• Kikuyu has the potential to become a valuable addition to pasture mixes on parts of KI.
• Follow the nine golden rules for success – weed, insect and vermin control, good seed/soil contact, shallow seed at 2kg/ha in spring, don’t graze until well established, use N fertiliser or legumes.

• Weed control is essential for effective kikuyu establishment.
• Two sprays of round up is the ‘safest’ bet although you do lose some grazing value and may have difficulties with seeding at the optimum time if the paddock is too wet to spray early.
• Further work is required to quantify the benefits of application of TM 21 on kikuyu pastures on KI.

• Weed control is essential for effective kikuyu establishment.
• Two sprays of round up is the ‘safest’ bet although you do lose some grazing value and may have difficulties with seeding at the optimum time if the paddock is too wet to spray early.
• Further work is required to quantify the benefits of application of TM 21 on kikuyu pastures on KI.

This demonstration investigated knockdown weed control options prior to sowing. For the knockdown control of ryegrass, canola and wild radish prior to sowing, glyphosate is quite effective and no additional herbicides are generally required. Glyphosate is weak on marshmallow and a group G herbicide is required as a mix with the glyphosate. To reduce the risk of group M (glyphosate) resistance developing in ryegrass it is strongly recommended to use the ‘double knock’ approach (glyphosate followed four to seven days later by SpraySeed®) on at least some paddocks every year.

• It is no longer a question of whether ryegrass will become resistant; it is when! 
• Double knock was the most effective treatment for managing this ryegrass population  (98% control).
• Alternative crop options should be integrated into the rotation to manage weeds and reduce the reliance of glyphosate. 
• High water rates, spraying closer to evening and no later than 7-10 days after the initial knockdown are essential when using Paraquat.

Lambs grazed on forage brassica at Jil Jil from November 2011 to early January 2012 achieved adequate growth rates (230 g/head/day). The forage brassica provided green paddock feed for nearly two months during harvest, saving stubbles for later use and avoiding hand feeding.

How quickly can your N be lost? Most yield reductions come from one or two nitrogen- loss events pertaining to:
Denitrification  

• 10 percent lost in 3 days of saturated soils saturated (i.e. 20+ percent lost in four days of  wet soils)

Leaching  

• Heavy soils: lose NO3 nitrogen with tile-line flow  (7 to 23 Kgs/year)

 

• The use of eNtrenchTM, adequate sulphur at sowing, AwakenTM foliar all should be considered to enhance hay yields.
• A more complete approach to nutrition (sulphur, zinc & copper) is only beneficial if the nutrition is managed within the environment provided. This is what AwakenTM, eNtrenchTM & Pro Gibb take advantage of.
• By stabilising the nitrogen, big gains in utilisation were able, which results in more efficient use of land for hay production which could be adopted easily as all changes fit with existing operations.
• The extra costs are easily returned in yield, even in a poor rainfall season.
• The adoption of these products is not difficult as they fit as part of existing regimes.

• Commander was the only variety which did not meet the minimum protein of 9%.
• 50kg/ha Urea was required to increase Commander’s protein into the malt range from 8.6 to 9.7%.
• To increase grain protein by 1%, 10kg/ha Urea is required for every tonne of expected yield.
• For example, a 5t/ha crop requires at least 50kg/ha Urea. applying nitrogen (N) later in the season, when the yield potential is relatively certain, knowing the N (available soil N, mineralisation and applied N) available to the crop, will help refine the amount of N required.

• Apply nitrogen early (stem elongation) for yield and later (head emergence) for protein.
• Nitrogen decisions should be made as the season unfolds because a good finish can make all the difference.
• Given the total amount of nitrogen applied to the crop and the soft finish, all treatments met APW specification for protein (above 10.5%).
• There was no significant difference in yield or protein between the different urea, UAN and liquid urea.
• There was also no significant difference between the 25 kg N/ha and the 50 kg N/ha rates for yield, however protein was increased.
   

There are very few quick and easy ways of obtaining reliable information in the field for use in the management of legume nitrogen. The development of tools for this purpose awaits further research and innovation.

good nodulation in the uninoculated treatments, and the absence of growth or yield responses to inoculation in this trial, indicated that pulses have been grown sufficiently often in this particular paddock (lentil in 2007 and pulses every two/three years previously) to maintain appropriately high rhizobial populations in the soil. as the numbers of rhizobia decline in the soil over time, consider inoculation based on, paddock history and length of time since growing the last legume crops. Pulses often benefit from inoculation if there has not been a legume grown in the paddock for six years. where rhizobial populations are low in the soil, inoculation of legumes at sowing is extremely important to ensure adequate nitrogen fixation

