• Pioneer® 45Y88 (CL) was the highest yielding variety, averaging over 4 t/ha, with Nuseed Diamond and Pioneer® 45Y25 (RR) also achieving high yields.
• Sowing on 5 April resulted in higher grain yield, reduced lodging and lower oil content compared with sowing on 26 April.
• A plant population of 35–56 plants/m2 resulted in higher grain yields than populations of 18 plants/m2 or 68 plants/m2.
• Applying 200 kg N/ha resulted in higher grain yields than 150 kg N/ha when the soil available nitrogen (N) at sowing was 64 kg/ha. Nitrogen rates above 200 kg N/ha resulted in no extra yield.
• Increasing N application rates above 200 kg N/ha reduced oil concentration.
• Crop lodging increased with plant populations above 35 plants/m2 and N rates above 150 kg N/ha.

In this experiment foliar application of tebuconazole at label rates to a wheat crop (cv. Yitpi) at GS38-49 resulted in a significant yield loss (0.43t/ha or a 43 percent decrease relative to the control)

• Substantially better brome control and seed set reduction is possible by using pre-emergence options other than trifluralin.
• The costly Sakura+Avadex treatment is likely to be the most effective.
• Consistency of performance of all pre-emergence herbicides for brome remains a problem
• On-row seeding on non-wetting sand showed that it can substantially improve early crop emergence.
• One reason for this is the likely wetter surface soil in rows at time of seeding.
• Seasonal conditions such as the long-wet season of 2016 will affect efficacy of both pre-emergence herbicides and the impact of additional crop competition on brome seed set suppression.
• Maintaining low seedbanks and having alternative options for weed seed control when faced with a risk of ‘blowouts’ in brome seed set is important given the chance of particularly poor control in some seasons.

• Substantially better brome control and seed set reduction is possible with pre-emergence options other than trifluralin.
• The costly Sakura+Avadex treatment is likely to be the most effective.
• Consistency of performance of all pre-emergence herbicides for brome remains a problem
• On-row seeding on non-wetting sand can substantially improve early crop emergence in part due to increased surface soil water accumulation in rows at time of seeding.
• Seasonal conditions such as the long wet season of 2016 will affect efficacy of both pre-emergence herbicides and the impact of additional crop competition on brome seed set suppression.
• Maintaining low seedbanks and having alternative options for weed seed control when faced with a risk of ‘blowouts’ in brome seed set is important given the chance of particularly poor control in some seasons.

• The later seeding had very poor crop establishment, resulting in significantly higher brome seed production (115% more panicles) than early seeding, but seeding time did not interact with herbicide treatment effects.
• Only the treatments including Sakura resulted in significantly (P<0.01) better brome control than trifluralin alone (measured by number of panicles/m2).
• Sakura alone resulted in 55% less brome panicles than trifluralin alone, and Sakura + Avadex resulted in 72% less brome panicles than trifluralin alone.
• Sakura’s extended residual soil activity, which can restrict root growth of brome, combined with the dry spring, was probably responsible for the reduced seed set.
• Substantially better brome control and seedset reduction is possible by using pre-emergence options other than trifluralin. The additional herbicide cost needs to be evaluated against the better level of control, including the longer-term seedbank benefits.

• From the 10% challenge came a feast of ideas, usually with one or two key focus points considered valuable to the farming operation, with farmers agreeing with or discussing other ideas as they were shared within the groups.
• The information arising from these sessions has been presented at farmer meetings for local groups to discuss in relation to their own farming systems. Further development and extension of this work and ‘rules of thumb’ will be investigated with the discussion
• groups and delivered at local farmer meetings.

Agricultural activities such as cultivation, livestock farming, stubble burning and decomposition of crop residues cause greenhouse gases to be released into the atmosphere.

• All two year break options increased yield by 0.5–1.0 t/ha compared to continuous wheat.
• Single year breaks improved wheat yields in 2012 and also appeared to increase them slightly in 2013.
• Grassy weeds had a major impact on wheat yields.
• Only 2 year breaks reduced grassy weed seed banks substantially compared to the continuouswheat control.

