site.

• There was a 0.17 t/ha yield advantage in the 2014 season due to removing or cultivating the previous season’s stubble, possibly due to extra nitrogen being available to the crop during the growing season.
• There was a 0.08 t/ha yield advantage at MAC this season by inter row cropping rather than placing the seed on row.
• There were no differences in either barley or ryegrass numbers at the start of the cropping season or in crop.

• There were no differences in wheat yield at Minnipa in response to stubble architecture, seeding position and nitrogen treatments in 2015.
• In 2015 plant establishment was reduced with cultivation and the addition of nitrogen at seeding compared to standing stubble cut low at harvest. The extra nitrogen applied at seeding also reduced the early dry matter.
• Removing and cutting stubble low decreased the Yellow Leaf Spot disease incidence and snail numbers compared to high cut stubble.
• Stubble management and seeding position had little effect on grass weed numbers.
• Overall at Minnipa, stubble management and seeding position have not impacted highly on crop production, weeds, disease and pests over two years with relatively high stubble loads in low rainfall farming systems.

• Barley sown into standing stubble yielded higher (between 0.15-0.33 t/ha) than cultivated or removed stubble in 2016.
• Standing stubble cut low (15-17 cm) resulted in the highest level of stubble being maintained into the following season.
• Maintaining standing stubbles may be the best option for yield and stubble carry over, but adequate nitrogen must be maintained.
• In 2014 and 2015 stubble management and seeding position did not impact strongly on weeds, disease or pests with relatively high stubble loads in a low rainfall farming system at Minnipa.

Adequate crop nutrition following summer crop is essential for optimised winter grain yield. Soils moisture was not limiting this season, therefore wheat responses were driven by crop nutrition.

Early termination of vetch resulted in higher soil N and soil water at sowing the following year compared with later termination timings of vetch. Wheat yield in the year following vetch was highest for the earlier termination timings of the vetch. Brown manure vetch had higher soil N and soil water compared to vetch taken through to harvest.

• In general for the bulk of the paddock in the wetter 2011 season there was little obvious difference in establishment between the knife point and winged point with paired rows seeder. However there were a several water repellent patches where establishment was poor for the knife point seeder but was much improved for the winged point-paired row seeder.
• Plant counts in these areas revealed that establishment was more than doubled from <100 plants/m2 to >200 plants/m2 through use of the winged point-paired row system in both the sandy gravel and pale deep sand soil types
• The advantage of improved furrow sowing as a tool to manage water repellent soils is it can be applied over all the repellent cropping areas, potentially for relatively low cost if only points and press wheels need changing on an existing seeder.
• For further results please see the attached trial report.

• Large range of cocksfoot cultivars trialled at three sites: Vivonne Bay, Parndana and Stokes Bay.
• Trials will be rotationally grazed .
• Persistence and productivity will be monitored over several years, subject to further funding.

• Modern wheat varieties have a higher demand for nitrogen and agronomic practices need to take this into account.
• The most critical period for setting grain yield potential is between stem elongation (GS31) and flowering.
• Current varieties are well beyond the potential 20kg grain/ha per mm water benchmark. This needs to be updated to 24kg grain/ha per mm water.

• Fathom barley was more competitive than Hindmarsh barley, bread wheat and durum.
• Increasing seeding rate and seed bed utilisation improved crop weed competition (by up to 60%) without a yield penalty or quality downgrading.
• Tjilkuri and Mace sown at 300 seeds/m2 with a spreader boot achieved similar ARG suppression as Fathom barley sown at 150 seeds/m2 .
• Pre-emergent herbicide application offered the best control of ARG in this trial across all varieties and agronomic management factors. 
• Non chemical strategies can significantly enhance crop’s competitive ability with weeds and should be integrated with herbicide use.

Yield variability across the 22 focus paddocks in the project was moderate to very high. Yield variation needs to be managed to minimise the significant economic losses experienced in low performing parts of a paddock. We found very good correlations between soil EM38 maps, satellite imagery of crop vigour and crop yield at harvest. Utilising our knowledge of how the crops grew this season together with the precision farming tools available we will develop management plans in each of the focus paddocks to improve water use, yield and economic return.

• Profitability and risk are driven largely by a combination of soil type, associated enterprise mix, level of debt, machinery investment and land purchases.
• There is not best best farming system. Successful farming depends on factors within each system such as labour, soil type, rainfall and skills.

• No measured improvement in phosphorus uptake through low seed bed utilisation systems.

• Deep placement of organic and inorganic amendments increased grain yield by 20–40% for three successive years on a sodic subsoil at Rand.
• Deep placement of organic and inorganic amendments increased root growth and soil water use from the deeper clay layers during the grain filling-stage.
• Improvements in grain yield with deep placement of organic and inorganic amendments were associated with reduced subsoil pH and exchangeable sodium percentage, and increased microbial activity.

Please refer to attached trial report for results and discussion.