2018 Season 

• While growing season conditions were dry and grain yields were low and therefore not profitable, both Bolt lentils and Gunyah field peas yielded highest of the 5 break crop species grown at the Salmon Gums demonstration site. Soil boron levels were relatively high at this site.
• Following waterlogged conditions in August, Bonito canola out yielded the 4 four legume break crop species grown at the Gibson demonstration site, with Samira faba beans a close second.
• The addition of an extra 72 Units of nitrogen (171L Flexi-N delivered in 3 incremental applications) to the 5 break crops at the Gibson demonstration site resulted in significant increases in yield and earnings before tax profit in both Bonito canola and Samira faba beans but made little difference to the performance of PBA Strikers chickpeas, Morava vetch and Jurien lupins. The addition of extra nitrogen to Faba beans lifted yield by an average of 0.763t/ha taking it to 2.473t/ha which was close to the average yield of un-topped-up canola (2.169t/ha).
• In terms of earnings before tax, the faba bean crop was the most profitable of the 5 break crops grown at Gibson. It is important to note though that the $800/tonne price seen for faba beans in February 2018 was well above both the five and ten year average for this crop.

2019 Season 

• Annual rainfall was well below average in 2019 at all 5 demonstration sites in the Esperance Port Zone and an unprecedented frost event in September affected crop flowering at the Ravensthorpe, Salmon Gums and Beaumont sites. It’s important these seasonal conditions are factored to in to interpretation of legume crop performance at these sites.
• Poor growing conditions at the Ravensthorpe demonstration site resulted in very low yields and none of the break crops grown were profitable. The State Government declared part of the Ravensthorpe Shire as water deficient on 7th May 2019 and further parts of the Shire on 13th February 2020.
• Reasonable rainfall in August stimulated germination of broadleaf weeds resulting in a higher than ideal weed burden in all break crop species strips at the Ravensthorpe site. This highlights the limited control options available for late weed germination in legumes.
• At the Coomalbidgup demonstration site while lupins yielded highest of the break crop species grown, they were not profitable, making an EBT tax loss. Chickpeas were the only profitable break crop species grown at this site; lower seasonal rainfall meant the waterlogging conditions that commonly prevail at this location were not a constraint on chickpea yield. An average rainfall year would likely result in chickpea yield losses due to their susceptibility waterlogging.
• Dry conditions at the start of the season at Coomalbidgup reduced herbicide efficacy but the site did not have a high background broadleaf weed pressure so competition was unlikely to have greatly reduced crop yield.
• Poor growing conditions at the Beaumont demonstration site, which entailed a dry start, a severe frost at flowering and a very dry finish resulted in none of the 5 break crops grown performing profitably. The dry start at this site affected plant establishment of the chickpeas and faba beans in particular. Seeding equipment issues handling the large seed size of the faba beans also reduced establishment of the beans.
• Poor growing conditions, which entailed 2 dry preceding years resulting in very low subsoil moisture at the start of the season, a dry start, a dry growing season, a severe frost at flowering and a dry finish meant that Scepter wheat yields were below average at the Salmon Gums demonstration site. There was no significant difference in wheat yields achieved between the 2018 break crop species treatments. Scepter was profitable after each of the 2018 break crop species except in those replicates following vetch. Wheat after lentils were most profitable with an EBT return of $50/ha, followed by wheat after field peas at $34/ha.
• At the Gibson Demonstration Site wheat following vetch grown in 2018 yielded highest and was therefore the most profitable. Wheat following faba beans and lupins grown in 2018 yielded next highest; their yields being statistically similar. Wheat in replicates following 2018 canola and chickpeas were similar and yielded lowest of the 2018 break crop species treatments.
• Wheat yield in replicates that received an additional 171L/ha of Flexi N in 2018 yielded higher than those that did not and as such were more profitable.
• Tissue test data and wheat yields achieved at the Gibson site suggested nitrogen carryover from 2018 to the 2019 cropping season had occurred. This was not reflected in the pre-seeding soil test data demonstrating the significance of low soil moisture in impeding soil nitrogen mineralization. These results emphasise the importance of understanding mineralization when interpreting soil test results in dry conditions and the merits of coupling autumn soil testing with in-crop tissue or soil testing to support in-crop nutrition decisions.

• Growers and advisers should be vigilant in applying protective fungicide sprays in chickpea and lentil crops for ascochyta blight.
• Many current and minor use permit fungicides trialed at Hart in 2017 provided good preventative control (less than 10% of plants infected) for ascochyta blight including; chlorothalonil, Aviator Xpro, Cabrio and Captan.

• Interactions between herbicide and application rate did not have differing responses for grain yield, biomass yield, or gross margin at Minnipa, 2018.
• Combined herbicide and application timing treatments did show differences in grain yield, biomass yield and gross margin.
• Metribuzin and Diuron treatments indicated increased safety levels (58-466% higher biomass and 6-161% higher grain yield) and lower economic risk compared to Terbuthylazine treatments.
• For herbicide applications incorporated by sowing, Metribuzin was of lower economic risk (45% higher gross margin) than Diuron.

• There was a significant difference in lentil yield from sowing depth (shallow yielded none).
• There was no effect of herbicide use.
• Commercial practice would still indicate a minimum sowing depth of 6cm is required for lentils.

