• Glasshouse solution culture experiments were used to examine root growth and nutrient uptake with chlorsulfuron application.
• The herbicide chlorsulfuron inhibits the growth of wheat roots and also directly interferes with the uptake of zinc, copper and phosphorus .
• Increased zinc supply alleviates or prevents deleterious effects of chlorsulfuron application to wheat in solution culture.

• Nitrogen fertiliser management influences crop nitrogen uptake at defoliation and cotton lint yield
• Irrigation management did not influence crop nitrogen uptake at defoliation, but significantly influenced cotton lint yield.
• The apparent nitrogen fertiliser recovery was 46% where the optimum fertiliser nitrogen rate was applied
• Seed nitrogen concentration and nitrogen removal was influenced by nitrogen fertiliser application rate, but the effect was not consistent with rate.

• Although time of heading and flowering are considered the most sensitive stages for frost damage in cereals, sensitivity to early frost damage occurs from the start of stem elongation and is referred to as ‘stem frost’.

• Stem frost can be minimised by matching sowing date and cultivar phenology so that stem elongation starts after the period of greatest frost risk.

• Varieties that started stem elongation early (fast developing varieties sown early) were exposed to an increased number of frosts during the susceptible development stages, whilst winter types sown early had an extended vegetative period and were not exposed to the same frost risk, which reduced damage from stem frost.

• Crops can recover from stem frost where there is moisture available to support new tiller growth. However, the resulting effect on phasic development stage synchrony leads to delayed maturity and harvest issues.

• There was no observed difference in frost tolerance of specific cereal species observed in 2017.

• For a wheat crop with an average yield of 4.5–5t/ha, increasing the rate of nitrogen (N) applied (40 and 80 extra kilograms of nitrogen per hectare above the farm standard) significantly increased dry matter (DM) accumulation, crop height and final yield of first wheat following canola.
• Applying a plant growth regulator (PGR) (Moddus + chlormequat) reduced crop height by 3cm and significantly decreased DM production.
• A small, non-significant yield reduction was measured with PGR application, which was similar to that observed during 2014, when yields were in the 5–6t/ha range. Conversely, during 2015, there was a positive yield effect of 0.1t/ha, when average crop yield was approximately 3t/ha.
• Although differences were small, the PGR application significantly increased screenings and decreased test weight, results that are not in line with the effects observed during 2015.
• After three years of trials there is no evidence to suggest PGR application has delivered any positive yield effects or consistent quality effects.
• In all three years of trials, PGR application showed a trend to reduce DM, which was significant in 2016.

• In two first-wheat trials yielding 4.5-5.0t/ha, the application of a plant growth regulator (PGR) delivered no benefits in terms of yield or grain quality.
• The PGR application did not interact with additional nitrogen applied in terms of yield or quality.
• The impact of PGR application on crop height was greater than the impact of nitrogen timing; however, the differences in height were small.
• The grower-applied nitrogen at Redlands, at a rate of 75kg N/ha, and at Yarrawongs at a rat eof 100kg N/ha, were shown to be optimum in terms of yield and quality, with no extra yield or protein resulting from the higher nitrogen application rates with Corack and Wedgetail.

• With an average yield of almost 3t/ha, increasing the rate of nitrogen applied (40 and 80 extra kg N/ha) did not affect dry matter (DM) accumulation, crop height or fianl yield of first wheat following canola.
• Applying a plant growth regulator (PGR) decreased crop height, but did not influence DM or grain yield.
• Although differences were small, PGR application significantly decreased screenings and increased test weight.
• Applying the PGR also decreased crop reflectance, measured as normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) during stem elongation (GS39); a result also observed during 2013 and 2014.
• The lower NDVI readings suggest PGR altered greeness of the crop canopy or the orientation of the leaves, decreasing crop reflectance.

The trials located at Miling and Kojonup in the grainbelt of Western Australia investigated combinations of canola variety (hybrid or open pollinated), crop row spacing (25 or 50cm) and canola seeding rate (20, 35 or 50 plants/m2). The average seedbank at the Miling and Kojonup sites were 3,630 seeds/m2 and 23,240 seeds/m2 respectively.  Annual ryegrass (ARG) establishment was reduced in hybrid canola treatments seeded at narrower 25 cm row spacing. Decreasing crop row spacing (from 50 to 25cm) and increasing canola seeding rate (from 20 to 50 plants/m2) was found to reduce ARG establishment in the absence of herbicides. At the Kojonup site, ARG seed production was reduced by hybrid varieties (Trophy) and higher plant densities (50 plants/m2). However due to the low rainfall at the Miling site, no interactions were identified. Canola yield in this study was increased in hybrid variety (Trophy) treatments especially at higher seeding rates (50 plants/m2). Interestingly, however, canola seeded at the wider row spacing (50cm) consistently out yielded the corresponding variety and seeding rate combination at the narrower 25cm row spacing. This study conducted two trials in 2018 (Mingenew and Cunderdin) and 2019 (Miling and Kojonup). Multi- environment trial analysis for the combined 2018 and 2019 data to be completed.

This trial found that WR establishment from this seed was reduced in hybrid canola treatments seeded at narrower 25 cm row spacing. Decreasing crop row spacing from 50 to 25cm and increasing canola seeding rate from 20 to 50 plants/m2 reduced WR establishment in the absence of herbicides. At the Cunderdin site, WR seed production was reduced within hybrid variety treatments (Trophy) and when seeded at higher plant densities (50 plants/m2). However due to the low rainfall at the Miling site, no interactions were identified. (P>0.05). Canola yield in this study was increased in the open pollinated variety treatments (Bonito) especially when seeded at higher seeding rates (50 plants/m2). Interestingly however, canola seeded at the wider row spacing (50cm) consistently out yielded the corresponding variety and seeding rate combination at the narrower 25cm row spacing. This study conducted two trials at Cunderdin in 2018 and 2019. Multi-environment trial analysis for the combined data to be completed.
 