• The paddock contained a population of effective rhizobia and so the number of nodules on lateral and taproots was not affected by the addition of different rhizobial inoculants.
• Improved soil nutrition did not affect dry matter production and nodulation.
• Grazing (simulated) reduced the total dry matter produced by the medic pasture, however the use of sheep would provide a more realistic assessment of grazing on DM production, nodulation and N2-fixation.

• Nitrogen offtake in grain was higher with mid-row banding urea than urea broadcast and incorporated by sowing for both BeckomA nd LongReach SpitfireA at the 80, 120 and 160 rates of N application.
• Apparent fertiliser recovery in grain was also higher from mid-row banding urea than from urea broadcast and incorporated by sowing in five of the possible eight treatment comparisons.
• Soils cored at stem elongation from the mid-row banding treatment showed higher ammonium levels in the top 20 cm and lower nitrate concentration at 60–100 cm than urea broadcast and incorporated by sowing.
• Roots proliferated around and below the original mid-row banding. These results indicate potential for mid-row banding to improve N use efficiency.

• Varieties in this trial did not show a response to extra applied nitrogen at this site which was in pasture for the previous 3 years. Possible reasons are low rainfall and plants being water limited and/or sufficient background levels of nitrogen available for the crop in this soil type. 
• In this season results showed a benefit in seeding early, providing greater growing season and therefore yield benefit, averaging 210 kg/ha higher. 

• Most legumes favour pHCa > 5.0 to a depth of at least 20 cm; acidic layers below 5 cm adversely affect root growth, nodulation, plant vigour and N2 fixation potential of acid-sensitive pulses.
• Ineffective incorporation of lime under minimum tillage systems confines the lime effect to the shallow surface layers (0-5 cm).
• An ‘acid throttle’ located between 5 to 20 cm in the soil profile is not detected using soil samples collected at standard depths of 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm, finer sampling at 5 cm intervals is recommended to detect acidic layers.
• Apply and incorporate adequate rates of fine grade, high quality lime at least 12 months before sowing acid-sensitive species to allow time for the lime to react and increase pH to the depth of incorporation.

• Surface application of organic matter significantly increased early growth of wheat and canola, but not lentils at Birchip.
• At anthesis, no difference existed between treatments for wheat and at maturity, conventionally sown crops out yielded all other treatments.

Surface application of organic matter significantly increased early growth of wheat and canola, but not lentils at Birchip. At anthesis, no difference existed between treatments for wheat and at maturity, conventionally sown crops out yielded all other treatments.

• With the current climate trending to decreased seasonal rainfall, each 1% increase in productivity is important.
• Increases in productivity can come from increased yield, more efficient application of inputs, or more timely grain marketing.
• Knowledge on the soil water holding properties, the time when the crop is taking up the most water from the soil and the current yield estimation models allows growers to market grain with more confidence pre harvest.
• Tools such as Yield Prophet, iPaddock Yield, soil moisture Probes and water use efficiency models are all very useful in assisting to predict grain yields with a relatively high level of confidence when accurately set up.
• In this project “iPaddock Yield” provided the greatest level of accuracy in predicting final grain yield on July 31st 2015. The simple French & Shultz “Broken Stick” model was very close to the accuracy of the ipaddock Yield at 77% & 74% accuracy.
• When there is confidence in the early to mid-season yield prediction combined with accurate soil Nitrogen testing and modeling, there is a greater chance of maximizing profits from applied nitrogen.

• The highest recorded water use efficiency (WUE) was observed at Spalding where 26.6 kg of wheat was produced per hectare for every mm of growing season rainfall.
• Growing season rainfall was below average meaning that stored summer soil moisture was very valuable in 2011.
• The WUE at Hart has been 14 kg/mm/ha or 70% calculated since 2001.

• The highest recorded water use efficiency (WUE) was observed at Spalding where 26.6 kg of wheat was produced per hectare for every mm of growing season rainfall.
• Growing season rainfall was below average meaning that stored summer soil moisture was very valuable in 2011.
• The WUE at Hart has been 14 kg/mm/ha or 70% calculated since 2001.

• At three out of the 4 sites gladius wheat sown onto a pea crop background from 2011 produced the best grain yields.
• At Condowie wheat on barley (2.54t/ha average) was always better than wheat on wheat (2.10t/ha average), regardless of extra nitrogen.

• The addition of a straw layer acted to reduce evaporation and significantly increased grain yields and water use efficiency in 2012, at 4 field sites.
• Soil evaporation also decreased with increasing light interception from larger crop canopies.

• The addition of a straw layer acted to reduce evaporation and significantly increased grain yields and water use efficiency in 2010 and 2011 at 3 field sites.
• Soil evaporation also decreased with increasing light interception from larger crop canopies.

The highest recorded WUE was observed at Spalding where 18.3 kg of wheat was produced per hectare for every mm of growing season rainfall.

• The best WUE for 2008 occured at the Tarlee site for barley, 28.5kg/mm/ha or 141%.
• Frost in August and October reduced WUE at Spalding.

• The best WUE for 2008 occured at the Tarlee site for barley, 28.5kg/mm/ha or 141%.
• Frost in August and October reduced WUE at Spalding.