• Lentils are well suited to the heavier soils of Mingenew
• The newly released variety PBA Highland XT produced the highest yields
• XT lines will prove useful if farmers have SU residues or use IMI herbicides

 

There would be significant benefit in combining improved group C herbicide tolerance with the ‘imidazolinone’ tolerance of varieties like PBA Hallmark XT, providing a more complete herbicide management package for lentils into the future. Results suggest that the use of Group C products at sowing in the ‘imidazolinone’ tolerant varieties may increase sensitivity to in crop use of ‘imidazolinone’ products.

• NDVI indicated differences in lentil growth with low values in treatments which received no nitrogen (see Table 3 in attached trial report summary).  The highest values were in the treatments which received all macro nutrients (All and Alltrace elements).  
• Biomass data was collected from bays 3, 5 and 9.  Individually no bay showed statistically significant effects of the treatments, but collectively there was significance at the p < 0.01 level (see Figure 1 in attached trial report summary).  The treatments with the lowest biomass were the All-N and Nil plots which both had no nitrogen added.
• The only significant effect on grain yield was in bay 4 where the All-N and Nil treatments were lowest.  While the grain yield in this bay was very low, the response is consistent with the data from both NDVI and biomass. 

• Newly released varieties, PBA Ace and PBA Bolt, had the highest grain yields at Curyo (southern Mallee, Vic.) in 2012.
• Yields exceeded 2.5t/ha for both varieties when sown early, despite the very dry season. All varieties had higher grain yields when sown early (May 4) compared with later dates (June 5 and June 22).
• Varietal differences were evident in the relative decline in grain yield as sowing dates were delayed.
• Differences in tolerance to a range of group B herbicides were observed in several breeding lines. Pulse Breeding Australia will use this information to define future breeding directions for herbicide tolerant varieties, following PBA Herald XT.

• Average yield increase of 0.3 t/ha or 12% where chaff was added. (Although in some seasons addition of chaff resulted in no yield benefit or a yield decline.)
• Microbial population has doubled where chaff was added.
• 650 kg/ha more nitrogen where chaff was added.
• Soil now holds 8 t/ha more organic carbon where chaff was added.

• Significant lime response in third year after application
   
• Sub soil acidity can be addressed with lime incorporation but may not be most cost-effective treatment – requires further seasons of testing

Lime or dolomite were both effective tools for increasing pH in this trial.

The use of gypsum in combination with either lime or dolomite gave the highest yields for both wheat and barley.

 

• A full liquid system including N, P, Trace elements and fungicides provided the greatest yield response and was significantly better than district practice granular treatments.
• Liquid N gave the most significant response of all liquid treatments in terms of mid-season biomass and yield.
• Full liquid and liquid N treatments provided similar returns to that of traditional treatments and greater returns than liquid P only.

In all three trials there was no statistically significant yield response to additional post-emergent liquid nitrogen. Given the below average rainfall experienced in the district in this season, this result is probably not unexpected. 

For further comments please see the attached trial report.

• Granular and liquid fertilisers were equally effective in terms of grain yield for wheat. ƒ
• The addition of zinc and copper had no effect on crop performance.
• Liquid P produced more dry matter production at the 5-leaf stage than granular P. ƒ
• More P was taken up by the crop as a liquid rather than as a granular.

• Over two years of trial work, there has been no economic advantage for the use of fluids.
• The site was yield responsive to high rates of liquid P.
• At rates typical of farmer practice there was no difference between granular and fluid.

• Modest autumn grazing of no-till crop stubbles sometimes leads to small measurable increases in surface soil bulk density.
• In two seasons, on soils in the Mallee and Wimmera, modest autumn grazing of no-till crop stubbles had no measurable effect on crop yield, quality or weed seed burial.

Light to moderate grazing of sheep on no-till stubbles in autumn is unlikely to have detrimental impacts on crop growth in the following season.

• Lodging is becoming a significant problem in rice as growers push for maximum grain yields, but some varieties are more prone to lodging than others.

• Management practices such as drill sowing, reduced sowing rate, reduced pre-permanent water nitrogen rate and draining on time reduce the potential for lodging.
 

• Seeding system had a significant effect on wheat grain yield with the disc treatment averaging 4.1 t/ha compared to the no-till and strategic systems which averaged 3.5 and 3.4 t/ha, respectively. 
• The higher nitrogen treatments increased grain protein levels and screenings, while decreasing test weight across all seeding systems.

• Seeding systems did not affect wheat grain yield, averaging 5.3 t/ha.
• Good rainfall and cool temperatures during grain fill increased yield potential and the higher N rate resulted in a 1.2 t/ha yield advantage.
• Available soil N pre-seeding ranged from 80 – 190 kg N/ha with 75 kg N/ha more accumulated under the high N rate.

• There was no significant difference between seeding systems or level of nutrition on grain yield or oil content.
• Soil available N was the same for all seeding systems pre-seeding however, the no till treat had released more available soil N.
• In-season more available N was measured in the high nutrition treatment compared to the medium.