• Canola and peas only produced half the yield of wheat, but barley performed very well.
• Ryegrass is becoming a problem in wheat on wheat plots.
• Pastures performed well where seed reserves had been increased in 2011.
• All options had good soil moisture (40mm) at the start of the season.

There is enormous opportunity for the farming sector in general to benefit through the introduction of new crop types. Potentially crops that may have previously been bred for the food industry might now have an opportunity to be reutilised through the significant segregated storage and handling system that we see across most of the east coast of Australia. The ongoing reliance on fossil fuels is not healthy. With the world oil stocks depleting at an ever increasing rate we need to be proactively looking at all sorts of alternative renewable fuel sources.

• There was a wide range in crop maturities with up to 50 days difference in date of first flower
• Several lines had flowering dates which fell between the commercially available spring and winter types
• Yields of up to 7 t/ha were achieved at Inverleigh and 6.6 t/ha at Hamilton
• Many of the lines not commercially available to growers outperformed the commercial varieties
• Lines with mid-season maturities may be suited to a wide range of locations in the HRZ 

The results of this study suggests:

• Whilst the streaming of UAN modestly reduced annual ryegrass N percentage in the tissue, no difference in annual ryegrass biomass or seed production was evident.
• Nitrogen placement did not affect Wheat biomass accumulation (NDVI results), however modest differences in Canopy closure percentage existed. UAN rate and timing however had a greater effect on wheat biomass (NDVI results and wheat biomass cut) and percent canopy closure.
• UAN rate, UAN timing (plus interaction of UAN timing and placement) were found to have significantly affected Radiation interception of the crop in the absence of weeds.
• Nitrogen placement affected the yield and protein content of the grain produced.

Whilst the streaming of UAN modestly reduced annual ryegrass (ARG) N percentage in the tissue, no difference in annual ryegrass seed production was evident. Due to the dry conditions in 2019, the application of supplementary UAN did not significantly increase wheat canopy closure or yield. Interestingly, UAN placement did affect the total nitrogen uptake in the ryegrass population, potentially increasing ARG competitiveness. Banding UAN to the crop row was found to increase ARG N uptake. As seeding systems provide herbicide free bands on otherwise herbicide treated soil for safe wheat establishment it was found that the majority of ARG emerged from these crop rows. Concentrating N applications to these regions may have inadvertently increased the N uptake in ARG. This study was conducted in York over the 2018 and 2019 seasons. A multi- environment trial analysis for the combined data to be completed.

Wild oat control in dryland cereals is important for yield maximisation and profit. Even low levels of wild oats (50 plants per m2 ) can reduce yields by 17% (PISA Weed Decide Calculator). In a trial conducted at Birchip, Victoria Hussar® and Atlantis ® (group B herbicides) were shown to give similar wild oat control when compared to the current standards and can be used to rotate modes of action. Hoegrass® and Decision™ were shown to be less effective than current standards for wild oat control, at the rates used. Yields varied greatly within replicates so little can be derived from them.

• 67% of divalent manganese incubated on calcareous sands form Warooka was immobilised within 167 hours by chemical and biological processes.
• In field experiments over seven years manganese up to 16 kg/ha drilled with the barley crop did not prevent manganese deficiency in crops.
• However, manganese applicaiotn increased crop growth, delayed deficiency symptoms and increased grian yield by an average of 61%.
• The optimum applicaiotn at seeding was 6 kg/ha manganese (25 kg/ha nanganese sulphate).
• Three foliar sprays of manganese did not completely correct manganese deficiency.
•  The best results were obtained by applying 6 kg manganese at sowing followed by three foliar sprays.

• The herbicide treatment had a significant effect on annual ryegrass (ARG) plant density. Trifluralin only reduced ARG spike density by 20% compared to the untreated control, whereas Boxer Gold caused a 73% reduction in ARG spike density.
• Barley sown on 25 cm row spacing resulted in a 38% less ARG seed production compared to the 37.5 cm row spacing treatment.
• Barley sown using the splitter seed boot treatment had 32% lower ARG seed production than the narrow seed boot treatment.
• It was still profitable to control ARG with effective herbicide treatments. Based on cash grain price of feed barley of $250/t in 2019, Trifluralin would be expected to increase the gross margin by $32/ha as compared $71/ha increase for Boxer Gold.

