/ha applied at 16.3%.
• N offtakes in the crop at harvest ranged from 137 – 300 kg N/ha but there was no significant difference in N offtake between 150-300kg N/ha fertiliser N applied with a range of 263 – 307kg N/ha.
• Applied fertiliser N had no significant impact on harvest index or dry matter and averaged only 35%.
• Durum grew similar amounts of dry matter at harvest compared to 2020, approximately 16-17t/ha but in 2021 harvest index was 35% as opposed to 43% and yields were peaked at 6.74t/ha compared 7.43t/ha in 2020.
• At high levels of applied N fertiliser (300, 350kg N/ha) there was no benefit to splitting the N three times, however at lower N fertiliser inputs (see Trial 4 – N timing) this is not the case.

• A grain yield of 8.98 t/ha was achieved with an application of 250 kg/ha of nitrogen (N).
• There was no significant difference in yield for nitrogen applications ranging from 250 – 350 kg N/ha.

• Applying 200 kg/ha of nitrogen was enough to raise the grain protein above the 10.5% required to achieve APW1 compared to the lower N application rates that only achieved ASW1.
• An additional 50 kg N/ha (250 total) pushed the protein above 11.5% and achieved a bin grade of H2, the highest quality achieved in this trial.
• The highest gross margin was achieved with 250 kg N/ha applied as urea 46% N.
• There was little difference in final harvest biomass between 100 and 350 kg N/ha applied with a range of 16.7 – 19.0 t/ha. When no nitrogen was applied final biomass was significantly lower at 14.2 t/ha and a grain yield of 6.55t/ha.

• With 47kg N/ha available in the soil profile (0-90cm) in early spring there was no effect of N timing (50:50 split applications) on grain yield.
• At the different N timings grain yield increased significantly up to a N rate of 200kg N/ha.
• Grain protein in contrast was significantly increased by N rates up to 300kg N/ha and applying N at a later timing split (GS32 and GS39) also significantly increased protein compared to earlier timings
• Later N timings under irrigation are more efficient with applied N, since N removed in the grain was greater with later timings in comparison to earlier timings.
• Grain yields were optimised with DR1 protein levels (13% or higher) at N rates of 100 to 200kg N/ha.
• In 2020 with much higher soil N reserves at sowing (232kg N/ha 0-90cm) it was noted that increasing applied nitrogen fertiliser had no negative yield effects when applied later in stem elongation compared to earlier N timings of the same amounts.

• With 66kg N/ha available in the soil profile (0-90cm) pre sowing there was an effect of N timing (50:50 split applications) on grain yield where the earlier (PSPE & GS30) and later (GS32 & GS37) applications were significantly lower yielding than the intermediate application timing (GS30 & GS32).
• Head numbers were also significantly higher with the GS30/32 timing than both the early or late N timings.
• At the different N timings grain yield increased significantly up to an N rate of 200kg N/ha with no additional response at 300kg N/ha.
• There was a significant interaction between N timing and N rate on grain protein.
• With the earlier application timings (GS00 /GS30 & GS30/GS32) grain protein was maximised with 300 kg N/ha while in the late application timing (GS32/GS37) grain protein was maximised at 200 kg N/ha.
• 200kg N/ha applied in a 50:50 split generated the best margin after N cost and quality considerations were taken into account.
• The highest gross margin was achieved with 200 kg N/ha applied as urea (46% N) split at GS30 and GS32.

• Biomass at harvest was no different between the N timing strategies. However, the higher N rates did result in more biomass and higher heads/m2.
• The later the N was applied the greater the N accumulation in the crop canopy at harvest, however this was only apparent at the higher N rates applied (i.e. greater N efficiency of applied N).
• Delayed application of nitrogen did not result in yield reduction, but lower N rates did.
• Grain protein meeting DR1 specification was only achieved by applying 300 kg N/ha at either of the later split N timings either GS30/GS32 or GS32/GS39.
• Harvest index averaged 0.40 and was higher at the lower N rates as was observed in Trial 3.