• The higher input brassica break system had higher cereal yields than the other systems in 2009.
• Rhizoctonia inoculum levels were higher under the continuous cropping systems compared to the medic pasture and brassica break crops.
• The different rotations and fertiliser systems have resulted in differences in the microbial community (number) and microbial diversity (their ability to use different sources of carbon).
• Disease suppression is still the same in all rotations.

• After 18 years there was no standout rotation, in terms of profitability, in any given season. All  rotations had their pros and cons in both wet and dry years. Therefore having a mix
  of rotations and doing things on time is a recipe for a resilient business.
• The most profitable rotation for the duration of the trial was the continuous cropping rotation, which included two wheat crops followed by a pulse crop in a no-till system. The addition of the pulse crop every third year was beneficial, especially for adding extra nitrogen, however added issues such as broadleaf weed blowouts with weeds like fumitory.

Barley grain yield was not affected by tillage treatment averaging 4.25 t/ha. The medium nitrogen level increased grain yield by 0.61 t/ha compared to the high nitrogen level

• Wheat grain yield was not significantly different between seeding systems or level of nitrogen, averaging 5 t/ha.
• The high nutrition treatment increased grain protein.
• The high nutrition treatments had accumulated 28 kg N/ha more soil available nitrogen compared to the medium treatments to a depth of 60 cm.

• There was no significant yield difference between any of the P rates in 2008
• The most profitable application rate of P on average between 2003 and 2008 has been zero on a site with a strong fertiliser history and initial soil P Colwell of 41ppm
• Maintenance rates of 5kg/ha, produced the second highest net income with the least amount of risk
• Avoid making fertiliser decisions on ‘gut feel’. Make use of tools such as soil tests and nutrient balances to determine P rates in 2009.

• Field peas are responsive to the applicatio nof phosphorus.
• In the Mallee, peas sown on low phosphorus soils (<15ppm Colwell) should be sown with 13-15kg P/ha. In higher P soils, rates should be 10-13kg P/ha. 

• Crop water use and soil analysis values were very similar between the sites comparing long term reduced tillage and stubble retention.
• Reduced tillage and stubble retention has significantly contributed to increasing organic carbon levels at these sites.
• The grain yields of wheat were greatest at the sites with higher water use efficiency for each location.

• Crop water use and soil analysis values were very similar between the sites comparing long term reduced tillage and stubble retention.
• Reduced tillage and stubble retention has significantly contributed to increasing organic carbon levels at these sites.
• The grain yields of wheat were greatest at the sites with higher water use efficiency for each location.

• Crop water use and soil analysis values were very similar between the sites comparing long term reduced tillage and stubble retention.
• Reduced tillage and stubble retention has significantly contributed to increasing organic carbon levels at these sites.
• The grain yields of wheat were greatest at the sites with higher water use efficiency for each location.

• Autumn removal of lucerne significantly decreased subsequent winter crop yields compared to spring removal of lucerne.
• Crops sown after spring removal of lucerne yielded the same as the crops grown in a continuous crop rotation.
• The crop yield penalty from autumn removal only lasts for one year.
• Apart from Grazon, all other herbicide treatments gave unacceptable lucerne control.
• Cultivation in combination with other herbicides will increase lucerne control by  20 to 30%. 
   

Using a combine harvester to manage stubble at harvest was expensive and exposed crops to greater risk of weather damage.  Harvesting tall and inter-row sowing was the cheapest form of stubble management and also gave good establishment.  Burning is cheap and effective at removing stubble, and allowed excellent establishment and greater early vigor for competition with weeds, but may not suit all paddock types.

• There was no difference in the yield performance of the three hybrids. Differences between the hybrids were evident for cob number and grain quality only.
• The highest maize yields were obtained from the 150 kg N/ha, 200 kg N/ha at sowing and the 75:75 kg N/ha split nitrogen (N) treatments, which all produced similar yields.

 

• The trial site suffered from very dry conditions for the first three months after sowing.
• As a result, final grain yields were very low, averaging 0.3 t/ha.
• There was no impact from varying nitrogen rate on any aspect of plant growth or grain yield at this site except for cob number per plant.
• Hybrid selection affected crop yield.
   

• The starting soil nitrogen (N) at this site was 73 kg N, which was sufficient to supply the average crop yield of 2.1 t/ha, which was achieved.
• Consequently, there was no response to any of the nitrogen treatments applied.
• Hybrid selection had a major impact on plant structures, grain yield and quality. Pioneer 1467 produced more tillers than the other two hybrid maize varieties.
• Pacific 606 produced the highest grain yield at 2.65 t/ha and also had the highest 1000 grain weight and lowest screenings of the three hybrid maize varieties examined.
   

The overall conclusion of this work is that even in yeras with a tight finish, screenings are unlikely to increase as a result of topdressed nitrogen.