• The best WUE for 2008 occured at the Tarlee site for barley, 28.5kg/mm/ha or 141%.
• Frost in August and October reduced WUE at Spalding.

• The best WUE for 2008 occured at the Tarlee site for barley, 28.5kg/mm/ha or 141%.
• Frost in August and October reduced WUE at Spalding.

WUE was generally low at the 4 sites in 2009, ranging from 9.1 kg wheat/mm/ha at Tarlee to 12.2 kg wheat/mm/ha at Spalding.

• As a result of very poor seasonal conditions, there was no response to nitrogen applied to Yitpi wheat at either Rupanyup or Hopetoun in 2006, despite very low soil nitrogen levels.
• Delaying nitrogen application until after the end of tillering can allow a more accurate assessment of seasonal conditions to be made and money to be spent on nitrogen only if a response is likely.

• Electromagnetic (EM) zoning was strongly related to differences in pH at 10–30cm depth in two out of three paddocks.
• All three paddocks showed variability in chemical properties, with the EM zoning showing good separation of chemical properties between zones. This provides confidence that the zoning was suitable.
• Variability in plant growth needs to be examined ‘holistically’ rather than just focussing on one variable. While a paddock may show variation in plant available water (PAW), it may be that sodicity or subsoil acidity is the key limiter in plant performance, not water availability per se.
• Existing precision agriculture (PA) datasets, in conjunction with selected chemistry sampling, can be used to indicate relative change in PAW across paddocks, but not the actual volume of water storage.

There was a small discernable response in early season biomass to N applied at seeding at the sampling on 29 August August.

• Yield differences between soil types were less than seen in previous seasons on this paddock.
• Yield responded to an extra 25kg/ha N at sowing on the deep yellow sand over gravel and shallow gravel yielded around 2.5t/ha.

• Yield differences between soil types were less than seen in previous seasons on this paddock, although they did yield in expected order.
• Starting nitrogen levels were quite high (>100kg N/ha) due to previous crop history.
• Overall with the better responses to applied N being achieved on the better soils or where there was plenty of starting soil nitrogen, this experiment has given encouragement to the idea of managing soil types (or management zones) differentially for N.

For a discussion of results and take home messages from this trial please see the attached trial report.

For a full list of results of plant measurements, application of nitrogen treatments, yield, protein and quality data please see the attached trial report.

These experiments provide a framework to allow growers in the Wimmera and Southern Mallee to use soil tests for nitrate N, organic carbon, and soil water to determine firstly, their yield potential, and secondly, whether there is a need for nitrogen fertiliser to achieve that potential.

• EM38 successfully mapped differences in soil water properties across the paddock.
• Positive response to fertiliser in wheat on wheat and higher yielding season.
• Barley yield decreased with increasing rates of nitrogen and phosphorus fertiliser.

• EM38 successfully mapped differences in soil water properties across the paddock.
• There were no significant yield increases from increased fertiliser.
• Reducing fertiliser on heavy soils had no negative impact on yield.

The main agronomic issues to be assessed in 2012 are:

• Targeting of seeding and post seeding nitrogen applications in line with identified changes in soil water characteristics ie changes in the ‘bucket’
• Assessment of gypsum applications over soil zones identified as having variations in sodicity levels. A trial has already been implemented which will allow economic assessment for several years.
• Sound agronomic and economic phosphorus fertiliser management in line with changes in productive capacity of soil zones and responsiveness of soil types to phosphorus applications.

• The goal of achieving a 10% increase in water use efficiency appears to have been achieved quite comfortably as evidenced by the entry and exit survey results.
• Farmers in the Upper North district have madesubstantial gains in knowledge, skills and practice change to increase their water use efficiency.

• To justify the use of late-applied nitrogen(N), a premium for H2 wheat (almost $60/t over ASW) was required in 2011.
• UAN still increased protein despite rainfall 15 days after application.
• 2011 highlighted the need to apply N during tillering to promote biomass and encouraging greater yield potential.

• The rotation with canola as a single break crop (canola– wheat–wheat rotation) had the highest average gross margin ($529/year) across three years.
• The profit/cost ratio was the highest when canola was used as a single break crop (2:8) and the lowest for all brown manure treatments as well as continuous cereal without nitrogen input.

The complex nature of these trials has generated a vast array of information. To best extract meaningful results it is necessary to pry apart the data to generate answers addressing the key facets of the hypothesis: see attached report for full details and discusison.

• Compass, Fathom and Scope CL were good competitors with weeds, which is consistent with previous years’ findings.
• Hindmarsh and Spartacus CL are poor weed competitors.
• The advantage of sowing earlier in order to increase crop competition failed to improve the competitiveness of La Trobe given the high spring rainfall.

• Plant growth regulators (PGRs) had minimal effects on the plant height of different barley varieties.
• PGRs reduced some lodging, however, this occurred predominantly in the taller cultivar (cv) prone to lodging (cv. CompassA).
• Neither PGR nor nitrogen (N) application increased grain yield.
• PGRs should be strategically applied, taking into account the interaction between cultivar, seasonalconditions, and application timing.