• In a first wheat scenario following faba beans durum wheat yielded on average 7.55t/ha DBA Aurora and 6.07t/ha for DBA Vittaroi. The difference in predicted yield was statistically significant (p=0.01).
• With 20 May sowing date there was no difference in yield due to plant population when it varied 125 – 300 plants/m2, although 150 - 200 plants/m2 were associated with the highest yields in both varieties.
• Plant populations below 100 plants/m2 had significantly lower dry matter at harvest and as a result lower yields.
• No significant differences in lodging were recorded due to variety or population in contrast to 2020 when Aurora lodged at higher plant populations.
• There were significantly more tillers per unit area at the highest plant populations tested (440 tillers/m2) but it had no additional yield benefit over lower tiller densities irrespective of cultivar.
• DBA Aurora with a longer tillering period and longer season phenology recorded more tillers per unit (419/m2) than DBA Vittaroi (284/m2) at stem elongation.
• In both varieties there was a significant increase in head numbers as a result of increasing plant population with a maximum of 385 heads/m2 (mean of two cultivars- Aurora 412 and DBA Vittaroi 358).
• Although increasing plant population significantly increased dry matter production at pseudo stem erect (GS31) lower plant populations had compensated such that there was no difference when assessed at harvest, apart from plant populations below 100 plants/m2.
• Plant population had no significant effect on grain protein (range 14.4-15.1%) which averaged 14.7%
• DBA Aurora at 14.1% produced significantly lower grain protein than DBA Vittaroi at 15.4% as result of the higher yields in the former.

• Yield was below expectations which appears to be due to inadequate soil moisture in late winter, with irrigation not possible due to the irrigation season being closed.

• Establishment rate for the trial averaged 76% but was lower at the highest populations.
• There were differences in biomass at GS30, with the trend to lower biomass at lower • seeding rates and this was reflected in shoot numbers.
• Yield was not influenced by seeding rate in either variety, although plant populations below 100plants/m2 tended to be the lowest yielding, however there was little or no difference in grain yield between 150 – 240plants/m2.
• Yield was below expectations which appears to be due to inadequate soil moisture in late winter, with irrigation not possible due to the irrigation season being closed.
• Winter drought is a risk that is greater under overhead irrigation as the soil profile is unlikely to be full at the beginning of winter as is the case under flood irrigated circumstances.
• Water use efficiency was 16.1 kg/mm

• In an identical trial to Trial 1 under surface irrigation DBA Aurora lodged more and was significantly higher yielding than DBA Vittaroi.
• Though not statistically comparable (separate trials based on same site, same sowing date & management) yields were higher under overhead than surface irrigation but lodging at harvest was noted to be more severe where surface irrigation was used.
• Higher plant populations were associated with higher plant, tiller and head numbers, although this did not relate to higher yield.
• Lower plant populations were associated with lower dry matter production at early stem elongation (GS31) but later in the growing season there were no significant differences.
• Plant population had no significant effect on grain protein (range 14.2-14.4%) which averaged 14.3%
• DBA Aurora at 13.2% had significantly less grain protein than DBA Vittaroi at 15.3%.

• Durum varieties (CaparoiA, DBA AuroraA, DBA LillaroiA and JandaroiA) displayed differential grain quality and yield responses to time of sowing (TOS) and nitrogen (N) management. Increased screenings (>5%) were the most common cause of quality downgrades.
• DBA AuroraA, due to increased risk of screenings (>5%) in part because of reduced grain size, would appear to offer less flexibility in terms of agronomic management, specifically delayed sowing and N management.
• The newly released Northern Durum breeding program variety DBA LillaroiA appears to offer excellent grain size and grain stability, achieving low screenings from a delayed sowing and high N rates.
• Results also highlight the need to sow varieties within recommended sowing windows. An earlier than recommended sowing date of May 19 for the Liverpool Plains resulted in yield losses of ~25% averaged across N treatments for earlier maturing varieties such as JandaroiA and DBA LillaroiA, with possible grain quality implications (e.g. increased screenings).

• Durum varieties displayed differential grain quality and yield responses to time of sowing (TOS) and nitrogen (N) management.
• DBA AuroraA appears to offer good yield potential, but exhibits an increased risk of screenings with increasing rates of N application at sowing or when N is applied before stem elongation (GS31). It also appears to have an increased potential for lower grain protein concentrations (GPC) due to yield dilution under high yielding situations.
• A strategy involving a split application of N at sowing and either GS31 or GS39, could reduce the potential for screening issues in DBA AuroraA while maintaining adequate GPC.
• Findings from this experiment further highlight the need to sow appropriate variety maturity types within their recommended sowing windows.
   