• Malting barley needs to be sown early to optimise yield and minimise the risk of protein and screenings being too high.
• Applying fertiliser nitrogen to paddocks with high soil available nitrogen at sowing will lead to high protein and high screenings.
• Narrow row spacings wnd higher sowing rates increases yield and also minimises the risk of producing barley with high protein and screenings.

• Including legume crops and pastures in rotations increases soil nitrogen even two years after the legume break was grown.
• Brown manure vetch has proven to be the best break phase for increasing soil mineral nitrogen.
• Crop sequences have had small and variable effects on plant available soil water.
• Rhizoctonia inoculum levels are highest following cereal crops and high Rhizoctonia levels have corresponded with poor root health. Canola decreased inoculum levels to levels similar to a fallow.
• High brome grass numbers re-emerged two years after a one year break.

• Increasing row spacing reduced plant establishment and shoot densities but this was notreflected in reductionsin grain yield at widerrow spacing treatmentsin droughtstressed trial environments: there were no statistically significant differences in grain yield between any of the row spacing treatments.
• Key management decisions for optimising production were variety choice (at all sites) and nitrogen management (Curyo).
• At Curyo, barley varieties responded differently to row spacing, nitrogen timing and combinations of row spacing and nitrogen.
• Varying pre-emergent herbicide did not effect yield at Manangatang or Jil Jil.
• Variety yield performance was consistent with long-term National Variety Trial data (Hindmarsh, Buloke performing well, Commander and SloopVic performing poorly in dry environments).

Variety choice was the management decision with the highest impact on grain yield and gross income compared to other management considerations.

• Increasing incidence of barley grass in cropping paddocks in southern Australia is likely to be associated with selection of more dormant biotypes by weed management practices used by growers.
• In some districts, barley grass management is now being complicated by the evolution of group A resistance. However, there appear to be several effective potential herbicide alternatives for barley grass control in broadleaf crops.
• Integrated weed management strategies are critical to delay onset of herbicide resistant barley grass.

• Cultivation will often see improved yields in the first two seasons, particularly on lighter soils.
• The 2018 season saw 409 mm of growing season rainfall (GSR) resulting in a significant response to nitrogen (N) and a response to a residual high potassium (K) applied in 2017.
• In soils deficient in K (below 40-50mg/kg) at 0-10 cm, application of higher rates of top dressed K to take advantage of the residual benefits across seasons could be considered.
   

• A high application of potassium (K), 25 kg/ha and standard nitrogen (N) rates, 70 kg/ha improved wheat yield and grain quality up to 0.47 t/ha on mould boarded deep sand.
• In the presence of adequate potassium (> 40-50 mg/kg), in favourable seasons, wheat can respond to the application of N) fertiliser, resulting in high yield and protein. Where K is limited, returns from N are likely to be poor.
• The results indicate that a higher rate of K than banding 11 kg/ha K can lead to a significant increase in yield and profitability.
   

• The nitrogen application strategy that maximised grain yield was not always the same strategy to minimise nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions.
• While nitrogen applied at GS31 maximised wheat yield following field pea it produced 10 times higher emissions compared to the same application at seeding.
• The pattern and concentration of N2O emissions were similar for wheat following field pea or canola.

• Incorrect identification could be costly as with Take all and Crown rot require different management.
• Check the bases of plants for symptoms, don’t rely on whiteheads (which need not even be disease related).
• Even where whiteheads are not present, significant yield losses can occur.
• Know the risk of yield loss in your paddocks before sowing. For 2012 crops, this will mean sending summer/autumn soil samples to the Predicta B testing service for analysis.
• The most effective management tool for both diseases is host-free breaks.
• Where old cereal rows have medium to high inoculum levels, sowing between those old rows can reduce yield losses from these diseases, but only if the inter-row has low levels of inoculum.
• When Take-all inoculum levels are medium to high, the best option is a 12 month break from hosts. If susceptible cereals must be sown, keep the paddock(s) weed free and sow the atrisk paddock(s) last in the cereal cropping program.
• When crown rot inoculum levels are medium to high, the best option is a break from hosts (2-3 years may be needed). If cereals must be sown then barley is least likely to show yield loss, followed by oats and bread wheat. Do not apply excessive nitrogen early in the season.

Barley can be successfully grown on retained wheat stubble, but it is advisable to burn wheat stubble when growing wheat on wheat. If stubble is retained then Yellow Leaf Spot can be a devastating disease in a wet winter. The most important management practices when growing a cereal on cereal are as follows:

• Select paddocks with low numbers of grass weeds.
• Retain wheat stubble for barley, burn the stubble for wheat.
• Control summer weeds to ensure summer rainfall can be used by the crop.
• Use varieties with good disease resistance such as Silverstar or Krichauff.
• Disease - select paddocks with low disease pressure (monitor the previous crop) and DNA test the paddock prior to sowing.
•  Apply sufficient nitrogen for a good crop (soil test to know how much to apply).
• Barley on barley can lead to serious problems with leaf diseases such as net blotch.

