• Significant water allocation cuts have forced irrigators to optimise production with the amount of water available.
• The project has an agronomy component and a hydrology component.
• Experiments are located in Whitton, Kerang and Finley.
   

For take home messages in regards to fungicide, nitrogen and growth regular results please see the attached trial report.

• The trials across agro-ecological zones have highlighted differences between varieties in their ability to respond to a range of production drivers over varied environments and seasons.
• There was no varietal difference between Mace and Trojan at Minnipa with both yielding an average of 1.7 t/ha, and the ungrazed treatment yielded 0.2 t/ha higher than the grazed. There was no difference in grazing response between cultivars.
• Nitrogen (N) can provide assistance in plant recovery through higher yields and grain quality with in-season application of N after grazing.

• All cultivars gave their highest yield under higher fungicide and nitrogen input (High input management), but cultivars differed in their response to increasing input with Westminster being the least responsive (1.69t/ha increase from low to high input) and Oxford the most responsive (3.09t/ha).
• RGT Planet was the highest yielding cultivar, although its advantage over Westminster was only apparent at higher levels of input, under low input both yielded similarly.
• Disease control resulting from the later fungicide application at GS37 and GS59 was strongly implicated in the yield differences, particularly between low and standard input where there was no difference in N input.
• Disease (net form of net blotch) in Oxford was uncontrollable in this trial even under high input where yield was maximised.
• RGT Planet, RGT Conquest and Westminster showed no significant difference in grain protein across the three management levels, whilst the proteins of Granger and Oxford decreased as yield increased from low to high input.
• Granger and RGT Planet recorded the lowest grain screenings. There was no significant effect of management level on screenings with these two cultivars or Westminster.
• In contrast, Oxford and Conquest that gave the largest responses to higher input showed significant decreases in grain screenings as input was increased.
• The devastating effect of NFNB on Oxford in this HRZ environment was very evident in both yield and screening results. As later fungicide input was removed from the management program so was the yield with significant reductions in yield and increased screenings.
• Under the lowest input RGT Planet and Westminster were significantly higher yielding than other cultivars tested.
• Under the highest input RGT Planet was significantly higher yielding than all other cultivars tested and produced the highest gross margins at each management level.
• With the very high disease pressure in this trial, the higher fungicide input associated with the High Input management made this the most cost effective management program of the Crop Technology Centre trials.
• As a result of higher disease pressure unlike wheat (Protocol 1) higher inputs of fungicide were generally more cost effective in barley sown early, irrespective of cultivar.

• Trial work in other states suggests plant growth regulators (PGR’s) can manipulate plant architecture in early sown cereal crops.
• MFMG funded PGR trials at Conmurra and Millicent on wheat and barley.
• The application of PGR’s on wheat increased yield overall at Conmurra, but did not alter plant architecture, flowering or grain quality.
• This trial provided growers the opportunity to increase their knowledge on the use of PGR’s.

• MFMG and SARDI funded a wheat nutrition (Granular vs. Liquid) scoping study at three sites (Sherwood, Frances and Conmurra).
• The aim was to evaluate wheat production with either granular or liquid fertiliser inputs.
• Planning is underway to expand this study in 2019 and an application for additional funding submitted.

• During the extremely dry 2006 season the addition of micronutrients had no significant effect on crop performance and there was no benefit, in terms of grain yield, from the application of nitrogen, regardless of product.
• There is no benefit to apply micronutrients when levels are adequate at GS30 and when there is a good history of applications.

Mid-row banding nitrogen at 133 kgN.ha⁻¹ gave a similar response to topdressing the same rate at GS31. It increased yield by 1.38 t/ha and grain N by 38 kgN.ha⁻¹ to give an ANRE of 30%. Mid-row banded N created a highly-concentrated band of ammonium which appeared to mostly survive a water-logging event.

Mid-row banding N appears to be a valid application method for nitrogen in a southern Riverina irrigated context, allowing all nitrogen requirements to be placed in the soil at sowing. This is applicable where a higher yield potential is known with some confidence, and seeding equipment can handle larger amounts of fertilizer at sowing. Hence, it may also be a useful technique in higher rainfall zones, where yield potential is high and waterlogging is more common.