• A good farming system will utilise two to three with varying maturities, to spread risk
• Sowing varieties inside their recommended window is essential and will maximise yield and reduce screenings. 
• Storing summer fallow moisture is the key to producing good yields in these short finishing seasons. 
• In the 2009 season, quick maturing varieties and earlier sowing dates produced the best yields across the region.

• All treatments with zinc sulphate or commercial fungicide Tilt reduced yellow leaf spot infection but only Tilt treatments had increased grain yield.
• Despite yield increase the Tilt treatment was not economic.
• Triadimefon and copper sulphate did not reduce yellow leaf spot infection.

• The high nitrogen rates caused the plants to burn off in early August.
• Grain fill of earlier season varieties was affected by frost damage.

• There was significant rain in early April.
• It was very wet at the time of seeding.
• Reduced emergency due to soil crusting and seeding depth.
• There was adequte rain overall but dry at emergence.

• Delayed sowing provided no advantage over early sowing in reducing ryegrass plant or head number.
• In two out of three seasons, later sown crops were lower yielding and did not provide as good crop competition allowing ryegrass head number to increase.
• Sowing time had no effect on the performance of pre-emergent herbicides for ryegrass control.

• The early break to the 2015 season meant soil moisture and rainfall conditions were similar between ToS 1 and 2 and there was little variation in annual ryegrass control among preemergent herbicides tested.
• Grain yield and quality were not affected by pre-emergent herbicide; however, there was a 0.7 t/ha yield penalty for the later ToS.
• Over two seasons of research ryegrass seed set was greater when sowing was delayed.

The early break to the 2014 season meant soil moisture and rainfall conditions were similar between ToS 1 and 2 and there was little variation in annual ryegrass control among pre-emergent herbicides tested. Grain yield and quality were not affected by pre-emergent herbicide however, there was a 1.22 t/ha yield penalty for the later ToS

1. Preliminary results show better yields and slightly improved grain quality from the earliest sowing date (25 July).
2. There was a difference in plant phenology and physiology between the two early sowing dates (25 July and 16 August).

In-crop control of radish with a range of herbicides was highly effective in reducing the wild radish population.

• Forrest was the highest yielding variety for the 9 April sowing date (Table 6). Shorter season varieties were not able to capture the yield benefits of this time of sowing.  Plant densities of 60 and 120 plants/m2 did not influence the grain yield or quality of wheat when sown on the 9th and 23rd April.
• Magenta was the highest ranked variety when sown on 23 April, however other long-mid maturing varieties also compared favourably.
• Mace , the most widely grown variety in the state, maximised yield at the 12 May sowing time.  It out yielded all other varieties at this sowing date.
• There was no influence of sowing time and plant density on the screenings which were below 5% for all varieties at all sowing times.

Canola Grain Yield at Pindar

All varieties apart from Stingray were able to yield the same or higher from the 9th April sowing opportunity.

As expected the shorter seasoned varieties were not able to capitalise on the 9th April sowing as the longer season varieties.    Grain yield declined with delayed sowing for longer season canola varieties.

Growers may not see a flat yield response for early sowings as an issue.  Instead, the early sowing window allows them to get crop out of the ground and reduces the risk of dry spells leading to a lack of future sowing opportunities.   However pests (eg Diamondback moth) and diseases (such as Sclerotinia), depending on rainfall zone and soil type, need to be factored into decisions about very early sowing windows.

The success of very early sowing depends heavily on soil type, soil moisture and temperature. Growers need to assess the conditions they face in the lead into each season closely before embarking on very early sowing, especially when using hybrid seed with high seed costs.

• If sowing before 20 April, winter wheats (Wedgetail, Wylah, Whistler, Osprey) are at lower risk of stem frost damage than slow maturing spring wheats.
• Keep spring wheats within 507 days of their opitmal sowing date.
• Be prepared tgo back-up imidacloprid treated seed with foliar insecticides if aphids are persisting in autumn.

• Two trials with first wheat sown during mid-April 2014 showed no difference in grain yield or quality as a result of being grown on 22.5cm or 30cm row spacings.
• Crops grown on a 37.5cm row spacing were 5-6% lower yielding than crops on the 30cm spacing.
• Although these are single-year results, they indicate that yield advantages of a narrow spacing (22.5cm) over 30cm, measured with later-sown wheat crops, may not be apparent when wheat crops are sown early (during mid-April).
• Trends suggesting higher dry matter (DM) produciton with a narrow row spacing, which were observed with later-sown crops, were still apparent in these earlier-sown crops; however, this did not translate to higher grain yields.