 

The herbicide treatment had a significant effect on annual ryegrass (ARG) plant density (P<0.001) in this field trial at Minnipa. Favourable rain events in May were highly suitable for the activity of both pre-emergent herbicides investigated in this trial. Averaged across the row spacing and seed boot treatments, Trifluralin and Boxer Gold reduced ARG plant density by 20% and 90%, respectively. The density of ARG spikes was significantly influenced by the row spacing (P<0.001), seed boot treatment (P=0.027), and the herbicide treatment (P<0.001). The 25cm row spacing had 20% lower ARG spike density than the 37.5cm row spacing treatment. The splitter seed boot treatment had 12% lower ARG spike density than the narrow seed boot treatment. Trifluralin only reduced ARG spike density by 20% compared to the untreated control, whereas Boxer Gold caused a 73% reduction in ARG spike density. ARG seed production was also significantly affected by the row spacing (P=0.003), seed boot (P=0.01), and the herbicide treatment (P<0.001). The normal (25 cm) row spacing set 38% less seed than the wide row spacing. The splitter seed boot treatment also had 32% lower ARG seed set compared to the narrow seed boot. ARG produced 4792 seeds/m2 in the untreated control, which was reduced by 11% by Trifluralin and 69% by Boxer Gold. Presence of ARG at 262 plants/m2 in the untreated control, reduced barley grain yield by 8% compared to Trifluralin or 16% compared to Boxer Gold. However, it was still profitable to control ARG with effective herbicide treatments. Based on cash grain price of Feed Barley of $250/t in 2019, Trifluralin would be expected to increase the gross margin by $32/ha as compared $71/ha increase for Boxer Gold.

• Wider row spacings (300mm vs 200mm) significantly reduced yield when averaged across three wheat varieties and two nitrogen timings. Wider rows reduced crop income in excess of $100/ha.
• The cultivar (variety) grown was just as important as row spacing in determining yield. When averaged across the different row spacings and nitrogen timing treatments, Kellalac yielded 4.61t/ha, Bolac 5.12t/ha and Beaufort 5.72t/ha.
• Tiller counts were significantly less when moving to the wider row spacing widths. At the 200 mm row width, Beaufort had significantly fewer tillers/m2 than Kellalac, which in turn had significantly fewer tillers than Bolac. When the row spacing increased to 300mm, both Kellalac and Bolac had a significant reduction in tillers, while counts for Beaufort did not drop significantly. Kellalac had the fewest number of tillers at the wider row spacing.
• Row widths of 200mm with nitrogen applied at GS00 & GS31, tended to give higher yields (5.30t/ha & 5.33t/ha respectively) when compared to a row spacing of 300mm with nitrogen applied at GS00 (5.09t/ha) & GS31 (4.88t/ha).

• A replicated trial was conducted to compare grain yield of early sown Revenue wheat (cut and uncut for fodder) with that sown at a more traditional time, May.
• Both cutting and later sowing significantly reduced grain yield compared with the early sown uncut treatment.
• The most significant effect was the ability of the early sown plots to better tolerate the very wet conditions. With a root system actively depleting moisture from the soil profile in late autumn the early sown treatments entered winter with a depleted soil moisture bank whereas May sown plots struggled over winter due to additional water logging.
• March sown plots that were cut did not recover as well as in drier seasons. It is likely that the prolonged water-loggin created an addional stress on top of cutting to the detriment of crop recovery and grain yield.

• Despite visual differences there is no major impact on soil structure, water holding capacity or water infiltration from grazing in summer or winter when soils are water logged.
• Grazing in the previous winter or summer does not affect the following crop establishment or grain yield.
• Any yield losses after winter grazing are the result of moisture stress in the period immediately after grazing through to flowering.
• Annual ryegrass and wild raddish populations did not increase because of grazing, although the sites only had low levels of infestation to being with. However, farmer observations do not support this and further work is needed.