On heavier soil types with higher levels of organic matter, using a speed tiller to incorporate a wheat stubble may assist in increasing canola yields. If incorporation occurs immediately post-harvest, then the addition of nitrogen may not be required if the soil nitrogen levels are adequate. If incorporation is delayed and occurs immediately prior to sowing, then the addition of nitrogen should be considered.

• The repeated Gairdner control plots showed variation across the site and therefore it is difficult to draw conclusions from this data.
• All varieties yielded well – especially given the below average growing season rainfall.
• All varieties had low test weight. Low test weights were also observed at the Marnoo site. The Minyip and Marnoo sites both had lower growing season rainfall and had grain discolouration as a result of rain damage before harvest, compared to the Rupanyup sites. These factors may have contributed to low test weights at the Minyip & Marnoo sites (harvested January 3 and January 6, 2004 respectively). 
• All varieties had protein levels above the malt receival standards of 12%. The high protein coupled with high yields at this site suggests high soil nitrogen levels.

The moisture probe network has been a great tool to teach growers in the region how to read moisture graphs and use this data to make informed managements decisions.  Growers can see how various urea application rates and stubble cover effect soil moisture.

• Crop intensive farming systems are running down soil carbon.
• Mixed species cover cropping offers a new approach that may address the issue.
• Local guidelines need to be developed so that farmers can make informed decisions about incorporating cover crops into their farming systems.

Allowing ewes access to some of the dual-purpose wheat sown on a mixed farm can increase gross margins
from the sheep operation by increasing stocking rates and the amount of lamb and wool produced and reducing supplementary feeding requirements.

• Grazing vetch and lucerne can be used as a management strategy to improve lamb dry matter intake and growth rates during the late spring and early winter feed gaps.
• The Grazfeed decision support tool has predicted that while both legume forages (vetch and lucerne) will increase methane output (gCH4/day), there is a reduction in methane output per unit of animal product (gCH4/day/100gADWG).
• Moisture limitations can affect herbage production of lucerne, which in turn reduces the chances of growing lambs to achieve the full potential dry matter intake in low rainfall mixed farming systems.

• The difference in soil organic carbon (SOC) changes between nine sites across eastern Australia was largely characterised by mean temperature and rainfall.
• High temperature strongly interacted with management practices (stocking rate, nitrogen application and residue incorporation) to reduce carbon sequestration despite favourable rainfall.
   

Slow pasture growth rates during winter limit the potential gross margins from autumn and early winter
lambing in southern New South Wales (NSW) by limiting stocking rates and/or increasing supplementary feed
requirements. Dual-purpose crops can reduce the winter feed gap in mixed-farming systems by increasing
the available feed in winter. The simulation software AusFarm was used to model a mixed-farming system
at Wagga Wagga with Merino ewes joined to terminal sires and grazing lucerne-subterranean clover pasture
over a 41-year period. A paddock of dualpurpose wheat was then added to the system, and ewes were
allowed to graze the wheat crop when feed on offer reached 850 kg DM/ha and before GS31.

Experiment started in 1992 reddish brown sandy loam ; soil pH (CaCl2) of 5.7.

1992:

Small (15%)  response to limesand at 1.5 t/ha & to Mo application applied as sodium molybdate.

Nitrogen concentration of medic increased from 4.2 to 5% with Mo application @ 200g/ha, 1.5 & 3 t/ha limesand.

limesand with Mo did not increase yield or N content compared with 200 g of Na molybdate alone.

Critical Mo concentratin in clover tops appeared to be 0.09 mg/kg

Combination of lime sand (1.5 t/ha) and 200 g Na molybdate recommended: increased dry matter produced by 30% above the control.

3 t/ha limesand produced the same yield without Mo.

 

Experiment started in 1992 reddish brown sandy loam ; soil pH (CaCl2) of 5.0.

1994:

Small (12%)  response to Mo application applied as sodium molybdate.

Nitrogen concentration of medic increased from 5.8 to 6.1% with Mo application.

limesand with Mo did not increase yield or N content compared with 200 g of Na molybdate alone.