• Two wheat trials sown during mid-April 2015 showed no difference in grain yield or quality as a result of being grown on 22.5cm, 30cm and 37.5cm row spacings, when averaged across four varieties.
• Although crops grown on a 22.5cm row spacing produced more dry matter (DM), this did not correspond to increased yield.
• The results were identical to that seen with wheat sown in mid-April 2014.
• There were no differences in yields of the four wheat varieties, although Bolac produced higher screenings than the other three varieties in both trials.
• There was no difference in the overall water use efficiency (WUE) between narrow and wide row spacing, although calculated water losses (soil evaporation, drainage or unused water) were greater with wide spacing than the narrow spacing.

• Four wheat trials sown during mid-April 2014 and 2015 showed no difference in grain yield or qualityas a result of being grown on 22.5cm, 30cm and 37.5cm row spacings, when averaged across four varieties (Bolac/Kiora, Lancer, Trojan and EGA Wedgetail).
• The 2016 trial sown during mid-April again showed no difference in yield between 22.5cm and 30cm row spacings, however yields were significantly less with the widest row spacing (37.5cm).
• Trial yields in 2016 were 1.5t/ha higher than 2014 and 2015 (3–4.25t/ha), with the higher yield potential likely to be a key factor in the poor performance of the widest row spacing (37.5cm).
• The Riverine Plains Water Use Efficiency (WUE) project (2009–13) showed that when crops weresown in the traditional sowing window, the 22.5cm spacing was more successful than the 30cm spacing, except in drier years with lower yield potential (2.5–3.0t/ha).
• In the three years (2014–16) of trialling row spacing on early-sown crops, crops grown on a 22.5cm row spacing produced more dry matter (DM) than crops grown on wider rows. However, the 2016 trial was the first to show a yield disadvantage to the widest
row spacing (37.5cm) when sown early.
• As a result of lower yields, the 37.5cm row spacing gave significantly poorer water use efficiency (WUE) than 30cm row spacing, with a greater proportion of calculated water losses (soil evaporation, drainage or unused water).
• A barley row spacing trial, sown at the same time alongside the wheat, provided some usefulcomparative observations during 2016, with La Trobe barley producing higher DM and yields thanwheat with a harvest index (HI) of approximately 50% compared with wheat at 40%.

Winter wheat cultivars Wedgetail and Rosella sown on 1 April were higher yielding than LRPB Scout sown on 6 May.

Reducing plant density to 50 plants/ m² did not reduce the ability of winter wheats to compete with a simulated weed population (tame oats) when sown on 1 April

Winter wheat sown early produced more dry matter for grazing than spring wheats sown in May.

• Highest yields in 2015 came from early sown (9 April) spring cultivars (with 8mm of irrigation for emergence).
• Winter wheats Wedgetail and RAC2341, sown 9 April, yielded more than Scout sown in the normal sowing window (8 May).
• Reducing plant density in early sown slow-developing wheats did not influence yield in either the presence or absence of weeds but did result in greater weed growth.

• New winter genotypes had different phenology responses compared with current commercial genotypes.

• Frost significantly affected phenology and grain yield responses in 2017.

• The highest grain yields were achieved through various sowing date × variety combinations.

• Best management practice is matching varietal phenology with sowing date, however, pre-flowering phases had a significant influence on grain yield responses.
 

• Despite the significant effect of seasonal conditions in 2019, grain yields of >5.5 t/ha were achieved, highlighting the opportunity for early sown winter wheats in grain-only systems. • Differences in phenology and yield responses across sowing dates suggest cultivar
performance can be manipulated by sowing time and can vary across environments. • New winter and long season spring types with consistent yield performance provide alternative early sowing options for growers in southern NSW.