• However, the influence of seedbed N application (50kg/ha N) was evident in the crop structure scores, producing 150-200 more shoots/m2 and producing higher readings when the crop sensor Greenseeker® was passed over the trial than the GS30 stem elongation timing or the zero nitrogen controls.
• Despite a relatively low soil nitrogen reserve at sowing (43 kg/ha N 0-100cm), there was no influence of nitrogen on yield.
• In a trial subject to low levels of spot form of net blotch (SFNB), there was no response to fungicide over the untreated.

The work illustrated that in low fertility situations, which are more ideal for malting barley (2nd cereal low soil N reserves), there was no disadvantage to applying nitrogen applications at stem elongation (GS30-33).

Take Home Messages

Whilst the trial didn’t go according to plan there were still some key messages that arose:

• Maximising seed-soil contact is the aim at sowing especially for the larger seeds that require more moisture to imbibe and germinate compared to small seeds.

• Unseasonably low June rainfall hindered establishment of partially sown beans due to a drying topsoil. These may have been

OK under normal June rainfall conditions.

• Hair pinning can be a serious issue when using a disc seeder especially when sowing into wet/ moist lodged stubble.

• Solutions to avoid hair pinning – sow when stubble is dry (good in theory), keep stubble standing, use sharp discs and ensure bar

has sufficient down force to cut through tough stubble.

• The effects of zinc supply in subsoil were examined in three genotypes of Brassica napus in a glasshouse experiment.
• The topsoil was supplied with zinc in all treatments whereas zinc was either supplied or omitted from the subsoil.
• Supplying zinc to subsoil significantly increased the root growth in the lower zone, markedly decreased the number of aborted and unfilled pods/plant, number of seeds/pod, individual seed weight and overall seed yield.
• Subsoil zinc also significantly increased the zinc concentration and zinc content of seed and improved the ratio of zinc uptake by seed to total zinc uptake by seed and shoots.

Field peas can respond to the use of rhizobia innoculants.

Response to inoculant was positive at this site over the untreated, however, there was no differences between inoculant types

• The use of Lucerne in the Upper Wimmera catchment and similar areas can be extended away from traditional areas such as river and creek flats.
• Introduction of lucerne into grazing systems lengthens the period of available green feed and can allow for enterprise change such as adding a lamb finishing operation to the farm business.
• Sowing time of lucerne is best suited to late winter.
• Soil testing is important to test for nutrient deficiencies and pH prior to lucerne establishment. Adequate lime and fertiliser should be applied to address deficiencies prior to establishment. Attention must be paid to ensuring that aluminium levels are suitable for lucerne production prior to sowing.
• A sub soil pH test should be taken to ensure that there are no acidity or aluminium toxicity issues at depth which could affect the lucerne plants as their roots penetrate the sub soil.
• Weed control is of critical importance before and during the establishment phase of lucerne pastures.
• Sowing depth of lucerne is important to allow an even germination. Care should be taken not to sow seed too deeply. The seed should be covered by 1 – 2 cm of soil, ensuring good soil contact.
• Control of annual grass and broadleaf weeds is of critical importance during the life of the lucerne stand if maximum production is to be achieved.
• A suitable fertiliser regime including the use of potash needs to be applied to replace nutrients removed by the lucerne system.
• Lucerne pastures can produce high quality hay which can enhance the farm’s production system if kept on farm.

Herbicide strategy 1 (HS1), which was based on atrazine pre-sowing followed by clethodim (Select) post-emergence reduced ryegrass plant density relative to the untreated control by 57%. However, use of propyzamide pre-sowing, followed by atrazine and Select + Factor (HS 2) increased ryegrass control to 77%. Canola variety had a significant effect on ryegrass spike density (P=0.002). When averaged across the sowing dates and herbicide strategies, ryegrass growing in HyTTec Trophy produced 52 spikes/m2 as compared to 78 spikes/m2 in Bonito (33% reduction). HyTTec Trophy is a new hybrid triazine tolerant variety from Nuseed, which is known for high early vigour. Herbicide strategies also had a significant effect on ryegrass spike density (P<0.001). Ryegrass grown without any selective herbicide treatment (control – HS3) produced 128 spikes/m2 as compared to 40 spikes/m2 in HS1 and 29 spikes/m2 in HS2. This works out to 69% reduction in HS1 relative to the control and 78% reduction in HS2. Herbicide strategies had the largest effect on canola yield (P<0.001). HS1 and 2 produced canola yield of around 0.8 t/ha, which was almost 50% greater than the yield obtained in the control.