• The competitive ability of open-pollinated and hybrid canola varieties against wild radish is enhanced by increasing canola seeding rates. Wild radish seed production was not reduced when canola was seeded at a narrow row spacing.

Annual ryegrass (ARG) establishment was reduced in hybrid canola treatments, treatments with increased seed size and higher seeding rates. However, no interaction between these factors existed. At the Kojonup site, ARG seed production was reduced by hybrid varieties (Trophy). Due to the low rainfall at the Miling site, no interaction between treatments were identified. Canola yield in this study was increased in the hybrid variety (Trophy) treatments especially at higher seeding rates (50 plants/m2). In the absence of ryegrass, increased canola seed size also increased canola yield. This study conducted two trials in 2018 (Mingenew and Cunderdin) and 2019 (Miling and Kojonup). Multi- environment trial analysis for the combined 2018 and 2019 data to be completed.

• This study demonstrates that increasing canola seeding rate and using large canola seed size are important factors in achieving the highest yields whilst reducing wild radish seed production when sown to both open pollinated or hybrid canola varieties (Bonito and Trophy respectively).

When canola was sown into wheat stubble in an east-west direction, long stubble (42cm) significantly reduced photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and reduced true leaf number up to mid-winter.

Although there were trends suggesting a reduction in dry matter (DM) production at the yellow bud stage (GS3.7) as a result of increasing stubble height, the differences were not statistically significant.

The average canola yield of the trial was 1.58t/ha with no significant differences in either yield or oil content due to stubble height of the previous wheat crop.

The results mirror a trial conducted at Dookie, where yields in long stubble were 3.70t/ha and 3.75t/ha in short stubble. At this site there were significant reductions in DM production early in the season in the long stubble treatment.

The results of this study suggest:

• Increasing the canola seeding rate of both OP and Hybrid varieties increased the crops potential competitiveness by increasing early biomass (NDVI) and % radiation interception.
• Increasing canola row spacing increased the crops light interception.
• At Cunderdin, the greatest decrease in ARG establishment in response to canola seeding rate occurred where both OP and Hybrid canola varieties were sown at wider (50cm) row spacing’s.
• The Mingenew site had a significantly higher weed density, reducing the trials competitive effect on ARG density, biomass, and seed production. Sites with lower weed seed banks will be identified in 2019.

At the Mingenew site, canola yield was higher in open pollinated variety (Bonito). At Cunderdin, no effects were identified.

The results of this study suggest:

• Crop emergence was affected by pollination type (greater in open pollinated var. Bonito), increased seeding rates and increased row-spacing, with variety and row-spacing interaction.
• Weed densities were affected by the interaction between variety and row-spacing only.
• Wild radish seed production was reduced by increased seeding rate.
• In general, canola yield was increased by increasing seeding rate and row-spacing in both weedy and weed free situations.

The results of this study suggests:

• Crop emergence was affected by pollination type (greater in open pollinated var. Bonito), increased seeding rates and increased seed size at both the Cunderdin and Mingenew sites, with seed size and seeding rate interactions at Mingenew.
• Weed densities were reduced by seed size and seeding rates at Cunderdin. No significant decreases were identifies at Mingenew due to the high weed densities.
• Ryegrass biomass was reduced by Pollination type (reduced in the open pollinated var. Bonito), increased seed size at both the Cunderdin and Mingenew sites. Seeding rate was found to reduce ryegrass biomass at the Cunderdin site.
• Canola yield was increased by increasing seeding rate and seed size in both weedy and weed free situations at the Cunderdin and Mingenew sites.

In 2019, the three trial sites experienced vastly different rainfall and crop germination patterns. The Kojonup site had good soil moisture throughout the growing season resulting in a rapid crop germination. The York and Miling sites however were seeded into completely dry conditions with the wheat germination in the TOS 1 treatments occurring more than six weeks after seeding. The bioassay experiment showed that at all sites, Sakura was the most persistent herbicide. This was evident in the field results where the persistence and activity of Sakura resulted in lower ryegrass emergence, lower seed production and a higher wheat yield. Furthermore, the results showed that at the Kojonup site, which was sown into excellent soil moisture, Trifluralin was also very effective.

The TOS response was variable; the first time of seeding showed better weed control and wheat yields at Miling and York whereas the delayed time of seeding was advisable at the moist Kojonup site. It was also found that increasing the wheat density increased crop competition which in turn reduced ryegrass emergence, ryegrass biomass and ryegrass seed production for all herbicide treatments studied. 

• A combination of dry sowing and a pre-emergent herbicide choice yields greater than the standard sowing time.
• The seed production of ARG at the end of the season correlates with the pre-emergent herbicide soil persistence.
• Increasing crop seeding rates may affect ARG seed production at some sites.

Variable results were achieved in 2006 when matching fertiliser inputs to productivity zones. Results ranged from an increase in paddock returns of $2700 to a loss of $4500 compared to a blanket application of fertiliser.

After 8 trials over 4 years it remains unclear if the adoption VRT and applying fertiliser according to the performance of each productivity zone is likely to generate significant profits when compared to blanket applications of fertiliser in the Corrigin district. The information gathered in the process does however allow farmers to better understand their paddocks and their crops fertiliser requirements to assist in making profitable fertiliser decisions.

Where soils have a high nutrition status (N, P, K, S) and low reactive iron there is scope for farmers to significantly reduce fertiliser inputs in the short term and still achieve profitable grain yields.

For farmers who have not yet reached this stage of herbicide resistance it is imperative that alternative control practices to herbicides are put into practice.