• Disease pressure Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus (BYDV), and Zymoseptoria triticii is going to restrict sowing of susceptible varieties earlier than mid-May in the South East High Rainfall Zone.
• Growers who wish to sow early (dual purpose crops) should select BYDV resistant varieties (eg.Manning), and use resistant cultivars, fungicides and grazing to manage Zymoseptoria triticii.
• The photoperiod (daylength) requirements of Trojan increase its suitability to earlier time of sowing compared with other spring cultivars

• Disease pressure - Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus (BYDV), and Zymoseptoria triticii is going to restrict sowing of susceptible varieties earlier than mid-May in the South East High Rainfall Zone.
• Growers who wish to sow early (dual purpose crops) should select BYDV resistant varieties (eg. Manning), and use grazing/fungicides to manage Zymoseptoria triticii.
• The photoperiod (daylength) requirements of Trojan increase its suitability to earlier time of sowing compared with other spring cultivars.

The effects of plant density (50, 125, 200 plants/m2) on growth and grain yield of early sown wheat were evaluated. Early in the growing season the low density plots looked very sparse but by September had largely caught up whereas the highest density plots looked visually good during early tillering but later in the season tillers were visually thinner and prone to lodging.

There was little effect on grain yield from the cutting treatments in Mackellar whereas cutting resulted in an 18% reduction in yield of
Breakwell.

• The highest yielding spring wheat was Scepter sown on the 4th of May and 16th of March at 1.98 t/ha and 1.82 t/ha, respectively.
• The winter wheat varieties yielded between 0.82 – 1.33 t/ha, with no variety consistently outperforming another.
• 2017 conditions at Booleroo were unfavourable for winter wheats, further data across seasons and locations will be continued in 2018 and 2019.

Data was highly variable so results should be viewed with caution.

• An early sown cereal crop provides a green paddock of feed when regenerating or sown legume pastures are establishing, and avoids the cost and labour of handfeeding.
• In low to medium rainfall areas, barley and oat crops best tolerate grazing. They have better forage value and their ability to recover lessens production penalties. Grazed wheat varieties are likely to suffer grain yield and quality penalties. Dual purpose winter varieties are generally not suitable.
• In low rainfall areas, it is best to graze well before stem elongation for better crop recovery.

• Harvest dates for the ryegrass trials were 22 September and 3 November 2011, while the harvest date for the legume trial was 2-3 November. Harvest date in 2012 was 2 October.
• Little growth occurred after this due to dry conditions.

• Harvest dates for the ryegrass trials were 22 September and 3 November 2011, while the harvest date for the legume trial was 2-3 November. Harvest date in 2012 was 2 October.
• Little growth occurred after this due to dry conditions.

• Improving water use efficiency across mixed cropping and livestock systems thorughout Eastern South Australia
• Improving whole farm profitability, whole farm sustainability and whole farm ground cover across Eastern South Australia.

•    Soil amelioration through ripping with inclusion plates or clay delving has supported the development of plant cover in areas with a history of wind erosion.
•    Mixed species pasture systems can present an opportunity to increase soil cover and feed levels.
•    Summer cover crops can deliver higher levels of soil cover over summer, providing increased soil protection and can support soil amelioration practices, such as ripping with inclusion plates.
•    Compared to stubble treatments, summer cover crops can lower soil water levels when growing, but soil water levels measured post-germination showed mixed results. Even where soil water is lower, there may not be a negative impact on biomass or yield in the subsequent crop as shown in 2021.

Generally, 6-8kgN/ha applied at an earlier than milky dough growth stage is required to raise grain protein 1%. Therefore, this crop required 18-24kg to raise protein from 10.5 to 11.5%.

Each eDemonstration site has a weather station and soil moisture probe and is a place where growers, consultants and industry can gather to learn about and compare all of the decision support tools, systems and technologies available for on farm decision making. Events are organised to ensure a large variety of tools can be evaluated by growers.

• The use of variable-rate technology for nitrogen (VRT-nitrogen) application had mixed gross margin results given measured wheat yields, protein levels, calculated income and nitrogen costs in the nitrogen-rate trials undertaken at Yarrawonga and Dookie during 2017.
• Based on initial results at Yarrawonga and Dookie (using 19 and 13 years of wheat and canola yield responses to growing season rainfalls, respectively), the costs of conducting variable rate applications of nitrogen would require crop yields to increase by about 1%, or applied nitrogen costs to be reduced by at least 70%, before the approach breaks even over time.
• High overhead cost structures increase the risk of negative farm income. As VRT increases overhead costs, reviewing overall cost structures before adopting the technology is advisable.

1. Differences of $204-670/year were found between systems across sites.
2. Cropping intensity is the major factor driving good/poor economic performance.
3. A system water use efficiency of $2.50 of crop income/mm of rainfall over the cropping sequence is achievable and could be used to benchmark current farming systems.