Critical Mo concentratin in medic tops appeared to be 0.1 mg/kg

Combination of lime sand (1t/ha) and 150 g Na molybdate recommended

 A series of experiments started in late 1970'S to the earlier 1980 on very acidic yelllow sands that are deficient in Mo.  

Yellow  acidic sandy earths with  soil pH (CaCl2) of <4.5. Mo trioxide at nil, 140 & 280 g/ha was applied on original nil Mo plots.

Summary of the Mo on very acidic yellow soils:

 With ammonium nitrate the recommended rate of Mo (140 g Mo trioxide) was  inadequate for wheat grain 2 -3 years later.. 

Mo effectiveness rapidly declines with 2 to 3 years after the application.

A general conclusion for this experimental series:_  The residual effectiveness of Mo for cereal is likely to vary widely in different situations depending on soil pH, soil content of free iron, aluminium and manganese and the rate and type of nitrogen fertliser applied to the crop.

Critical Mo concentratin in wheat YEB s appeared to be 0.03 - 0.06 mg/kg. The evaluation of Mo in the YEB as a reliable tissue test but suggested continuing testing into future years.

 

• On a low molybdenum soil the seed molybdenum concentration in the sown seed had no effect on the molybdenum concentration of the harvested seed.
• Application of nitrogen decreased seed molybdenum concentrations in a low molybdenum soil but not in an adequate molybdenum soil.

• UAV imagery with skilled specialist analysis has the potential to identify weed issues in paddocks.
• It was easier to identify grass weed patches in legume and pasture crops than cereal crops.
• Data capture and analysis for analytical purposes such as grass weed mapping in individual paddocks will be beyond most farm enterprises unless farmers have a special interest in this area.
• Grass patches were more reliably identified using UAV data captured at higher resolutions.
• Barley grass resistance to Group A herbicides has been detected several times throughout the project, so be aware it may be present in current farming systems. 

 

• Sclerotinia stem rot is a very sporadic disease in southern NSW. Variations in the level of disease can occur between districts, between years and between paddocks.
• The best indicators of a high Sclerotinia risk district are a high intensity of canola production, frequent development of Sclerotinia stem rot (e.g. every year) and reliable spring rainfall during flowering.
• Results indicate that prolonged (at least 48 hours) durations of relative humidity above 95% can trigger Sclerotinia stem rot development.
• A high level of petal infestation with Sclerotinia ascospores does not guarantee that stem rot will develop.

• At both Yarrawonga and Dooke, Victoria, there was no yield response to nitrogen application, with yields of 4.34 and 3.88t/ha respectively.
• Although there was no yield response, there was a significantly higher dry matter (DM) production and greater nitrogen offtake as a result of applying nitrogen at both sites.
• The maximum nitrogen offtake in the unfertilised crops at both sites equated (approximately) to the level of available nitrogen at the start of the season during April (assessed 0-60cm).
• The normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) response assessed at first node stage (GS31) and the subsequent divergence of NDVI suggested that both sites would benefit from additonal nitrogen; however, late moisture stress and high temperatures compromised any potential yield response.
• The NDVI canopy scores taken at Dookie during October 2015 from the 120kg N/ha plots clearly show are more rapid senescence than unfertilised crops (control) or those crops fertilised with 60 kg N/ha.

The use of Monty’s Plant Food had no significant effect on wheat yield or quality.

• The last application of nitrogen was applied on the 20th July. At this stage Yield Prophet indicated that to meet full potential an application of nitrogen was required. The plant available water (PAW) was 37mm at this time giving us approximately 30 days before the crop became moisture stressed. This gave us confidence to apply nitrogen knowing that the crop would continue to grow well for 30 days even without rain.
• This site was very responsive to Flexi-N. Three applications (banded, Z13, and Z30) of 40 L/ha Flexi-N in creased yield from 1.8 t/ha to 3.2 t/ha. The nitrogen use efficiency from applied Flexi-N was 27 kg grain/kg N.
• There were early responses to 85 kg/ha Agstar before N supply became limiting.
• Plant tests in July indicated that molybdenum (Mo) was deficient (as low as 68 ug/kg with 85 kg/ha Agstar Extra), so 100 g/ha sodium molybdate was applied across the trial.
• Grain protein was low (8 to 9%) due to yield dilution. Grain tests showed marginal sulphur (S) concentrations (average 0.10 mg/kg) which may have been detrimental to baking quality characteristics such as dough strength and extensibility.