• While machinery ownership and management has its complexities, being aware of some of the aspects that directly impact upon its economic efficiency is a step in the right direction. Consideration of work rate efficiency and timeliness versus over-capitalisation and ultimate returns achieved by the system is very important.
• The Farming Systems Project has identified that the cost profile of the different farming systems from most to least costly is, Fuel Burner, Hungry Sheep, Reduced Till and Zero Till.

• There were no advantages gained by using seed treatments when sowing wheat with granular NP fertilisers.
• On grey calcareous soils all fluid fertilisers increased early plant vigour and grain yield, and on red soils fluids containing zinc and manganese increased grain yields.
• In this season there were no differences in dry matter or yield between crops grown from certified or local seed.

• Select crops best adapted to the soil and climatic conditions of your region; faba bean is the pulse crop best adapted to soils prone to waterlogging.
• Avoid soils with acidic subsurface layers and/or shallow topsoil that limit root development and impermeable subsoil that restrict drainage.
• Test soil pH at 5cm intervals to a depth of 20 cm, to detect subsurface acidity.
• Select paddocks at least two years before sowing acid-sensitive crops to allow time for applied lime to react and increase soil pH, if required.
• Sow early in the recommended sowing window for your location, to encourage effective nodulation, early vigour and biomass accumulation before the onset of cold, wet conditions.

• Widespread manganese toxicity a function of soil acidity.
•  A few reports of manganese deficiency in rapeseed, field pea, sunflower and soybean in NSW.

Phosphorus was applied as Triple Super drilled with seed. The result was lower plant densities as phosphorus rates increased.

For an interpretation of results please see the attached trial report.

Executive summary

Recently interest in the role of renovation cropping in the farming systems of the Western Australian wheatbelt has increased.  It has been proposed as a means of addressing the apparent decline in soil quality in some intensively cropped areas and the increased incidence of herbicide resistance. 

Renovation cropping involves either turning a crop into the soil at flowering or cutting the crop and leaving it on the soil surface.   This is done to maximise the amount of organic matter added to the soil and to control weeds most effectively.  In the Western Australian wheatbelt the focus has been on using pulses, although a range of crops can be used.  The pulse phase of a rotation is favoured as pulses improve the nitrogen status of the soil. In addition the returns to pulses are lower relative to cereals and canola, so the forgone profit in the year of renovation cropping is lowest.

Renovation cropping leads to changes in soil conditions that persist for at least the following season.  It reduces weed numbers in the following crop by reducing seed set, increases the availability of nutrients and may improve soil structure.  Lower weed numbers reduce the carry-over of root diseases thus providing a disease break for the following cereal crop.  Recent trials have shown likely yield increases of 20-30% above those after a pulse crop and increased grain protein levels in the following cereal.

The main cost of green manuring is the income lost by sacrificing grain production.  The loss in income plus any additional costs associated with soil renovation need to be recouped in the following season(s).  Therefore the income from the yield increase(s) in the subsequent year(s) needs to be equal to or greater than the total costs of renovation, including the income forgone.

Despite the increase in interest in renovation cropping, no comprehensive economic analysis has been undertaken to determine its role in Western Australian farming systems.  This study investigates circumstances under which renovation cropping is likely to be profitable and estimates the needed increase in farm profit, given the variability of yields that result from seasonal influences.

To investigate the consequence of risky yields historical rainfall data was used to generate yield distributions for different rainfall zones, soil types and crops.  The yield distributions were used as input to a simulation model to determine the distribution of income, resulting from renovation cropping, in a lupin:wheat:wheat rotation.  The mean yield boost resulting from renovation cropping was estimated to be 3% based on trial results (F. Hoyle, pers. comm.). 

The results of the analysis showed that there is a 30-40% chance of increasing profit if yield is increased by 30% on average.  However, the results were very sensitive to the average increase in yield.  The probability that profit will be increased was halved when yield boost was reduced to 20%. 

The yield increase required to make renovation cropping profitable can vary between 100% under the worst case and below 10% under the best case.  The variability depends on grain prices, grain yield in the renovation phase (if a commercial crop had been was harvested), and the cost of renovation and grain yields in the following crop phase.

The likelihood that profit will be increased depends largely on minimising income forgone relative to the increase in income in the following years.  Therefore green manuring will be most profitable when done in years when the grain yield of the pulse crop is low, and/or when the following cereal yield is very high. 

Weather forecasts are not yet sufficiently developed to predict potentially good years over 12 months ahead, so renovation needs to be undertaken in poor years to maximise the chances of increasing profit.

Identifying poor yielding years prior to renovation does present some difficulty although weather forecasts may improve the chances of undertaking renovation in the 'right' year.  .  Also yield potential is determined directly by biomass of the crop, so this may be used as an early indicator of yield.  Where waterlogging or disease has caused low vegetative growth, resistant weeds are widespread in a paddock, or where frost has damaged the crop green manuring is more likely to be a profitable option. 

This suggests a role for tactical use of renovation cropping so that it is undertaken in years where the forgone income is minimised (i.e. it is done in poor yielding years).  The results of the analysis show that only small yield increases in the following cereal crop are necessary to break even in these circumstances. 

The analysis highlighted gaps in the knowledge of the impact of renovation cropping that may be important for more comprehensive economic analysis, or information that may improve the grower’s ability to undertake the practice profitably.  Further research into green manuring could include:

• Determining whether the profitability of green manuring can be increased using long term weather forecasts.  Improving the estimates of the probability of achieving different yields may allow farmers to renovate soils in years that have lower risk.
• More information on the effects of green manuring on yield and protein for different crops under different conditions is required to better assess the economic advantages of green manuring
• The profitability of green manuring relative to other methods of improving sustainability of cropping also needs to be addressed.

 

Executive summary

Recently interest in the role of renovation cropping in the farming systems of the Western Australian wheatbelt has increased.  It has been proposed as a means of addressing the apparent decline in soil quality in some intensively cropped areas and the increased incidence of herbicide resistance. 