• Fungicide spray significantly reduced the disease severity of spot type net blotch (STNB) in barley in Muntadgin in 2017.
• There was no yield penalty from not applying fungicide in the 2017 growing season in Muntadgin.
• There was no economic benefit from fungicide spray for controlling STNB in Muntadgin in 2017.

Growers view should financially compare the economic impact of both establishment systems over the whole farm, across several years. Account for the differences in grain production and also consider:
• The elite farm that has 100% of pastures successfully established with lucerne;
Versus;
• The farm using cover-cropping methods usually has only 20% of pastures with lucerne and the other 80% of the farm’s pastoral area is composed is mostly annual crop weeds because the lucerne failed to establish.

Pasture improvement in the western wheatbelt has the potential to be very profitable practice. The level of
financial success from pasture improvement is strongly correlated to a farmer’s agronomic and livestock
husbandry skills. It is advisable to take the time to develop:
• A physical plan, to improve pastures and livestock, with the assistance of your District Agronomist and
Livestock Officer;
• Gross margin budgets for sowing the pasture and the livestock enterprise, with the assistance of your
District Agronomist and Livestock Officer;
• An incisive whole farm budget, to produce an economic picture that extends over a 5 year period, with the assistance of your accountant.

Ecopar proves to be a sound mixing partner to improve wild radish control

• Summary of 2 seasons esperiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.4 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser had no effect on September Dry matter (DM) (3.1 t/ha); Seed yield (1.1 t/ha) or N % in DM (3% N) or N in the seed (3.55%).

• B had no effect on %oil (42.8) or on oil yield .

  Notwithstanding the marginal B levels on acid sands of the SWA region, care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary 1994 experiments

• Soil extractable B was 0.3 mg/kg.

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 20 mg/kg

• B fertiliser had no effect on September Dry matter (DM) (2.9 t/ha); Seed yield (1.2 t/ha) or N % in DM (3% N) or N in the seed (3.50%).

• B had no effect on %oil (43.1) or on oil yield (515 kg/ha) .

  Notwithstanding the marginal B levels on acid sands of the SWA region, care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required

• Summary 1994 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.7 mg/kg.

• B fertiliser decreased seedling density (71 to 48).

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 24 mg/kg B nil; 31 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.62 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.32 t/ha  &  increased N % in DM (by 0.46%) and  N in the seed (0.33% increase).

• B had decreased %oil (1.2% decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 142 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.7 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1994 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 1..1 mg/kg.

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 30 mg/kg B nil; 36 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.35 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by .27 t/ha  &  increased N % in DM (by 0.26%) and  N in the seed (0.33% increase).

• B had decreased %oil (1.63% decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 128 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site

• Summary 1994 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0..4 mg/kg.

• B decreased seedling density (53 to 38).

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 15 mg/kg B nil; 19 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.48 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.32 t/ha  &  increased N % in DM (by 0.3%) and  N in the seed (0.12% increase).

• B had decreased %oil (0.59% decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 144 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.40 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1995 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0..4 mg/kg.

• B decreased seedling per sq. metre (50 to 39).

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 17 mg/kg B nil; 22 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.40 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.2 t/ha  &  had no effect 0n N % in DM  and  N in the seed.

• B had decreased %oil (1.4 % decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 100 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.40 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1996 : summary of 2  experiment 

• Soil extractable B was 0.6 & 0.7 mg/kg.

• B application decreased seedling per square metre (63 to 48).

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 27 mg/kg B nil; 36 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.21 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.137 t/ha  &  had no effect 0n N % in DM  and  N in the seed.

• B had decreased %oil (0.58 % decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 70 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.40 soil extractable B.

• Summary 1994 experiment

• Soil extractable B was 0.7 mg/kg.

• B application (Borax) decrease seedling emergence (57 to 42)

• B concentration in dry matter (DM) 22 mg/kg B nil; 27 mg B kg for highest B application

• B fertiliser decreased the  September Dry matter (DM) by 0.37 t/ha; decreased Seed yield by 0.17 t/ha  &  had no effect 0n N % in DM  and  N in the seed.

• B had decreased %oil (0.29 % decrease in Oil%) & decreased oil yield by 90 kg/ha .

  Care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

• Boron not required for the site with 0.40 soil extractable B.