• The harvest results proved that the fallow treatments did out-yield the continuous wheat treatment with the full / residual herbicide fallow yielding 1.82T/ha the highest of any of the treatments.
• The continuous wheat treatment yielded 1.02T/ha and also had the lowest protein of all the treatments.

• The trial at Morawa compared a canola-wheat sequence to a wheat-on-wheat sequence with either high or low input levels. Low input had lower fertiliser, lower seed density and cheaper herbicide options. We also incorporated a comparison of a very early wheat cultivar (Zippy) to a medium maturity cultivar (Wyalkatchem).
• Water use by the crop was estimated from the sum of the in-season rainfall and the change in soil water between sowing and harvest. By estimating the amount of soil evaporation as one third of in-season rainfall, we determined the amount of water used by the plant as transpiration. The ratio of crop yield to transpiration is the transpiration efficiency of the crop which has a potential of around 20-22 mm/kg/ha.
• The yield of Zippy was more stable than that of Wyalkatchem, but the earlier maturity resulted in a substantial yield penalty. Zippy yielded around 2 t/ha each year whereas Wyalkatchem responded more in better years. The yield penalty associated with the earlier maturing variety was not offset by the higher input level. Higher input actually increased the variability in annual gross margins.
• So far Wyalkatchem has a substantially greater cumulative gross margin than Zippy and there is little difference between the high and low input strategies.

• The trial at Morawa compared a canola-wheat sequence to a wheat-on-wheat sequence with either high or low input levels. Low input had lower fertiliser, lower seed density and cheaper herbicide options. We also incorporated a comparison of a very early wheat cultivar (Zippy) to a medium maturity cultivar (Wyalkatchem).
• Water use by the crop was estimated from the sum of the in-season rainfall and the change in soil water between sowing and harvest. By estimating the amount of soil evaporation as one third of in-season rainfall, we determined the amount of water used by the plant as transpiration. The ratio of crop yield to transpiration is the transpiration efficiency of the crop which has a potential of around 20-22 mm/kg/ha.
• The yield of Zippy was more stable than that of Wyalkatchem, but the earlier maturity resulted in a substantial yield penalty. Zippy yielded around 2 t/ha each year whereas Wyalkatchem responded more in better years. The yield penalty associated with the earlier maturing variety was not offset by the higher input level. Higher input actually increased the variability in annual gross margins.
• So far Wyalkatchem has a substantially greater cumulative gross margin than Zippy and there is little difference between the high and low input strategies.

• Summer weed control is proven to increase yield, but is becoming a major cost and some summer weeds are difficult to control.
• Cost savings of 20-90% were achieved across 20 paddocks using the WEEDit™.
• A major benefit of the Spot Spray Technology was the ability to use high rates of chemical to spot spray hard-to-kill weeds such as fleabane and stinkweed.

• We are working hard on upgrading models for predicting mouse plagues. MouseAlert information is vital for these improvements.
• Use MouseAlert to report activity and damage: it can be downloaded from http://itunes.apple.com.au/app/id9754-7187 or via computer at www.mousealert.org.au
•  

• Wheat varieties respond differently to increasing rates of fluid phosphorus.
• The season suited Gladius and Yitpi over the very short season variety Axe.
• Mace yielded 5% better than Wyalkatchem.
• Seeding rate did not affect yield in 2009.

• Of the herbicides tested, Glyphosate is the most cost effective and reliable herbicide. ‘FOP’ grass selectives appeared to give poor control at the rates used on mature button grass. Intervix appeared to give poor results at the rates used on mature grass.
• A tankmix of Glyphosate with other broadleaf and melon herbicides reduced control by 13% at 17 days after spraying. Spraying in the dark appeared to give the best control, spraying in the early morning daylight gave no significant improvement in control.
• Choice of adjuvant proved important, with LI700 and Amsul giving the best performance by 17 days after application. The use of Hot-Up oil and Supercharge oil + Amsul gave slightly poorer control of Button Grass. Paraquat at 1L & 2L/Ha and Alliance at 3L/Ha achieved impressive initial burndown at 10 days, but weed regrowth occurred shortly after and was unacceptable at 17 Days after application.