Renovation cropping involves either turning a crop into the soil at flowering or cutting the crop and leaving it on the soil surface.   This is done to maximise the amount of organic matter added to the soil and to control weeds most effectively.  In the Western Australian wheatbelt the focus has been on using pulses, although a range of crops can be used.  The pulse phase of a rotation is favoured as pulses improve the nitrogen status of the soil. In addition the returns to pulses are lower relative to cereals and canola, so the forgone profit in the year of renovation cropping is lowest.

Renovation cropping leads to changes in soil conditions that persist for at least the following season.  It reduces weed numbers in the following crop by reducing seed set, increases the availability of nutrients and may improve soil structure.  Lower weed numbers reduce the carry-over of root diseases thus providing a disease break for the following cereal crop.  Recent trials have shown likely yield increases of 20-30% above those after a pulse crop and increased grain protein levels in the following cereal.

The main cost of green manuring is the income lost by sacrificing grain production.  The loss in income plus any additional costs associated with soil renovation need to be recouped in the following season(s).  Therefore the income from the yield increase(s) in the subsequent year(s) needs to be equal to or greater than the total costs of renovation, including the income forgone.

Despite the increase in interest in renovation cropping, no comprehensive economic analysis has been undertaken to determine its role in Western Australian farming systems.  This study investigates circumstances under which renovation cropping is likely to be profitable and estimates the needed increase in farm profit, given the variability of yields that result from seasonal influences.

To investigate the consequence of risky yields historical rainfall data was used to generate yield distributions for different rainfall zones, soil types and crops.  The yield distributions were used as input to a simulation model to determine the distribution of income, resulting from renovation cropping, in a lupin:wheat:wheat rotation.  The mean yield boost resulting from renovation cropping was estimated to be 3% based on trial results (F. Hoyle, pers. comm.). 

The results of the analysis showed that there is a 30-40% chance of increasing profit if yield is increased by 30% on average.  However, the results were very sensitive to the average increase in yield.  The probability that profit will be increased was halved when yield boost was reduced to 20%. 

The yield increase required to make renovation cropping profitable can vary between 100% under the worst case and below 10% under the best case.  The variability depends on grain prices, grain yield in the renovation phase (if a commercial crop had been was harvested), and the cost of renovation and grain yields in the following crop phase.

The likelihood that profit will be increased depends largely on minimising income forgone relative to the increase in income in the following years.  Therefore green manuring will be most profitable when done in years when the grain yield of the pulse crop is low, and/or when the following cereal yield is very high. 

Weather forecasts are not yet sufficiently developed to predict potentially good years over 12 months ahead, so renovation needs to be undertaken in poor years to maximise the chances of increasing profit.

Identifying poor yielding years prior to renovation does present some difficulty although weather forecasts may improve the chances of undertaking renovation in the 'right' year.  .  Also yield potential is determined directly by biomass of the crop, so this may be used as an early indicator of yield.  Where waterlogging or disease has caused low vegetative growth, resistant weeds are widespread in a paddock, or where frost has damaged the crop green manuring is more likely to be a profitable option. 

This suggests a role for tactical use of renovation cropping so that it is undertaken in years where the forgone income is minimised (i.e. it is done in poor yielding years).  The results of the analysis show that only small yield increases in the following cereal crop are necessary to break even in these circumstances. 

The analysis highlighted gaps in the knowledge of the impact of renovation cropping that may be important for more comprehensive economic analysis, or information that may improve the grower’s ability to undertake the practice profitably.  Further research into green manuring could include:

• Determining whether the profitability of green manuring can be increased using long term weather forecasts.  Improving the estimates of the probability of achieving different yields may allow farmers to renovate soils in years that have lower risk.
• More information on the effects of green manuring on yield and protein for different crops under different conditions is required to better assess the economic advantages of green manuring
• The profitability of green manuring relative to other methods of improving sustainability of cropping also needs to be addressed.

 

This demonstration clearly showed that by adding a small amount of barley (16kg/ha) to serradella when re-seeding, early winter feed for livestock can be significantly increased.  However, as the photos from early September indicate, the serradella growth in spring can be held back due to competition from the barley. Increasing the frequency and intensity of grazing would help, as would the application of a grass selective herbicide to kill the barley in early spring when feed is becoming abundant. If the season was very poor, the barley might be left to increase total pasture production and groundcover for summer.  

There was a significant response to all nitrogen applications.

In an irrigated trial on Mackellar (feed wheat) at Hagley, Tasmania, plot yields ranged from 6.6 – 9.4 t/ha depending on the level of nitrogen and fungicide input. There was a significant response to nitrogen application, with an optimum that varied from 60 ‐120 kg/ha depending on whether fungicide was applied. There was a significant yield interaction (P=0.003) between the amount of applied nitrogen and the level of fungicide input, whereby the higher the level of applied nitrogen the greater was the need for fungicide input. Without fungicide application at stem elongation the optimum nitrogen input for the crop was 60 kg/ha N; however with fungicide application it was at least 90 kg/ha N. There was a significant increase in grain protein associated with increasing nitrogen level in the range of 60 ‐120 kg/ha N and a significant increase in protein associated with fungicide application.

• Significant responses in lucerne seed yield were achieved with foliar manganese applications on 2/5 irrigated lucerne sites at Keith.
• Plant tissue analysis prior to the application of manganese show the concentrations at both responsive sites were less than 14 mg per kilogram in the youngest open leaf and whole shoots.
• this contrasted with concentrations from 3 other sites we seeded did not respond to manganese, the mean concentration being greater than 18 mg per kilogram in youngest open leaves and 14 mg per kilogram manganese and whole shoots prior to treatment.