• Positive yield responses from the control of yellow leaf spot (YLS) were recorded despite disease levels not exceeding 10% on the top three leaves in this wheat-on-wheat rotation position.
• For the second year in succession there was a significant yield increase (0.12t/ha mean of two fungicide products) from two fungicide applications made at the late tillering stage and the second node stage (GS25 and GS32).
• The yield response from two fungicides corresponded to significantly better disease control than the untreated control and increased the crop canopy greeness.
• Although single fungicide timings produced little or no evidence of YLS control, significant yield increases were measure (0.13-0.14t/ha).
• Nitrogen timing (application of 40kg N/ha at either tillering (GS22) or first node stage (GS31)) had no significant effects on disease levels, yield or quality.

• The level of yellow leaf spot (YLS) control achieved with fungicides applied at tillering (GS22) and third node stage (GS31) in wheat-on-wheat was poor (less than 50% in most assessments).
• Fungicide applied at the third node stage (GS33) was more effective at preventing YLS infection on the top three leaves of the crop than when applied at tillering (GS22).
• Fungicide applied at the third node stage (GS33) generated a significant (0.44t/ha) yield increase over the untreated crop, whereas the equivalent fungicide applied at tillering (GS22) gave no yield benefit.
• Applying fungicide at both tillering (GS22) and third node stage (GS33) offered no advantage over a single application at GS33.
• Nitrogen application at tillering or first node had no effect on yield.
• There was no significant difference in product performance between Tilt and Prosaro.

• Nitrogen applications increased yield, manily through increased tillering.
• Increased plant density reduced yield.
• Spartacus CL and Fathom had the highest yield at optimum nitrogen and plant density.
• Compass and Commander were the least responsive to nitrogen applications.

• In a low-yielding situation at Coreen, Victoria (< 2.5t/ha) following a dry spring, plant growth regulator (PGR) application lead to a significatn yield reduction (0.14t/ha) in early-sown first wheat.
• PGR application significantly reduced crop height in both trials, but did not reduce crop canopy biomass, suggesting that crop biomass was redistrubuted, not recuced.
• The addition of extra nitrogen, over and above farm standard significantly increased grain protein but not yield
• PGR application significantly reduced the normalised difference vegetative index readings taken with Greenseeker, particularly where applicaiton was superimposed on lower amount of applied nitrogen.

In a high yielding trial (5-6 t/ha), Baudin barley gave small responses to fungicide (mean 2- 4%), compared to Gairdner which gave no response.

Despite an exceptionally dry growing season (GSR Apr – Nov 235mm) first cereal barley averaged 3.6 t/ha, with Gairdner giving a mean yield of 3.50t/ha and Baudin 3.71t/ha. As a consequence of the season, disease did not develop in this trial (irrespective of variety susceptibility), meaning that it was not possible to examine the interaction between nitrogen timing and fungicide requirement.

The later maturing feed wheat Mackellar was significantly lower yield than the earlier AH category variety Chara, with mean yields of 2.35 and 2.52 t/ha respectively. Much of this difference was due to the poor performance of Mackellar under the seedbed nitrogen application, since when compared at the later nitrogen timing alone, the mean yields were 2.55 and 2.60t/ha for Mackellar and Chara respectively. Fertilising with upfront nitrogen had less detrimental effect on yield with an early maturing variety with lower tillering capacity than it did with later maturing wheat (Mackellar) that had a longer tillering window.

In a decile 1 growing season, with no rainfall in October, barley yielded between 1-1.5 t/ha. Baudin averaged 1.38 t/ha, with the experimental low protein barley VB0229 averaging 1.31 t/ha. Both were superior to Gairdner, which as a result of poorer establishment, averaged only 1.02 t/ha.

1. In dryland conditions, planting in February increased yield of dryland mungbeans by 475 kg/ha over December planting.
2. Irrigation treatments increased mungbean yields by a maximum of 298 kg/ha and 653 kg/ha (planted in February and December respectively).
3. Application of water during mid pod-fill increased grain yield in the December planting but not the February planting.

Intercropping lentil and canola resulted in increased grain productivity at Wudinna, 2019. Intercrop combinations did not over-yield at Warnertown, 2019. Intercropping warrant exploring in low rainfall environments and their potential ancillary benefits, such as increasing groundcover on erosionprone soils, nitrogen fixation, and fodder production as a secondary end use benefit.

The success of break crops to increase wheat production in the Eastern Wheatbelt is dependent on firstly addressing any physical and chemical soil constraints to crop production and where the previous land use is a chemical fallow. In this situation, the grain yield of lupin, chickpea, lentil and field pea was 0.97-1.42 t/ha 0.67-1.1 t/ha, 0.3-0.97 t/ha, and 1.2 t/ha respectively in a below average season. The yield of wheat following legume break crops tended to be higher than either canola or wheat planted in the remaining paddock area. The profitability of double break-crop sequences was negative in many of the sequences evaluated in this study compared to a positive profit for continuous wheat. The profitability of double break-crop sequences can be improved by the inclusion of high value legumes as the second break-crop, but further work is required to lower the risk of growing these species of crops.The yield of wheat following legume break crops tended to be higher than either canola or wheat planted in the remaining paddock area. The profitability of double break-crop sequences was negative in many of the sequences evaluated in this study compared to a positive profit for continuous wheat. The profitability of double break-crop sequences can be improved by the inclusion of high value legumes as the second break-crop, but further work is required to lower the risk of growing these species of crops.