 

• The TT OP canola system presented the most profit and least expense option in this dry season.
• Deciding to use hybrid technology should be aimed at early starts and higher rainfall years to improve return on in-vestment for the farmer.
•  Both RR and TT systems provided excellent weed control.
• TT hybrids exhibit handy tolerance of warm dry conditions at the finish of the season.

• The moisture results indicate that canola uses more water at a greater depth than wheat. There is less water remaining in the soil profile below 40cm under canola sown at 1 and 6 kg/ha than for the same depth under wheat. There will be less moisture accessible to a wheat crop in 2012 on the canola plots than on the fallow plots.
• The use of fallow for moisture storage alone is unlikely given the volume of stored soil moisture at the beginning of May 2011. Indications for the use of a break crop were positive from early April. Summer rainfall had refilled the soil profile, fol-lowing the wheat of 2010, giving some surety to crop yield. Only a small rainfall event was required to break the season and join the soil moisture fronts.
• Season length and consistent rainfall has favoured yield of canola regardless of its plant density. A very plastic species as the yield from 22 plants/m2 is only 200 kg/ha less than that from 68 plants/m2. The canola plots received all required inputs as a result was a more expensive crop to grow than either the wheat or fallow.

• Of the varieties planted, the hybrid variety CB Eclipse provided the highest grain yield per hectare of 2.59 t/ha, and achieved the highest grain value/Ha.
• The nitrogen treatments showed that providing more than 82N/ha increased grain yield. 108kg/ha N increased yield by approx. 0.3t/ha. The 122kg/ha N rate did not increase grain yield however, suggesting that perhaps this rate was over the top of the Nitrogen response curve. Both the higher N treatments reduced oil content.
• Hybrid vigour was evident early in both the Eclipse and 502 plots, but was less noticeable at the end of the season.
• Hyola 502RR had a slightly poorer establishment compared to Eclipse and GT61.
• Seed Costs are a consideration, with RR hybrids around $28-$30/kg and RR Ops around $16-18/kg.

• Application of fluid phosphorus fertiliser on highly calcareous grey soil (P responsive) at Miltaburra significantly increased shoot dry weight and uptake of phosphorus, nitrogen, zinc and manganese and increased yield by 14% compared to granular phosphorus fertiliser application.
• Application of fluid phosphorus fertiliser on red-brown calcareous soil at Emerald Rise (non P responsive) increased shoot dry weight and uptake of phosphorus, nitrogen and manganese relative to granular phosphorus fertiliser application.
• On the red brown calcareous soils the addition of nitrogen and zinc to the fluid phosphorus fertiliser increased grain yield by 11% with no effect when added to the granular phosphorus fertiliser.
• At Cowell (red brown calcareous soil) the use of zinc with fluid phosphorus fertiliser showed a small increase in zinc concentration in tissues but no other benefits.

1. Mungbean did not respond to nitrogen fertiliser with a 1 t/ha yield and a starting soil nitrogen of ~90 kg N/ha.

2. Mungbean has limited ability to maintain its water balance in high evaporative conditions. Timely in-crop rainfall/irrigation may still not maximize yields under very hot conditions during flowering to pod fill.

3. Irrigation decreased canopy temperatures by up to 8°C. 4. Charcoal rot levels increased, with the greatest rise occurring in the irrigated trial.

1. Mungbean responded to nitrogen fertiliser with a yield of +2 t/ha when planted on a low starting soil nitrogen profile (~ 50 kg N/ha).

2. One irrigation at pod-fill increased yields by up to 850 kg/ha.

3. Applying irrigation during high temperatures reduced canopy temperature, which is believed to also improve pod filling and reduce flower abortion. 4. Mungbean can increase levels of charcoal rot.

• 2 kg/ha seeding rate produced a plant density of 37 plants/m2; 4 kg/ha seeding rate 68 plants/m2
• Canola plant density had no effect on Nitrogen response
• 2 applications of 80Kg/Ha NS41 increased yield from 1.34 to 1.70 t/ha
• Plant test results showed low Boron (B) levels (about 14mg/kg) at the 6 leaf stage but there was no response to Bortrac 150 applied at early flowering.
• Large number of ryegrass plants, particularly in 2kg seeding rate plots.