Six varieties of canola were tested to compare their responsiveness to urea. The varieties selected had different growth patterns, and the slow growing varieties such as the TT types showed a similar response in growth to the other more vigorous types. In this experiment, urea did not increase yield of any of the varieties tested, but oil contents fell for five of the six varieties with added urea, with ATR Hyden the exception. Given the poor yield response, little can be directly interpreted from these results, although it is reasonable to conclude that higher urea rates are less profitable with lower yielding types or on sites with low yield potential.

• Stubble rentention increased the severity of frost events in experiments over two years
• There was no difference in floret sterility due to stubble treatment, but grain yield was highest where stubble was removed by burning. 
• Stubble rentention reduced the amount of heat stored in the soil during spring. With less heat stored there is less capacity for energy release at night to buffer against frost damage.
• Consider management strategies that avoid frost (e.g. crop choice, sowing date, variety choice) where high stubble loads are retained at sowing. 

The application of compost at 2 t/ha did not result in higher returns and the response under compost plus fertiliser treatments could be attributed to the application of fertiliser. Spading did not return any further gains in terms of yield or quality at this site in 2013. The high cost of spading and compost in the first year, have negatively influenced profit outcomes. Depending on future yield improvements, these treatments may pay for themselves over the longer term.

No measureable changes in soil condition as a result of adding 2 t/ha compost were measured in 2013 and 2014 that would add value to the long term profit of this site.

Machinery used for applying compost caused some compaction and due to the dry post-sowing conditions, crop germination was very patchy. The trial site experienced significant moisture stress early in the season and may not be representative of seasons experiencing an average or wetter start.

The SOI phase signal for April-May (available on the last day of May) and subsequent monthly phases can provide useful information on the likelihood for rainfall for the rest of the season. It can be a very useful tool for assessing the risk of topdressing nitrogen fertiliser (especially if it is used in combination with other indicators such as potential of the crop; decile trend and stored soil moisture).

• There is little to be concerned about from implementing a strategic tillage provided:
  • That it is not frequent, say less frequent than once every five years based on the above.
  • That we consider the well-known risks for erosion such as slope, groundcover, and current weather, and the soil moisture at the time of the proposed tillage. Hence, we suggest leaving the tillage as late as possible so as to avoid the chance of erosive rainfall between tillage and crop establishment.

• No significant yield differences between seeders were recorded. This result could be misleading according to Andrew Slade.
• The analysed data indicates that Andrew Slade’s seeding system achieved significantly less protein than the other two farmers set-up.
• The raw means indicate there is still a likely difference between Slade’s and the other two farmers.
• This difference is possibly explained by the higher yields achieved by the Slade’s seeding system.
• Note: Statistical analysis not yet completed on replicates two and three.

• Zinc efficient and inefficient wheat cultivars were grown in soil cores in the glasshouse.
•  The calcareous soil had low micronutrient levels and high pH and boron.
• Although cultivar Gatcher produced 47% more dry weight of tops and double the root length density of cultivar Excalibur at maturity, cultivar Excalibur was much more efficient in terms of zinc uptake by roots and sevenfold more efficient than cultivar Gatcher in partitioning zinc to grain.

• Zinc-efficient (Excalibur) and inefficient (Gatcher) wheat cultivars grown in calcareous subsoil with low micronutrient levels, high pH and B.
• Treatments were +/- basal nutrients (exc Zn) and +/-Zn.
• Gatcher produced 47% more DM tops and double the root length density of Excalibur by maturity Excalibur was far more efficient in Zn uptake and seven times more efficient than Gatcher in partitioning zinc to grain.

There was no yield benefit using bio-degradable polymer film on late sown barley and field peas.

• New fodder shrub species have been successfully trialed in the UN.
• Perennials, including fodder shrubs will increase pasture production on poor, degraded soils.
• Grazing animals require a balanced diet with a variety of pasture species to ensure the correct balance of energy, protein and minerals.
• High stocking pressure for short periods is necessary to maximize pasture production of both the fodder shrubs and inter-row pasture.

• Poor growth of flax observed on "Bay of Biscay" (black clays) in Auburn area of South Australia.
• But soil type patchy through paddocks.
• Agricultural zinc sulphate was cheaper and as effective as calcined zinc in correcting the problem.

• The combination of Triazine Tolerant (TT) and Roundup Ready (RR) herbicide provided superior control of ryegrass and wild radish over individual chemistry treatments.
• Canola is an important rotational winter crop however, with increasing herbicide resistance across multiple chemistries in WA, growers are experiencing increasingly limited options with the current herbicide tolerance technologies available.
• Hyola RT® Technology allows the combination of strong knockdown and residual broad-spectrum herbicides from different herbicide groups and modes of action, targeting a wide range of weed species.
•  Hyola RT® will provide an important role in addressing the increasing Clethodim resistance problem.
• RT® dual herbicide tolerant Hybrids have now demonstrated their value as a new competitive integrated weed management (IWM) tool, also providing increased convenience and flexibility of in-crop weed control.

Results from the initial establishment season have again confirmed the ability of hardseeded legumes to grow and set seed under adverse seasonal conditions.  The value of indeterminate pattern of growth in facilitating additional seed set was also shwon with biserrula where following late spring rain, an additional round of seed set resulted in a more than doubling of overall seed production.Bladder, with a slightly deeper root system, and gland clover which is early maturing also showed b etter capacity to produce seed in challenging condition s compared to subterranean clover.  With production of a seed bank critical for pasture performance  in subsequent years, the performance of hardsseded legumes was very encouraging.

• The value of stored soil moisture at seeding in the Northern Agricultural Region of WA is not well understood.
• In trials so far, value of stored soil moisture at seeding has varied depending on season and soil type.
• In 2013, additional water at seeding increased yield by about 500 kg/ha at the sand site, and by 1000-2000 t/ha at the loam site.
• Trials such as these will help to unravel the value of stored soil moisture so that it can better be used as a predictor of crop performance and nutritional requirements.
• Available water at sowing is a poor predictor of expected yield and cannot be used as a simple tool for adjusting input levels. We need to develop an ability to understand when and why the water will be of benefit. 