• Despite visual difference there is no major impact on soil structure, water holding capacity or water infiltration from grazing in summer or in winter when soils are waterlogged.
• Grazing in the previous winter or summer does not affect the following crop establishment or grain yield.
• Any yield losses after winter grazing are the result of moisture stress in the period immediately after grazing through to flowering.
• Annual ryegrass and wild radish populations did not increase because of grazing, altough the sites only had low levels of infestation to begin with. However, farmer observations do not support this and further work is required.

• Despite visual differences there is no major impact on soil structure, water holding capacity or water infiltration from grazing in summer or winter when soils are waterlogged.
• Grazing in the previous winter or summer does not affect the following crop establishment or grain yield.
• Any yield losses after winter grazing are the result of moisture stress in the period immediately after grazing through to flowering.
• Annual ryegrass and wild raddish populations did not increase because of grazing, although the sites only had low levels of infestation to begin with. However farmer observations do not support this and further work is required.

• In 2015, two spring irrigations produced the highest wheat grain yield (7.61 t/ha), but one irrigation provided the highest water use efficiency (1.7 t/ML).
• Ponding irrigation water for 48 hours to induce waterlogging did not reduce grain yield in this experiment, but increased water use and reduced water use efficiency by 25%.
• If the number of spring irrigations is limited, it is important to find a balance between irrigating before significant moisture stress occurs and ensuring adequate moisture is available during flowering.
   

Only the Chlormequat + Tebuconazole treatment reduced crop height (100 mm). No lodging, yield or grain quality differences where significant.

Trinexapac-ethyl resulted in shorter crop height and higher screenings from th late application. There were no effects on yield or crop lodging.

• The disc machine had much less variation in seed placement than the tyne.
• The depth of incorporation with the single disc seeder increased slightly with speed, although speed of sowing did not significantly improve weed control.
• Crop growth was not affected by the speed of sowing with discs as hypothesized but there was a significant difference between the tyne and disc seeded treatments. The limited vigour of the wheat seedling sown by the disc seeder is probably the reason for generally lower yields than tyne sown plots. It is not clear whether reduced vigour was due to weed competition or herbicide toxicity as these factors weren’t tested separately in this trial. 
• For further detials, see attached trial report.

• Sowing date and varietal phenology both affected the exposure of canola to rain days and potential disease infection.
• Early sowing increased the level of pod blackleg infection.
• Early sowing increased sclerotinia infetion in the early flowering variety Hyola 575CL but not in the slower variety Pioneer 45Y88 (CL). 
• Grain yield was higher from the later sowing date (22 April) than the early sowing date (7 April).
• Grain yild was closely correlated to total biomass accumulation, which was greater from the 22 April sowing time than 7 April sowing time.

• Cereal stubble should be thought of as a source of C for microbes, not as a source of N for crops. In the Mallee under no-till systems, only 1-2% of the N requirement of wheat crops is derived from the previous wheat stubble.
• N tie-up in cropping soils is only a temporary constraint as the immobilised N will be released through microbial turnover, generally later in the crop season in spring.
• N tie-up by cereal residue is not just a problem following incorporation – it also occurs in surface-retained and standing-stubble systems.
• Management of tie-up is reasonably straightforward – supply more N (5 kg N for each t/ha of cereal residue) and supply it early to avoid impacts of N tie-up on crop yield and protein.
• Deep-banding N can improve the N uptake, yield and protein of crops, especially in stubble-retained systems.

• Each stubble incorporation prior to sowing lead to better weed control in the crop as we were able to create an early germination of ryegrass. 
• There was considerable difference in soil moisture and its distribution through the profile at establishement.
• Straw length at harvest was the biggest drawback in incorporating and establishment.
• Previous trial cropping areas, on other parts of the padock, still showed up the biggest difference in the crop's establishment.

• In 2017, the crown rot index (incidence x severity) of wheat was influenced by nutrition strategy, with disease index being the greatest at the highest N rate. There was a strong negative correlation between crown rot index and yield under different nutrition strategies.
• In 2017, the crown rot index of barley was only influenced by variety: nutrition had no significant effect.