The theoretical N contribution from faba stubbles is 20 kg N/tonne of stubble. However this assumes all residue is mineralised. 

Stubble retained on the soil surface is broken down more slowly than residues present in the soil.

A 6 t/ha bean crop resulted in approximately 140 kg N/ha being released for the following season. 

• The waterlogging event affected all treatments, such that both the chlorophyll content index (CCCI) and normalised difference red edge (NDRE) were similar for all treatments immediately after the water-logging event.
• The topdressed treatments recovered better after the waterlogging event than the mid-row banding (MRB) treatments.
• MRB showed an acceptable yield and apparent nitrogen recovery efficiency (ANRE) in both waterlogged and non-waterlogged conditions, but similar or less than N topdressing treatments. The topdressing treatments had surprisingly high ANRE.
• The mid-row banded nitrogen declined during the season, presumably with nitrification and uptake. Some mid-row banded nitrogen was still evident 131 days after sowing.
• The majority of the mid-row banded nitrogen was present as ammonium during the season, which allowed it survive the waterlogging event

• There was a strong response to P but no response to N
• Plant tests showed that the crop was unlikely to respond to N
• 0N 24P was nearly $300/ha more profitable than 80N 16P!
• Profitability is driven by getting the N and P balance AND application rates right.

• Good growing conditions produced wheat yields of up to 5.0t/ha and canola yields of up to 2.6t/ha.
• There was no response to P in either crop where N was applied.

Only medic based systems from 2008 and 2009 resulted in higher wheat yields in 2011.

Nitrous oxide losses from nitrogen fertiliser products compared in this trial were low: 1 g N/ha/day or less. Granular urea and granular urea plus inhibitor fertiliser provided the greatest yield benefit this season. Potential benefits from different fertiliser products will be realised if seasonal conditions and timing of plant growth are matched.

• Schooner and Gairdner have been the preferred malting barley varieties in southern NSW. Schooner generally achieves better quality in the lower rainfall parts of the cropping belt.
• Gairdner has proved to be the highest yielding malting variety, but is prone to high screenings under dry conditions, late sowing and excessive nitrogen or seeding rates.

• Barley is a valuable rotation crop as it is not susceptible to many wheat foliar diseases (yellow spot, stripe rust, septoria), suffers less yield loss from root diseases, and competes well with weeds.
• Schooner and Gairdner have been the preferred malting varieties in central NSW. Gatrdner has proved to be the highest yielding malting variety, but is prone to high screenings under dry conditions, late sowing and excessive nitrogen or seeding rates.
• Buloke, a new potential malting variety for the mid-lower rainfall parts of the region performed well in 2005.
• Fitzroy, Baudin and Cowabbie yielded well in the mid-higher rainfall areas.
• Tilga and Tantangara are high yielding feed varieties with Tilga better suited to drier areas. Binalong, Mackay and Grout are new feed grain lines particularly suited to the northern half of the State.
• Seeding rates of 70-120 seeds/m2 are likely to be a good compromise for yield and grain quality for barley; the higher rate should be used with late sowing and in wetter areas, but care is needed with Gairdner which is prone to high screenings.

• Adveco D, DZ and MAX all recorded grain yield higher (3-5%) than MAP at 50 kg/ka.
• At three rates of MAP (50, 100 and 150 kg/ha) grain yield was higher in MAP plus Adveco Type W treatments compared to MAP without Adveco Type W.
• Plant vigour at Z31 and Z39 of Adveco D, DZ MAX was similar to MAP at 50 kg/ha.
• Adveco products had no detrimental effect on plant establishment and are safe to use on wheat.

• In 2013, all barley varieties had a similar yield response to nitrogen (N). Commander, La Trobe and Hindmarsh were the highest yielding and subsequently the most profitable varieties.
• 120kg N/ha (260kg/ha urea) was the best rate to achieve the greatest profitability at a very N responsive site at Nhill.