• There was no effect on barley yield from applying lime in this experiment, despite the low soil pHCa of 4.5, potentially due to the low levels of exchangeable aluminium in the soil.
• The highest yield came from planting either Compass or La Trobe on 8 May, applying 80 kg/ha of nitrogen (N) at sowing. Applying N did not increase grain yield in the 28 May sowing treatments.
• The acid tolerant barley variety Litmus yielded less than Compass or La Trobe from the 8 May sowing. Delayed sowing reduced the grain yield of Compass and La Trobe, but not of Litmus.
• Applying phosphorus (P) (20 P kg/ha) did not increase grain yield at either sowing time.

• The application of a plant growth regulator (PGR) significantly reduced plant height for all nitrogen rates (0-80 kg N/ha).
• Grain yield increased with higher nitrogen rates, however PGR application had no effect.
• The highest yielding treatment was a combination of 80 kg N/ha + PGR at 4.66 t/ha.

• The highest yielding treatments were the early high nitrogen rate (2.80t/ha) or the high nitrogen rate (2.91t/ha).
• Treatments imposed to manipulate crop growth were unable to save more soil moisture for grain fill

• Wheat dry matter production and total crop nitrogen was significantly lower in wider row spacing treatments.
• For the all the crops grain yield was significantly lower in the wider row spacing treatments.
• Treatments imposed to manipulate crop growth were unable to save more soil moisture for grain fill.

• Sowing the shorter maturing varieties, Emu Rock and Corack in early May was less productive than sowing Cobra, Mace, Magenta and Wyalkatchem.
• In 2013, the varieties sown in late May were higher yielding than varieties sown in early May however, screenings of Magenta and Emu Rock were greater than 5%. This response will vary from season to season so the disadvantages and advantages of early sowing need to be clearly considered.
• Nitrogen application increased wheat yield by 4.8 kg/ha for each kilogram of nitrogen (averaged across variety and sowing time) in 2013. 

• Results from this study, clearly demonstrated that sowing timing is important. For example, delayed sowing (30 June vs 9 May) reduced the grain yield potential for EGA GregoryA by 1.75 t/ha or ~24%.
• Agronomic management factors that affected yield potential from the early sowing time (9 May) included response to nitrogen (N) input (~9% variation), with genotype and crown rot disease pressure both individually accounting for ~8% variations in grain yield.
• When the time of sowing was delayed to 30 June, agronomic factors had a larger impact/variation on grain yield potential. With both genotype (variety selection) and crown rot disease pressure responsible for a 13% variation/decline in grain yield.
• Delayed sowing also affected yield response to N with no increase in grain yield potential due to N input, whilst targeted plant population affected grain yield, with the low population treatment accounting for ~9%
   

• Know the risk of yield loss from eyespot before sowing a cereal - inspect stem bases (lodging does not always occur) in a previous cereal crop or take soil samples pre-sowing and submit them to PREDICTA B for analysis.
• When selecting varieties with some resistance to eyespot, check their susceptibility to leaf/stem diseases to ensure they are not very susceptible to diseases such as stem rust.
• Where eyespot pressure is low, varietal resistance alone will assist in reducing yield losses, but at medium to high level eyespot pressure, resistance alone may not be sufficient to provide good protection from eyespot.
• Varieties with weak straw strength are more likely to lodge if affected by eyespot.
• If applying fungicides for eyespot control - use the correct rate; apply before canopy closure (GS30-31); use high water rates; target the plant base (note that Aviator® Xpro® @ 500mL/ha is registered for eyespot control).

Apart from the groups continuing to roll out the results of this project there will be further development in two main areas:

• THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SIMPLE TOOL FOR FARMERS AND CONSULTANTS TO USE WITH THEIR OWN FIGURES TO ASSESS VARIOUS DECISIONS,.AND
• THE FURTHER APPLICATION, WITH CSIRO TO USE THE TOOL TO ASSESS RESEARCH RESULTS IN TERMS OF THEIR IMPACT ON PROFIT AND RISK ON FARM”.

Hostile subsoils can significantly constrain crop growth and water use in the Mallee and Wimmera. Although the subsoil constraints are effectively fixed, the impact they have on grain yields can vary markedly with crop type and seasonal conditions (particularly the pattern of rainfall). Electromagnetic survey (EM) techniques offer the potential to assess the distribution and extent of subsoil constraints within a paddock. Management options however are currently limited and the most financially viable strategy may be to ‘live with the problem’ where inputs such as N fertiliser are limited and crop selection restricted to more tolerant types and varieties.

Hostile subsoils can significantly constrain crop growth and water use in the Mallee and Wimmera. Although the subsoil constraints are effectively fixed, the impact they have on grain yields can vary markedly with crop type and seasonal conditions (particularly the pattern of rainfall). Electromagnetic survey (EM) techniques offer the potential to assess the distribution and extent of subsoil constraints within a paddock. Management options however are currently limited and the most financially viable strategy may be to ‘live with the problem’ where inputs such as N fertiliser are limited and crop selection restricted to more tolerant types and varieties.