• Varietal selection again proved to be the strongest determinant of irrigated canola grain yield in the second year of experiments at Leeton.
• The three highest yielding varieties were Nuseed® Diamond, Hyola® 50 and Nuseed® GT-50.
• Sowing time and variety interaction affected lodging, grain yield and harvest index (HI).
• Plant population alone only affected lodging but the variety interaction affected lodging and the harvest index.

The practical implications of harvest weed seed control are a more resilient farming system with some insurance against further resistance evolution. The combination of effective herbicide use, plus harvest weed seed control techniques has been shown to reduce and maintain weed populations at very low densities. In cropping systems, low weed densities, regardless of their herbicide resistance status, allows flexibility in crop choice, seeding time and herbicide use. This flexibility provides growers with the capacity to readily adjust farming practices in tune with seasonal and market considerations.

• Total number, severity and length of frosts increased as surface residues increased.
• Increasing the amount of surface residue delayed plant growth, lengthened growth phase duration, and overall time to maturity for both chickpea and lentil.
• For both chickpea and lentil, high surface residues, above 9 t/ha, significantly reduced biomass accumulation and grain yield.

• Lupin yield loss caused by delaying sowing by 3 or 4 days is similar to the yield loss caused by one radish plant per square metre growing within the crop.
• As more populations of wild radish develop resistance to common herbicides it becomes critical to obtain effective weed control before and at seeding.

• Tissue test plants before applying trace elements to know what is and isn’t needed by the plant.
• Boron is an unknown entity.
• When the pH is low, molybdenum remains at inadequate levels even after ‘in crop’ applications
• Lime when pHCaCl2 <4.8.
• It would be good to repeat the trial on a limed paddock.

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• A series of field experiments was conducted on the Eyre Peninsula to examine the effects of herbicides on the nutrition of treated crops.
• Experiments investigating the effect of metsulfuron-methyl and chlorsulfuron on crop performance are reported here.
• The parameters measured were shoot growth, tissue nutrient concentration and grain yield.
• Application of metsulfuron-methyl to manganese-deficient barley and chlorsulfuron to zinc-deficient wheat crops caused yield penalties by intensifying the respective deficiencies.
• Yields were not affected when the herbicides were applied to plots which were trace element adequate.
• The consequences are that if adequate fertiliser regimes are not employed in the field, yield benefits due to weed control may be eroded by losses due to aggravated micronutrient deficiencies.

1. Most farming systems extract more nutrients than are supplied by common fertilisation strategies.
2. Increasing the frequency of legumes doesn’t necessarily reduce nitrogen inputs required across the crop sequence and increases export of potassium.
3. Higher fertiliser application has maintained higher soil mineral nitrogen levels but rarely increased grain yield or total system nitrogen use.

• Increasing siphon pipe diameter used for flood irrigation, from 42 mm to 63 mm halved irrigation time, reduced the amount of water applied per irrigation, and increased cotton lint yield and lint quality.
• The longer irrigation time increased soil water content for up to a week post irrigation, and likely led to waterlogging effects on cotton plant growth.
• The maximum daily nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions occurred in response to the first irrigation event after pre-plant nitrogen (N) application and continued for more than a week after irrigation.
• The highest N2O emissions in each plot came from the non-irrigated side of the plant bed where surface soil nitrate concentrations were also highest – despite pre-plant N fertiliser being applied evenly to both sides of the plant bed.
• Postharvest, excess soil nitrate was found to depth in the non-irrigated side of the plant bed, indicating that nitrate moved both sideways and downwards during the season.
   

• Grain yields increase with higher crop inputs and, after grazing, further improve following a sown legume pasture and a more intensive grazing system.
• There is no measured change in soil organic carbon as a result of either varying crop and pasture inputs or grazing compared with not grazing stubbles or pastures.

• Grain yields increased with higher crop inputs and following grazing, they were further improved following a sown legume pasture and a more intensive grazing system.
• There has been no measured change in soil organic carbon over the 4 year project as a result of varying crop and pasture inputs or grazing compared to not grazing crop stubbles or pastures.