For some, 1993 waws the best year ever. For others a disaster caused by mice, frost and the decision to plant a majority of barley crop.

1994. What a year! Let's hope that it's not repeated in 1995. For most farmers in the region, 1994 was the third lowest rainfall since 1945, or the fifth lowest rainfall ever.

For most farmers, 1995 will be remembered for high-yielding crops and excellent prices.

Overall, 1997 was tough, we were probably let out of jail twice during the year: as usual there were many lessons and opportunities.

What is important is never give up hope, never stop learning, listening or talking.

Please see report 

The good news is that we are all likely to experience on average 3 to 4 of these types of years in our farming careers, we now have one less to worry about.

2004 was a disappointing year in nearly every way we choose to look at it. For some, it was the worst financial drought they have had, worse than 2002, because they spent money on inputs right up till harvest. The good thing about the year was that, as droughts go, there was very little wind erosion because paddocks were not bare. All paddocks had enough rain to grow crops or pastures, enough rain to persuade farmers that every thing was going to be all right, right up till the bitter end.

Once again, "the year that was” attempts to capture what occurred across the Wimmera and Mallee. While I know very well what happened on our own farm, I can only try and summarise what has been experienced in the wider communities of the Wimmera and Mallee in yet another tricky year for farmers.

2006 can best be described as the year in which drought, water, climate change, the resources boom and the Cole Inquiry into AWB Limited dominated the headlines of our newspapers across the nation. I cannot remember a period in our history when rural issues dominated the minds of the nation to such an extent. As we know, attention from the press usually means that rural people are doing it tough.

The 2007 year can be summarized by the saying above. The essence of most farmer’s problems this year was that our crops looked so good in July that when no spring rain came the crops had to fall over. In fact we were lucky to get as much grain as we did. If the weather in October had not been cool then the result would have been far worse. I remember Nick Poole, at a workshop in August, saying the best thing that our crops could do, would be to drop a lot of tillers off - such was the potential.

At the beginning of the year the thought of another drought on top of the previous four in six years was too preposterous to contemplate. Never in our history has there been three droughts in a row and only a couple of times two in a row. With a La Nina forecast and record prices for grain, 2008 was looked forward to with great optimism. We needed only average crops to achieve good farm profitability.

• The application of N increased yields of all cereals grown on a wheat stubble.
• The application of fungicides controlled leaf diseases in wheat and barley, and increased the grain yield of wheat.

• Across three years addition of trace elements and fluid fungicide in-furrow did not provide increases in emergence, tillering or final yield - although this contradicts what other farmers have reported.
• Liquid N at sowing can improve crop emergence and early vigour, especially under dry conditions .
• Full liquid systems did not provide a profit benefit (due to higher input costs) even where they did provide increased yield which was not in all years.
• Recommendation most likely to provide higher returns for this area will be an in-furrow fertiliser system that incorporates some elements of liquid nitrogen and phosphorus fertiliser ,trace elements, fungicides and granular phosphorus and nitrogen fertiliser.

• Hand weeding wild radish is feasible if you can pick the right paddock with a low enough weed density. The trick is picking the right paddocks.
• This is a viable practice where wild radish density is approximately 5 to 10 plants/ha or less. At very low densities this practice is both economically and logistically feasible.
• A side-by-side all terrain vehicle (ATV) with a trailer would be ideal. With this equipment, teams of two could work together with the driver picking radish given the ease of stepping into and out of these vehicles. This would reduce the cost and make life easy and safe for the workers.
• Spray a boundary lap and any areas where high density is expected. We encountered high radish densities near the edges of paddocks which slowed down the process and increased the cost. These sprayed areas can also be hand weeded to remove resistant survivors.
• Spend time assessing the paddocks. We managed to make accurate wild radish density assessments in one paddock. The problem was that we didn’t do enough assessment and we were faced with surprises in the other two paddocks.
• Drones /weed detection will have their day. We have un-sprayed paddocks that now have as few as 2 wild radish per hectare in crop. It is simply not worth spending upwards of $25/ha to spray these crops not to mention the environmental issues. These paddocks are currently rare but they show what is possible.

• Thrips pressure reached the positive control threshold of one thrips per plant in late October while plants were at the cotyledon to 1-leaf stage.
• Thrips pressure reached the industry threshold of 10 thrips per plant in mid-November when plants were at the 4–5-leaf stage.
• Onion thrips were the dominant thrips species observed during monitoring.
• Western flower thrips (WFT) constituted less than 5% of thrips monitored.
• There was no yield difference between sprayed and unsprayed plots.

• Thrips pressure was lower in the earlier planted Whitton site.
• Thrips pressure reached the industry control threshold of 10 thrips/plant on 3 November while plants were still at the cotyledon to 1-leaf stage at the Darlington Point site, and only in some plots at Whitton on 9 November and most plots on 23 November when plants were at the 6–8 leaf stage.
• Onion thrips were the dominant thrips species observed during monitoring.
• Western flower thrips constituted less than 5% of thrips monitored.
• There was no yield difference between sprayed and unsprayed plots.

High machinery loads and working when soil moisture is not optimal can cause topsoil and subsoil compaction.

This trial illustrated that there can be some significant benefits to deep ripping post sowing.

• The average yields peaked at the mid May sowing.
• Grain quality results were not available at the time of print, but will be available by the Crop Updates.

• Early sowing of barley may be an effective way of controlling ryegrass growth and limiting seed set.
• Results in wheat are more variable than for barley: at Wanilla, mid-May seemed the optimal time of sowing to reduce ryegrass with less effect obvious at Yeelanna.
• Higher seeding rates also followed the same trend, with little ryegrass suppression benefit seen in wheat but a benefit evident in barley.
• Increasing seeding rate did not improve wheat yields significantly however barley (Fleet) did seem to benefit from higher seeding rates when sown late (mid-June).