• Decision support tools such as ‘Select Your Nitrogen’ and ‘CliMate’ can help decision making with in-season nitrogen applications.
• In a decile 1 year there are limited benefits from in season nitrogen applications when yield does not increase with additional N fertiliser.
• Better economic returns result when both yield and protein are increased in higher decile years.
• It is important to understand production goal and the potential economic return of your nitrogen inputs.

• 40 kg N/ha applied upfront was the best yielding treatment for 2015, with the best protein results where the 40 Kg of N was applied as Urea.
• We found that 20 kg N/ha applied as a Zn enriched Urea product achieved a yield close to 40 kg N/ha as straight urea and we plan to test this treatment again in 2016.
• The timing and form of S application did not have any effect in 2015.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-
coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by over 20%.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increase yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N, S and Zn to the sand.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by more than 20%.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increased yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N,S and Zn to the sand.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-
coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by over 20%.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increase yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N, S and Zn to the sand.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-
coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by over 20%.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increase yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N, S and Zn to the sand.

• With high grain prices, small increases in productivity can significantly improve farm profitability.
• At Goolagong, NSW, wheat yields were significantly increased by the use of a balanced fertiliser regime including N, P, K, S, Mg and Zn.
• An analysis of gross margins showed that the application of secondary and trace elements would have significantly improved farm profitability.
• Zinc-efficient (Excalibur) and inefficient (Gatcher) wheat cultivars grown in calcareous subsoil with low micronutrient levels, high pH and B. Treatments were +/- basal nutrients (exc Zn) and +/-Zn.
• Gatcher produced 47% more DM tops and double the root length density of Excalibur by maturity.
• Excalibur was far more efficient in Zn uptake and 7 times more efficient than Gatcher in partitioning zinc to grain.
• Simulated dry sowing was not shown to have any detrimental effect on Zn fertiliser use efficiency.

Result: Fertiliser incubated in dry soil tended to have greater lability but diffusion was limited, although this did not have any effect on availability to subsequent wheat.

• Maintaining ryegrass seedbanks at low levels is critical due to the weeds competitive nature and ability to rapidly evolve resistance

• Effective management strategies in a canola and wheat cropping rotation can provide long-term management of Group A resistant ryegrass

• This trial was conducted in Victoria; varieties and some technologies utilised in this trial are not registered for use in South Australia.

• This set of trials indicates that SACOA ‘Irrigator’ banded wetting agent can improve crop establishment and grain yield but that responses can be highly variable. The 27-32% yield increase seen in 3 of the trials is very encouraging. Based on these and other trials it can be suggested that banded wetting agents are most likely to be effective when:
• Soils are moderate to strongly repellent and there are few residual roots form the previous year’s crop; and points and tines are used for seeding.
• Banded wetter is applied in a consistent stream to the base of relatively stable furrows. Collapsing furrows, furrow infill and a disrupted band of wetting agent can reduce efficacy. Presswheels with a more rectangular cross section tend to rip up furrow walls and the disturbed soil buries and mixes banded wetting agent. ‘V’ section or round section presswheels with no deep flange reduce such problems.
• The banded wetting agent kit needs to be robust and reliable and needs to accurately apply the wetting agent in a continuous stream into the base of the furrow
• Crops sown early into dry or partially dry soil before opening rains derive more benefit from banded wetter. Banded wetting agents are typically less beneficial when used later in the sowing program when there has already been rain and the soil has started to wet up.
• Growers already using wetting agents are tending to modify their usage of banded wetter to better match the likelihood of significant benefits. Some growers only use banded wetter for the dry seeding or early part of the program and don’t use it later in the program after there has been more rain.  Other growers are planning to use higher rates of banded wetter early in the program but then aim to reduce the rates when sowing later in the season. Both of these strategies will reduce cost while maximising the opportunity for benefits to crop establishment and yield. Current research in the state is showing that different banded wetting agent products can have a wide range of effects of crop establishment and especially on yield. DAFWA is continuing to research a range of products to help growers evaluate which types of banded wetting agent are more suitable for their farming system.

• This set of trials indicates that SACOA ‘Irrigator’ banded wetting agent can improve crop establishment and grain yield but that responses can be highly variable. The 27-32% yield increase seen in 3 of the trials is very encouraging. Based on these and other trials it can be suggested that banded wetting agents are most likely to be effective when:
• Soils are moderate to strongly repellent and there are few residual roots form the previous year’s crop; and points and tines are used for seeding.
• Banded wetter is applied in a consistent stream to the base of relatively stable furrows. Collapsing furrows, furrow infill and a disrupted band of wetting agent can reduce efficacy. Presswheels with a more rectangular cross section tend to rip up furrow walls and the disturbed soil buries and mixes banded wetting agent. ‘V’ section or round section presswheels with no deep flange reduce such problems.
• The banded wetting agent kit needs to be robust and reliable and needs to accurately apply the wetting agent in a continuous stream into the base of the furrow
• Crops sown early into dry or partially dry soil before opening rains derive more benefit from banded wetter. Banded wetting agents are typically less beneficial when used later in the sowing program when there has already been rain and the soil has started to wet up.
• Growers already using wetting agents are tending to modify their usage of banded wetter to better match the likelihood of significant benefits. Some growers only use banded wetter for the dry seeding or early part of the program and don’t use it later in the program after there has been more rain.  Other growers are planning to use higher rates of banded wetter early in the program but then aim to reduce the rates when sowing later in the season. Both of these strategies will reduce cost while maximising the opportunity for benefits to crop establishment and yield. Current research in the state is showing that different banded wetting agent products can have a wide range of effects of crop establishment and especially on yield. DAFWA is continuing to research a range of products to help growers evaluate which types of banded wetting agent are more suitable for their farming system.