• Hybrid choice and plant population had a significant impact on the yield of sorghum with irrigation. MR Buster yielded significantly higher than the other hybrids evaluated, while the higher population rates of 100,000 and 150,000 plants/ha yielded higher compared with the lower planting rates.
• The development and yield potential of the late season heads was compromised, and therefore the later developing sorghum did not take full advantage of the greater soil moisture of the intensive irrigation rate.

Conclusions

The experiment showed there are considerable productivity gains to be made by growers by selecting the right hybrid and plant population when irrigating sorghum. Irrigation management can significantly influence the growth of sorghum hybrids, affecting plant height, and grain development. Population did have an effect on yield during the trial with the higher planting populations of 100,000 & 150,000 plant/ha resulting in significantly higher yields than the 50,000 & 75,000 plants/ha. The higher plant numbers took advantage of the high plant available water from the irrigation treatments. 

• In the 2008 season, the two treatments with the poorest plant establishment counts (stubble burning and incorporation) yielded significantly more than the remainder of the standing stubble treatments.
• Incorporation yielded on average 2.4t/ha for the three seasons, 0.2t/ha  greater than standing stubble and cellulose digester, but was not a more profitable option. 
• For the duration of this project, the gross marging outputs suggested that burning was the least profiatble, with all other treatments comparable, with a $300/ha return. With this outcome in a series of dry years, farmers should use what tools they know work best for them in a profitable and sustainable manner to manag crop stubbles in the future. 

• Canola in rotation reduced Rhizoctonia inoculum levels and increased following cereal yields.
• Fluid fertiliser increased plant dry matter and yield on highly calcareous grey soils.
• A barley/vetch brown manure increased soil mineral nitrogen and this appears to have exacerbated Rhizoctonia disease symptoms on a following barley crop.
• Added carbon (10 t/ha/yr) has increased microbial respiration and microbial nitrogen.

• Differences in C input (dry matter production plus any additions) between the treatments were 24 t/ha at Minnipa, and 31 t/ha at
• Poochera over the last two seasons.
• Wheat at Minnipa produced between 0.5 t/ha of stubble in a poor season (2008) and 8.8 t/ha in a good season (2009).
• Doubling the seeding rate of wheat at Minnipa produced 1.4 t/ha extra stubble compared to the wheat control in 2009.
• Barley and vetch brown manures produced the lowest dry matter at both sites.

• The effectiveness of the Gamma sensor appears to depend on the geology of the area being surveyed.
• The Gamma sensor appeared to have very good correlations with clay % on the tertiary sediments, but further work is required on the Padthaway formation.

The data collected showed that even at the early stages of growth, there was no evidence of altered N uptake rates in the field experiments as a result of the amendments supplied with the urea.

• Corresponding to the biomass assessments, the compaction of the Trafficked zone had a notable effect on the crop performance.
• As a comparison of all sites there was an increase of grain yield of between 18 and 46% of the zero traffic area above the paddock assessments.

• Corresponding to the biomass assessments, the compaction of the Trafficked zone had a notable effect on the crop performance.
• As a comparison of all sites there was an increase of grain yield of between 18 and 46% of the zero traffic area above the paddock assessments.

• Corresponding to the biomass assessments, the compaction of the Trafficked zone had a notable effect on the crop performance.
• As a comparison of all sites there was an increase of grain yield of between 18 and 46% of the zero traffic area above the paddock assessments.

This trial sight was chosen as a typical regional soil type and had had a representative cropping rotation. Unfortunately the soil phosphorus levels (Colwell P) show that this site was possibly not phosphorus responsive as required for the purposes of this trial.
Adequate winter and late spring rains resulted in average grain yields. The trial was never moisture stressed and high grain protein levels indicate that the trial was not stressed for nitrogen. Visually it was difficult to pick any differences between treatments during the growing season.

When topdressing nitrogen late in the season with a view to protein increase, consideration should be given to lower volatility nitrogen products when the likelihood of follow up rainfall is low. This trial supported their use by demonstrating significant protein increases, although this was confounded by significant production increases in response to 30 kgN/ha as granular urea.

Urea applied at 200 kgN / ha recorded significant yield increases over all treatments. Applications of straight urea at DC61 and or DC65 were unable to significantly increase grain protein when compared to specialty products.

All treatment gave significant responses to grain protein as compared to the control. 

• These data demonstrate a significant yield response to teh application of 20kg P/ha when compared to teh control. There were no yield differences to the various treatments. 
• The trial was moisture stressed in late spring but moderate grain protein levels indicate that the trial was not stressed for nitrogen. 
• Visually it was difficult to pick up any differences between treatments, however the poor growth control was very evident throughout the growing season and the Airseeder treatment appeared to lack early vigour, but at the end of the season this was not apparent. 
• The application of zinc as either foliar or as fertiliser at sowing (Granulock Supreme Z treatments) did not result in additional yield. 
• The liquid treatments did not prove to have any significant benefit over the solids fertilizer products; contradicting results from SFS Mininera trials in 2007 where liquid fertilisers proved to have distinct advantages as conpared to solids. 