• The 2009 production has provided the opportunity for grazing over the 2009/10 summer to commence comparative grazing treatments.
• Over the next few seasons appropriate analysis will be carried out to measure any changes to soil or crop performance in the farming systems, followed by financial assessment to evaluate the merits of each system.

• It appears that once disease suppression is achieved in low rainfall farming systems of upper EP and inoculum levels are low, it is quite robust and will be maintained despite systems with substantially different amounts of mineral N.
• Fallow, Medic/Fallow and Peas all lowered rhizoctonia inoculum levels in 2010, and Fallow and Peas lowered levels in 2009.
• Continuous cereals produced the highest inoculum levels but all levels were low at this site.
• Even high mineral N (118 kg N/ha) in the top 60 cm (measured in April after spraytopped medic) did not increase Rhizoctonia patches in 2010.
• Trichoderma fungus and the beneficial PEM microbes are present in the MAC N12 system.

• Soil mineral nitrogen (N) values were low across all sites, which was indicative of the wet seasonal conditions and high nitrogen losses.
• There were no significant differences in mineral nitrogen values between the stubble treatments due to high variability (likely due to transient waterlogging across the sites).
• The project has been extended to enable the research to be repeated during 2017.

• While significant differences in mineral nitrogen (N) values were measured between stubble treatments, these differences were small and unlikely to elicit a plant growth response.
• No consistent trends were observed between trial sites.
• Delayed plant growth and development under no-till stubble retained (NTSR) systems in the Riverine Plains region is unlikely to be due to decreased mineral nitrogen availability as a result of immobilisation.

• Summer weeds use significatn amounts of stored soil water.
• The long-term impact of summer weeds amounts to a loss in production of 1t/ha in cereal yield in the southern Mallee.
• In a changed climate scenario, where our region is likely to receive more summer rain at the expense of spring rain, the impact of summer weeds on potential crop yield is likely to increase.

• Glasshouse solution culture experiments were used to examine root growth and nutrient uptake with chlorsulfuron application.
• The herbicide chlorsulfuron inhibits the growth of wheat roots and also directly interferes with the uptake of zinc, copper and phosphorus .
• Increased zinc supply alleviates or prevents deleterious effects of chlorsulfuron application to wheat in solution culture.

• Nitrogen fertiliser management influences crop nitrogen uptake at defoliation and cotton lint yield
• Irrigation management did not influence crop nitrogen uptake at defoliation, but significantly influenced cotton lint yield.
• The apparent nitrogen fertiliser recovery was 46% where the optimum fertiliser nitrogen rate was applied
• Seed nitrogen concentration and nitrogen removal was influenced by nitrogen fertiliser application rate, but the effect was not consistent with rate.

• For a wheat crop with an average yield of 4.5–5t/ha, increasing the rate of nitrogen (N) applied (40 and 80 extra kilograms of nitrogen per hectare above the farm standard) significantly increased dry matter (DM) accumulation, crop height and final yield of first wheat following canola.
• Applying a plant growth regulator (PGR) (Moddus + chlormequat) reduced crop height by 3cm and significantly decreased DM production.
• A small, non-significant yield reduction was measured with PGR application, which was similar to that observed during 2014, when yields were in the 5–6t/ha range. Conversely, during 2015, there was a positive yield effect of 0.1t/ha, when average crop yield was approximately 3t/ha.
• Although differences were small, the PGR application significantly increased screenings and decreased test weight, results that are not in line with the effects observed during 2015.
• After three years of trials there is no evidence to suggest PGR application has delivered any positive yield effects or consistent quality effects.
• In all three years of trials, PGR application showed a trend to reduce DM, which was significant in 2016.

• In two first-wheat trials yielding 4.5-5.0t/ha, the application of a plant growth regulator (PGR) delivered no benefits in terms of yield or grain quality.
• The PGR application did not interact with additional nitrogen applied in terms of yield or quality.
• The impact of PGR application on crop height was greater than the impact of nitrogen timing; however, the differences in height were small.
• The grower-applied nitrogen at Redlands, at a rate of 75kg N/ha, and at Yarrawongs at a rat eof 100kg N/ha, were shown to be optimum in terms of yield and quality, with no extra yield or protein resulting from the higher nitrogen application rates with Corack and Wedgetail.