• For all treatments grain yield or quality was not increased compared to conventional fertiliser applications of 80 kg/ha urea alone or 60 kg/ha urea plus 50 kg/ha DAP.
• Treatments selected for nitrogen and phosphorus tissue tests showed no difference in nutrient concentrations.

• Following drier than average seasonal rainfally, yields averaged 1.7t/ha at 31kg N/h and about 2.0t/ha with 73kg N/ha.
• There was no clear K response at either N level.
• Earlier plant testing suggested no response to K application was likely.

• Calingiri did not respond to K and N fertilizer application as strong as the new noodle wheat varieties Supreme and Zen.

The application of nitrogen increased grain yield by 0.5t/ ha, but there was no benefit from additional sulphur. At this site, money was better spent on nitrogen than on sulphur.

Grain protein was very low (7-10% protein) which is becoming an issue on sandy country despite adequate nutrition.

The timing of nitrogen and sulphur applications made no difference to crop yield or quality. Consequently, growers could reduce production and financial risk by delaying some applications and adjusting rates to the seasons.

The objective of this GRDC / SPAA funded project is to increase the level of adoption of PA 'beyond guidance' by broadacre farmers. The project specifically aims to increase the level of adoption of variable rate (VR) by growers in the project to 30% by 2013.This goal will be achieved by demonstrating how to use PA tools to growers at a regional level and by increasing the skills of growers and industry in PA to a level where they can then use PA tools in their farming systems to achieve economic, environmental and social benefits.

• At Cummins, an increase of up to 100% grain yield in wheat to 5 t/ha over the control was reached by applying 120 kg N/ha (two split applications of 60 kg/ha each at emergence and before GS31) and extra irrigation (50 mm) at GS31.
• At Lock, up to a 19% higher grain yield to 5 t/ha was achieved compared to control by adding extra irrigation (50 mm) at GS31.
• At Minnipa, an increase of up to 31% grain yield to 3 t/ha over the control was achieved by adding extra irrigation (50 mm) at GS31 and applying 120 kg N/ha in two split applications of 60 kg/ha at emergence and by GS31.
• Water use efficiency (WUE) improved with N fertilisation by GS31 at Minnipa and Cummins.
• The split application of 120 kg N by GS31 may only be a good investment in paddocks where crops with N requirements (e.g. canola) were grown in the previous season or soil N at sowing was low (less than 44 kg/ha) and with average or above average seasonal soil moisture at GS31.

• No significant impact on yield from additional nitrogen at either rate or time of application  
• No significant impact on yield from addition of Rhizobia 

• No significant impact on yield from additional nitrogen at either rate or time of application  
• No significant impact on yield from addition of Rhizobia  
• High variability within trial for both emergence and yield 
• NB there were significant nitrogen responses in both a canola and wheat trial located within ~20-40 m

• No significant impact on yield from additional nitrogen at either rate or time of application  
• No significant impact on yield from addition of Rhizobia  
• Yield variability within treatments was high 

• This was an extremely nitrogen deficient site with the most consistent levels of ‘apparent’ yield benefit from nitrogen application at planting 
• However there was no significant impact on yield from additional nitrogen at either rate or time of application  
• No significant impact on yield from addition of Rhizobia

• Although additional nitrogen will generate extra feed the cost of application needs to be considered carefully.
• There is no point growing feed that won’t be eaten or utilised if it is costing you to produce it.
• Soil temperature will have a major impact on feed response.
• Nitrate leaching can lead to soil acidification and excess nitrates can leach into waterways so ensure application rates match plant requirements.

• Whilst additional nitrogen will generate extra feed the cost of application needs to be considered carefully.
• There is no point growing feed that won’t be eaten or utilised if it is costing you to produce it.
• Soil temperature will have a major impact on feed response.
• Nitrate leaching can lead to soil acidification and excess nitrates can leach into waterways so ensure application rates match plant requirements.

• Canola yields of 2 t/ha are possible in an average growing season (decile 5) at Minnipa Agricultural Centre.
• The total application of 85 kg/ha N and 108 kg/ha N exceeded the 2 t/ha target, producing 2.13 t/ha and 2.22 t/ha respectively, and 62 kg/ha N very nearly achieved 2 t/ha (1.96 t/ha).
• Soil tests determined that 70-80 kg/ha N was available in the soil, including mineralisation, which predicted a potential yield of 1 t/ha.