Linseed is not new to Western Australia or the Great Southern region as it was grown in the Boyup Brook region from the 1940’s to the 1960’s. It was grown for fibre and milled at the Boyup Brook Flax Mill. Linseed (flax) Linum usitatissimum is a niche product and has the potential to offer an alternative revenue steam for producers outside of the traditional crop. Demand for Linseed has recently shifted to a health food. Linseed has several uses, it can be crushed for Linseed oil which is a rich source of linolic acid and Omega 3 fatty acid and the remaining linseed meal can then be used as livestock feed or it can also be eaten as a whole seed or ground.

Linseed also has agronomic benefits as a potential break crop that provides a disease break, the opportunity for alternative weed management strategies, provides an insect pest break and can be effective in reducing some soil borne root diseases and soil borne pathogens namely root lesion nematodes. Canadian research has demonstrated that cereal yields were higher when planted on linseed stubble compared to wheat stubble.

The aim of the project is to investigate agronomic packages which support the introduction and scale up of commercial cultivation of Linseed in the Great Southern region of Western Australia.

Consistent supply with volume is imperative to develop a market that has the ability to realise the full value of Linseed produced. Also, in order for growers to take up production it is important they have a full agronomic package available to grow the crop successfully. Finally, Linseed needs to generate an equivalent return per hectare of alternative rotational crops such as canola in order to expand into the rotation.

The key objectives of this project are:  

A: To determine if Linseed can be successfully grown under dryland farming conditions in the Great Southern region of Western Australia with the potential to scale up to commercial cultivation.

B: To determine if any investment is required into machinery and infrastructure by growers to grow linseed.

C: To develop basic agronomic guidelines to grow linseed in WA.

D: To assess the yield potential of two commercially available linseed varieties grown under dryland conditions in WA, Croxton and Bilton.

The project was conducted over two years in 2019 and 2020. In 2019 the trials were conducted in small plots across three sites. In 2020 the trials were conducted as producer demonstration sites utilising grower machinery and large-scale plots.

In 2019 three sites were located across the Great Southern Region of Western Australia covering a variety of soil types, climates, paddock histories and growing conditions. The trials sites were in the shires of Darkan, Wagin and Kojonup. The trials involved growing two commercially available varieties Croxton and Glenelg over three times of sowing (TOS) 10 to 14 days apart at three seeding rates (SR): 35, 40 and 45 kg/ha and applying three top dressed nitrogen application rates (low, optimal and high) 40, 80 and 120 units N/ha.

Over the three trial sites, the seeding rates and nitrogen application rates trialed did not consistently result in significant differences in grain yield or oil quantity and quality. Time of sowing had the greatest impact, with the earliest time of sowing generally resulting in higher grain yields. Glenelg on average had a higher grain yield and oil quantity, with Croxton having the highest oil quality.

Trial Site

Average Site Yield

t/ha

Darkan

0.562

Wagin

0.914

Kojonup

0.998

Table 1: Average Site Yields in 2019 (Below average rainfall)

The Darkan site plant counts were the highest, however this was not reflected in the yield. Darkan was the lowest yielding of the three sites. This may be due to the below average rainfall and lack of finishing rains experienced on the non-wetting forest gravel soils at this trial site. Kojonup and Wagin on average achieved nearly double the yield of the Darkan site despite lower plant counts and early plant disease.

In 2020 four demonstration/bulk up sites were established across the Great Southern Region covering a range of soil types, rainfall, rotations and growing conditions. The four sites were located in Katanning, Wagin, Darkan and Kojonup.

The methodology in the second year of the project was to bulk up the Linseed seed for future commercial production and to also integrate high level variety comparisons between the two varieties being utilized in the project Bilton and Croxton. Two sites, Wagin and Darkan, incorporated replicated plot treatments as a variety trial with the other 2 sites being predominantly bulk up sites.

The key outcome of any variety demonstration is the final yield result. Due to operational difficulties within the demonstration some yield data is not available however the key findings from the data available was:

• Bilton yielded on average 0.95 MT/Ha and 85% of Canola
• Croxton yielded on average 0.86 MT/Ha and 72% of Canola.
• Bilton out yielded Croxton on both sites.

The seasonal conditions may have contributed to Bilton out yielding Croxton. Bilton is a slightly shorter maturing variety and the below average rainfall received in 2020 is expected to have favoured shorter season varieties.

The project has successfully set in the place the ability for growers in the Great Southern region to scale up production of Linseed and demonstrated its ability to fit within the current rotations with the additional benefit of assisting in the long-term management of soil borne root pathogens.

However, for the scale up of the commercial cultivation of Linseed there is the requirement for beyond farm gate systems to be in place before producers will scale up production. An active market to determine a fair price, storage and handling facilities off farm to enable harvested grain to be stored before delivery to consumers, supply chains in place which enable efficient delivery of the grain anywhere around the world and long-term buyers/processors who will receive the grain year in year out. There is still a lot of process to be put in place before Linseed production will scale up to a considerable level.          