• The addition of extra nutrients did not increase yield, therefore it is expected that more nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur remained in soil to breakdown stubble.
• Tillage practices (removed, worked or standing) also have no effect on grain yield or quality in both years of trials.

• The addition of extra nutrients did not increase yield, therefore it is expected that more nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur remained in soil to breakdown stubble.
• Tillage practices (removed, worked or standing) also have no effect on grain yield or quality in both years of trials.

Increasing plant density is a tool to improve a crop’s competitiveness against weeds. This strategy did not adversely affect the yield of the varieties at the Liebe Main Trial Site in 2012. 

Nitrogen treatments did not significantly influence crop yield however, did influence grain protein. The soil nitrogen levels and season are likely to have influenced this result. Soil testing and understanding the crops requirements as the season unfolds are useful strategies to manage crop performance economically.

The environment is likely to have had the bigger influence on the performance of the varieties than plant density or nitrogen. Growing season rainfall for 2012 was lower than average and disease patches (likely Rhizoctonia) were evident at the trial. The water use efficiency at the site was 13 kg/mm given growing season rainfall (April to October) was 133mm (plus 34mm in January) and grain yields of 1.98 t/ha across whole trial.

• Cobra and Mace were significantly higher yielding than Emu Rock at all seeding densities (P<0.05). There was a yield increase for Emu Rock and Cobra when plant density increased from 83 plants/m2 to 130 plants/m². Further  increases in plant density did not improve or reduced grain yield of these varieties. There was a yield increase for Mace from 130 plants/m2 162 plants/m2. Increasing plant density did not influence grain screenings which were less than 2% for all varieties.
• At Badgingarra, nitrogen application at seeding (14, 30, 60 and 90 kg/ha) did not affect grain yield at either seeding densities (data not provided).   The soil was a red sandy loam with nitrate levels in the top 20 cm of soil at 55mg/kg.   Protein levels in the grain were in excess of 12.5% for all treatments and varieties.  The higher split nitrogen application did significantly increase protein by 0.4% however without a yield increase the late N application was not economical.   This may be a strategy to consider for high yielding varieties such as Mace.  At the higher plant density, and higher yield, Mace had lower protein than Cobra and Emu Rock.  

• Trials in the Condobolin area have shown excellent responses to topdressing in wetter years when the nitrogen requirement of the crop is higher than initially expected.

• In wheat an application rate of 20 kg N/ha in-season was sufficient to achieve the highest yield at Hart in 2017. However, it was the 80 kg/ha treatment which maximised yield and protein to achieve the best return on nitrogen fertiliser invested.
• For barley an application of 40 kg N/ha was adequate to produce the highest yield and quality within the trial.

• Manganese deficiency of wheat decreased the concentration of lignin and phenolic compounds, important precursors to a range of defence mechanisms.
• Reductions in biological defence chemicals are considered to be the primary reason for increased take all infection in zinc deficient plants.

• Application of Mn or Mn+nitrogen increased barley yield.
• There may have been some residual value of the applied Mn.

• Applying N at GS31 increased yield but no response to manganese was measured.

Mace was the highest yielder with the best grain quality and being a hard variety gave the best gross margin. All other varieties didn’t make their base grade of APW2 with the exception of one Magenta treatment. Adding nitrogen had a negative impact on yields and therefore gross margins with the exception of Magenta 25N, which was able to scrape into a higher bin grade. 

• In a below average rainfall year, with a very dry finish gravelly sands were still highly responsive to applied P, with 0.6 t/ha response to 60 kg/ha P over the last two years and 30 kg/ha applied this year
• Nitrogen in the absence of phosphorus did not significantly increase yield at either site.  This highlights the requirement to get your P rates tailored to your potential at seeding time, as low P rates may limit N response in a good year.
• There was strong correlation between early vigour and grain yield at both sites, again highlighting the need to establish a strong, healthy crop with sufficient early nutrition.
• Increasing plant numbers did not result in increased grain yield on poor sands.
• This trial shows that on variable light country variable rate fertiliser applications would be a useful tool to improve nutrient use efficiency on variable sands, as both sites had significantly different yield potential and nutrient requirement.