• Early sowing of barley may be an effective way of controlling ryegrass growth and limiting seed set.
• Results in wheat are more variable than for barley: at Wanilla, mid-May seemed the optimal time of sowing to reduce ryegrass with less effect obvious at Yeelanna.
• Higher seeding rates also followed the same trend, with little ryegrass suppression benefit seen in wheat but a benefit evident in barley.
• Increasing seeding rate did not improve wheat yields significantly however barley (Fleet) did seem to benefit from higher seeding rates when sown late (mid-June).

• The highest yielding wheat variety in the time of sowing trial at Hart in 2010 was Yitpi (4.81 t/ha) sown on May 1st.
• Wheat varieties Axe and Gladius increased grain yield as time of sowing was delayed from May 1st until May 29th.

• The highest yielding treatment in the wheat time of sowing trial at Hart in 2009 was Gladius sown on the 30th of April.
• Later maturing varieties were best sown in early May.
• Axe is a good option for sowing in late May.

• Time of sowing was not important for yield in a wet rainfall year with a soft finish.
• Varietal selection was a bigger contributor to grain yield than the time of sowing in 2010. Choosing a variety well-adapted to a range of seasons will provide the greatest returns in the long term.
• Hindmarsh performs well in dry and wet years, consistently yielding well at all sowing times. Commander was the best of the malt varieties, yielding similarly to Hindmarsh. However, Commander may struggle in drier years.

• Early sowing of cereals, wheat, barley or oats, gave excellent grazing, hay or grain outcomes in 2009.
• The barley gave similar or better all round performance than the wheat or oats.

• Frame was the highest yielding variety when sown on the 1st May.
• As sowing date was delayed the early maturing variety Axe out yielded later maturing varieties Gladius and Frame.

• TOS1 was sown in mid May and established well.
• TOS2 was sown late May but did not emerge until late June.
• TOS3 was sown late June and emerged a few days later.

• The ideal sowing time for soybeans in southern NSW is from mid-November to early December.
• Delaying sowing until late December can result in reduced grain yield.

For further information please see attached trial report.

• There was no significant pH changes within the first year of the demonstration however there was a trend for an increase in subsoil pH of 0.2-0.3 pH units following deep banding of lime.
• Predicted some of the lime deep banded in 2001 would remain undissolved and further pH increases should take place subsequently.
• Despite not significantly changing soil pH, there were first year yield responses in wheat following ripping, and the injection of lime.
• From a perspective to have lime react, it would seem imperative to have a deep tillage operation every few years.  Once a certain portion of lime has reacted, the residual lime then sits in a highly alkaline (caused by the dissolution of some of the lime applied) zone, within a highly acidic soil.  The chance of the excess lime present deep in the soil profile coming into contact with acid soil, to subsequently react and change more of the overall soil pH appears to be reliant upon some degree of mechanical intervention.

• A unique trial design (double up of each plot) was designed to allow destructive biomass sampling, and grain yield measurement
• This trial site was primarily used in a ‘screening function’- to evaluate any negative impact of lime of a variety of different legumes which was considered to be happening during the mid 1990’s. The key concern was to investigate if manganese deficiency was induced by liming
• The trial was sown to lupins in 1994, wheat in 1995.  Data not available
• Yield responses (negative) were apparently not noted in the early years following establishment of the trial.  Positive yield response did occur, several years post trial establishment
• The double up design allowed comparison of lime sources on many different species.  For example, in 1996, narrow leaf and yellow lupins were compared.  No data available
• In 1997 the trial was sown to wheat, no yield responses reported
• In 1998, the trial was sown to a diverse mix of new pasture legumes that were at various stages of evaluation prior to commercial release.  Some of the material screened, that subsequently was commercialised included Cadiz French serradella, Santorini and Charano yellow serradella, Casbah Biserrula, Prima gland clover and finally Bartolo bladder clover.  The primary focus of this work was to assess any negative impacts of lime on legumes.  No negative impacts reported.
• The inclusion of this trial into this sampling regime, was primarily because of the known (high rates) of lime subsequently applied by the cooperating farmer, and the focus to see if these high rates had changed soil pH deeper in the profile, which did not occur initially.

• There was rapid change in soil pH at this site in the first few years following the establishment of this trial.

• Despite the initial changes in soil pH, there were no positive grain yield responses between 1996-1999.

• In the 2000 wheat crop, there was a negative response to 2t/ha in 2000. 

• There has been a dramatic decline in soil pH across all treatments since 2000, despite a total of 4t/ha of lime being applied across the site (two applications of 2t/ha in circa 2009 and 2013.

• The source of the subsequent applications of lime applied by the farmer is unknown

• During the first few years of this trial being monitored, there were significant changes in soil pH due to the application of lime, and these changes resulted in significant grain response

• The ‘top up’ application (1.5t/ha, across all initial lime rates of 0, 1 and 2t/ha)) of lime applied in 2006 (10 years post trial establishment) has had dramatic impact on current soil pH.  Unfortunately, grain yields have not been monitored post the top up lime application.

• The 2016 pH measurements provide clear evidence inadequate lime has been applied to counter inherent and ongoing soil acidification. From a starting surface pH of 4.8 over a subsurface of 4.6 (in 1996), the highest rate of lime applied has been 2t (1996) and a further 1.5t (2006) is simply insufficient to lift soil pH above the DAFWA stated targets (5.5 over 4.8).