• Data support a negative relationship between yield and protein.
• Season will always play a major role in determining protein content of grain in low rainfall areas.
• Producers should aim to maximise the opportunities to increased grain protein.

The faba crop contributed a significant amount of N, resulting in less symptoms of waterlogging during winter, reduced N applied through the season but insignificant yield effects and changes to barley grain quality.

• The 2014 wheat crop at Karoonda had a harvest index of 0.4 and fertilizer N recovery was 35%.
• Wheat stubble from the 2014 crop contained 16 kg N/ha and had a C:N ratio of 95 which is common for cereal crop residues in these environments .
• Mineralization during summer resulted in the accumulation of 18-33 kg/ha of mineral N to 50cm depth across all the treatments at sowing in 2015.
• Incorporation of 2014 cereal stubble increased microbial biomass and N supply potential at sowing in the surface soil when compared with standing stubble.
• The management of cereal stubble affects the microbial activity that influences the cycling and supply of nutrients (nitrogen (N) and phosphorus) to growing crops.
• There was no significant effect of management of 2014 stubble on subsequent wheat grain yield in 2015.

• Nitrogen contributions by pastures in Ley Farming Systems are a renewable resource for Central West farmers.

• Legume pasture species and management practices have been investigated to determine the most important factors for improving nitrogen inputs to the soil.
• Results have shown significant improvements in the soil available nitrogen after growing pastures with a high proportion (>75%) of legumes.
• The increased soil nitrogen from good stands of pasture legumes is also reflected in the yield and quality of wheat grown the following year.
• A short pasture (2-3 seasons) will provide a significant increase in soil nitrogen and a yield and/or protein response. A long pasture (5 seasons) may not provide more nitrogen than one of 4 seasons.
• No legume species has performed consistently better than any other species.
• Sowing a mixture of inoculated pasture legume species that are suited to the region is important to spread the risk and ensure a good stand of legumes is achieved.
• Weed control using grazing management and/or chemical control is seen as the best way to maintain a high level of legumes in the paddock and therefore increase soil nitrogen

• Volatilisation losses were small on Mallee sandy loam at Walpeup where 4mm of rain fell two days after fertiliser application.
• Volatilisation losses from the application of urea to Wimmera clay was as high as 26 percent with small rainfall events (< 4mm) in the 20 days after application.
• Significant nitrogen losses were experienced when ammonium sulphate and liquid UAN were applied to Wimmera clay. Both products lost 12 percent of applied.

• Grain yield was driven by biomass production rather than harvest index.
• Timing of nitrogen had relatively little impact on yield or nitrogen response.
• Nitrogen rate had little effect on total crop water use.
• Nitrogen use efficiency and water use efficiency were improved with additional water availability (irrigated treatment).

•  There was no protein or yield penalty in delaying all nitrogen to four weeks after emergence.
•  Delaying all nitrogen application to 10 weeks after emergence resulted in reduced grain yield due to little follow-up rain.

• All varieties responded similarly to applied nitrogen.
• Hindmash and Commander yielded well; all varieties achieved malt.

There wass no significant difference in the way varieties respond to various amounts of nitrogen (N). Results indicate that for all varieties, as N increases, yield increases incrementally. the most profitable N rate for Commander, Buloke and Hindmarsh is 80kg N/ha, whilst Gairdner was still more profitable at 120kg N/ha

• Varieties responded similarly in yield and many quality measurements to applied N, but showed differences in protein levels.
• New higher yielding durum varieties required more N to reach target protein of 13%
• The later application of N at GS47 was the most effective to achieve 13% protein

• With a soil nitrogen (N) content of 103 kg N/ha at sowing, Mace wheat yielded 3.1 t/ha with no N fertiliser applied and contained 6.6% protein.
• Optimum gross margins were recorded with 75 kg N/ha, though none of the N levels up to 100 kg N/ha reached 9% protein.
• Yield response was greatest for N application timings at sowing, GS31, or a split application between GS31 and GS39.
• A crop sensor was used to measure in season nitrogen responsiveness and was able to predict the optimal N rate.