Grower adoption beyond the project has continued with over 60 Ha planted in southern WA in 2021 across 4 growers. Confidence in the supply chain beyond the farm gate remains as the major obstacle stopping increased uptake and requires addressing before increased production can be expected.

Response in barley seems to be variety dependent.

Early plant height reduction was noted in all varieties treated with Moddus Evo but had no effect on lodging.

Commander barley saw a yield increase with the use of Moddus Evo, but LatTrobe did not respond.

Off label high rates of triazole fungicides have to produced any PGR effects to date.

• Third and final year of trials for the GRDC funded project ‘Southern Irrigated Cereal and Canola Achieving Target yields’ (DAN00198).
• Wheat and canola dual purpose trials were established at Bool Lagoon under irrigation.
• Seasonal conditions dictated the use of the dual purpose crops.
• Due to inundation trial results must be interpreted with caution.
• Variety specific agronomy packages will be developed from data collected over the duration of this project.

Irrigated durum wheat can meet DR1 specification

The nitrogen requirement is approximately 50 kg N/t 

Growing durum wheat on a pulse stubble has both disease and nitrogen management benefits

Bannister had the highest grain yields with 9.00 t/ha.

Grazing did impact on yield in Bannister, but not Durack or Yallara.

Additional N above the control did not increase grain yields. Based on the trial results, Bannister nitrogen requirement was 25 kg N/t, whereas Yallara and Durack required 35 kg N/t.

Dry matter harvested (simulated grazing) at around GS31 ranged between 0.81 and 0.99 t/ha (NS)

- In 2015, only varietal differences were observed
- There were no significant effects on yield of fungicide management or plant growth regulator treatments
- Adjusting nitrogen management didn’t have an impact on yield; this was a common observation across both trials and farmer paddocks in 2014.

Fertiliser treatments aimed at increasing phosphorus efficiency did not improve yield but the trial site is not responsive to P.

Added potassium did not see any increase in yield, once again the site has adequate K supply (> 600 ppm Kcolwell).

Copper applied as a foliar spray at booting resulted in decreased yields demonstrating the potential toxic effects an excessive supply of a particular trace element can create.

• No significant difference between treatments but interesting trend supporting combined use of protectant fungicides with soil surfactancts, delivered on furrow rather than on fertiliser (this is not a registered pattern of use).
• Warrants further investigation in 2005.

Wimmera had the greatest yield loss in the presence of weeds and produced the highest weed yield. Hindmarsh also produced the same weed yield. Both of these varieties should not be sown into weedy paddocks unless there is a good management strategy. Scope, Buloke and Compass were identified as very competitive varieties, with the least amount of yield loss and weed seed production. Generally, the presence of weeds reduced barley yields by 1.4t/ha on a 5.4t/ha crop (mean of all varieties).

• Grain yield and lodging increased with additional nitrogen application for all varieties and plant growth regulator (PGR) treatments
• Applying Moddus Evo reduced lodging and increased grain yield of both Rosaling and La Trobe.
• Applying PGRs did not significantly affect either lodging score or grain yield of Compass, despit it lodging severely.

• Three field sites were sown with grass clover pasture and limed and 11 rates.
• Soils were also collected from lime treatments incubated for 2 months and then used to grow clover in the glasshouse.
• Increasing soil pH by liming decreased availability of manganese at all sites and in the glasshouse experiment.
• In the glasshouse experiment yields decreased on all soils at the higher lime rates.
• Diagnosis of manganese deficiency in sub clover is confounded by lack of a reliable critical value.
• If 20 mg/kg is taken as a critical concentration fulfilled run clover and flowering 2 of the experimental sites are nearing manganese deficiency at moderate line rates.
• Calcium chloride extractable manganese determined in the pot soils correlated well with planned manganese in the youngest open leaf.

Crop stubbles provide a valuable feed source for stock over the summer period. The results from this trial indicate that grazing stubbles does not reduce either the amount of soil water stored during the summer fallow period or subsequent crop yield. In low rainfall environments, it is rarely possible to grow sufficient stubble to improve summer fallow efficiency by reducing evaporation (>5t/ha): growers should make use of this valuable feed source. Growers should maintain at least 70 per cent stubble cover (about 2t/ha of cereal stubble) to minimise the risk of wind erosion.

Zinc needs to be applied as part of the fertiliser program every three to four years in the Wimmera and Mallee. The use of zinc as a seed dressing or foliar application will only be beneficial when the paddock has had a poor zinc history. In trials at the Rupanyup site where zinc had been applied 2 out of the last 5 years there were no yield benefits of adding more zinc even to responsive crops such as faba beans and lentils.

The use of a Speed tiller to incorporate stubble did not appear to have any negative impacts in the mixed farming systems in the medium rainfall zone in the South-East of South Australia in a very dry season. There was high paddock variability, due to moisture stress, which would have impacted the results.