• Despite soil pH being under target, this trial provides a clear demonstration of the best soil pH profile being associated with the highest rate of lime application.  Collecting grain yields would be valuable

•    During the early years following trial establishment, there was no grain yield response measured
•    In 2004/2005, some 8 years post initial lime treatment, strong visual responses to lime became apparent
•    The ‘top up’ application (1.5t/ha, across all initial lime rates of 0, 1 and 2t/ha)) of lime applied in 2005 (9 years post trial establishment) has had dramatic impact on current soil pH, and the soil pH profiles now reflect lime applied
•    Only the highest rate of lime treatment (initial 2t/ha) followed by the 1.5t/ha in 2005 have a soil pH profile above the DAFWA recommendations (5.5 in the surface, over 4.8 at depth)
 

In 2012, early sown barley and canola gave the highest yields and gross returns. The early sown crops were able to withstand frosts and avoid the worst of the dry spring. Despite the different growth habit (erect vs prostrate) of many of the barley varieties, no one variety responded better to the altered sowing times or density than any other. Growers should plant all barley varieties at their chosen timing and plant density, and make their selection on the basis of other factors (e.g. disease resistance).

In 2012, early sown barley and canola gave the highest yields and gross returns. The early sown crops were able to withstand frosts and avoid the worst of the dry spring. Despite the different growth habit (erect vs prostrate) of many of the barley varieties, no one variety responded better to the altered sowing times or density than any other. Growers should plant all barley varieties at their chosen timing and plant density, and make their selection on the basis of other factors (e.g. disease resistance).

Sowing early increased yields by 0.5t/ha at Watchupga East and Horsham. Corack and Mace topped the yields at Watchupga East. Cobra and Mace were the highest yielding varieties at Horsham.

• The 2000 season was not conducive to the spread of leaf rust with the hot dry summer preventing the carry over of rust spores on volunteer cereals.
• For further results please see the attached trial report.

In this 2014 trial at Kojonup-West:

• Canola grain yield and gross margins were more dependent on nitrogen rates than the application timings.
• There was no effect of delayed nitrogen application on grain yield or gross margins up to 100 kg N/ha.
• At 125 kg N/ha, a significant yield and gross margins reduction was observed when nitrogen was applied as a 3-way split (50 kg within 8 weeks, 50 kg/ha at 12 and 25 kg/ha at 16 weeks after seeding) compared to when all of the nitrogen was applied within 8 weeks of seeding.

• Canola grain yield and gross margins were more dependent on nitrogen rates than the application timings.
• Delaying application of nitrogen after 8 weeks reduced canola yield.  The reduction was greater the higher the proportion of total applied N delayed.  
• Hyola 404RR produced significantly higher grain yield and oil than ATR Wahoo, but similar gross margins.

• We observed no significant differences in grain yield (GY) between any treatments due to low yield potential and reasonable soil nitrogen (N) levels at seeding.
• Timing of N application had no effect on GY. This is consistent with last years’ results at Wubin.
• Canola oil percentage decreased as N rate increased. High rates of N reduced oil significantly, consistent with last year at Wubin.
• The higher the rate of N the more rapidly oil percentage reduced, consistent with last year at Wubin.
• Gross margins (GM) decreased as N rates increased; all GM figures are negative due to poor GY, however, Sturt performed better than Pioneer 43Y23RR due to the higher seed costs associated with Roundup Ready (RR) seed.

• There were significant differences in grain yield (GY) between treatments (N kg/ha and timing), however, GY was particularly low in all treatments. 
• Total nitrogen (N) increased GY significantly up to 30kg N/ha.
• Canola oil percentage decreased as N rate increased. High rates of N reduced oil significantly.
• Applying N late (12 weeks after sowing (WAS) reduced canola oil percentage, however, not significantly.
• Gross margins decreased as N rates increased, but all gross margins (GM) were negative due to poor GY. Sturt had better gross margins than Pioneer 43Y23RR due to the higher seed costs associated with RR seed.
• Pioneer 43Y23RR produced higher GY at all rates and timings of applied N other than 10N seeding and 20N 12WAS.

• Canola responded to N applied as late as 12 weeks after seeding but not as much as to N applied at 4 or 8 weeks.  Hyola 404 RR and CB Telfer responded similarly in terms of yield.
• Nitrogen reduced oil %, and late N reduced it more than early N.  Oil was more sensitive to applied N in CB Telfer than in Hyola 404 RR.
• Grain yield continued to respond to 100 kg N/ha but the highest gross margin was at 75 kg/ha in Hyola 404 RR and at 100 kg/ha in CB Telfer.

In this 2013 trial;

• Canola grain yield responded positively to nitrogen application.
• Canola oil content responded negatively to nitrogen application.
• Therefore a wide number of treatments produced equal highest gross margins.
• The lowest rate of nitrogen treatment to produce maximum returns was 25 kg N/ha applied 4 weeks after sowing.
• We found treatments applied 12 weeks after sowing when the canola was flowering produced. similar results to applications applied at 8 weeks after sowing – which is the industry norm.
• Hyola 404RR produced higher oil but equal yield and gross margins to CB Telfer.

In this 2013 trial

• Time of nitrogen application had a minor effect on grain yield, oil and gross margins

applying 50 kg N/ha in a split application with 25 kg N/ha applied at seeding and 25 kg N/ha applied 12WAS was the equal of any other treatment.

• Both CB Telfer and Hyola 404RR responded similarly to nitrogen rate and timing of application.

Consequently due to lower seed costs, CB Telfer produced on average higher gross margins of $415/ha compared to $307/ha for Hyola 404RR.

• Canola grain yield increased with nitrogen application up to 50 kg N/ha
• Timing of nitrogen application had no effect on grain yield
• Canola oil decreased as nitrogen rate increased
• Applying nitrogen late (12 weeks after sowing) reduced oil%, but only if total N applied was 50 kg/ha
• Overall gross margins were similar at all rates of applied nitrogen or timing of nitrogen application - due to the decline of oil% as nitrogen increased
• Hyola 404RR produced higher yields, oil and gross margins than CB Telfer TT - at all rates and timings of nitrogen application.