• With an average yield of almost 3t/ha, increasing the rate of nitrogen applied (40 and 80 extra kg N/ha) did not affect dry matter (DM) accumulation, crop height or fianl yield of first wheat following canola.
• Applying a plant growth regulator (PGR) decreased crop height, but did not influence DM or grain yield.
• Although differences were small, PGR application significantly decreased screenings and increased test weight.
• Applying the PGR also decreased crop reflectance, measured as normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) during stem elongation (GS39); a result also observed during 2013 and 2014.
• The lower NDVI readings suggest PGR altered greeness of the crop canopy or the orientation of the leaves, decreasing crop reflectance.

The trials located at Miling and Kojonup in the grainbelt of Western Australia investigated combinations of canola variety (hybrid or open pollinated), crop row spacing (25 or 50cm) and canola seeding rate (20, 35 or 50 plants/m2). The average seedbank at the Miling and Kojonup sites were 3,630 seeds/m2 and 23,240 seeds/m2 respectively.  Annual ryegrass (ARG) establishment was reduced in hybrid canola treatments seeded at narrower 25 cm row spacing. Decreasing crop row spacing (from 50 to 25cm) and increasing canola seeding rate (from 20 to 50 plants/m2) was found to reduce ARG establishment in the absence of herbicides. At the Kojonup site, ARG seed production was reduced by hybrid varieties (Trophy) and higher plant densities (50 plants/m2). However due to the low rainfall at the Miling site, no interactions were identified. Canola yield in this study was increased in hybrid variety (Trophy) treatments especially at higher seeding rates (50 plants/m2). Interestingly, however, canola seeded at the wider row spacing (50cm) consistently out yielded the corresponding variety and seeding rate combination at the narrower 25cm row spacing. This study conducted two trials in 2018 (Mingenew and Cunderdin) and 2019 (Miling and Kojonup). Multi- environment trial analysis for the combined 2018 and 2019 data to be completed.

This trial found that WR establishment from this seed was reduced in hybrid canola treatments seeded at narrower 25 cm row spacing. Decreasing crop row spacing from 50 to 25cm and increasing canola seeding rate from 20 to 50 plants/m2 reduced WR establishment in the absence of herbicides. At the Cunderdin site, WR seed production was reduced within hybrid variety treatments (Trophy) and when seeded at higher plant densities (50 plants/m2). However due to the low rainfall at the Miling site, no interactions were identified. (P>0.05). Canola yield in this study was increased in the open pollinated variety treatments (Bonito) especially when seeded at higher seeding rates (50 plants/m2). Interestingly however, canola seeded at the wider row spacing (50cm) consistently out yielded the corresponding variety and seeding rate combination at the narrower 25cm row spacing. This study conducted two trials at Cunderdin in 2018 and 2019. Multi-environment trial analysis for the combined data to be completed.
 

When canola was sown into wheat stubble in an east-west direction, long stubble (42cm) significantly reduced photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and reduced true leaf number up to mid-winter.

Although there were trends suggesting a reduction in dry matter (DM) production at the yellow bud stage (GS3.7) as a result of increasing stubble height, the differences were not statistically significant.

The average canola yield of the trial was 1.58t/ha with no significant differences in either yield or oil content due to stubble height of the previous wheat crop.

The results mirror a trial conducted at Dookie, where yields in long stubble were 3.70t/ha and 3.75t/ha in short stubble. At this site there were significant reductions in DM production early in the season in the long stubble treatment.

The results of this study suggest:

• Crop emergence was affected by pollination type (greater in open pollinated var. Bonito), increased seeding rates and increased row-spacing, with variety and row-spacing interaction.
• Weed densities were affected by the interaction between variety and row-spacing only.
• Wild radish seed production was reduced by increased seeding rate.
• In general, canola yield was increased by increasing seeding rate and row-spacing in both weedy and weed free situations.

The results of this study suggests:

• Crop emergence was affected by pollination type (greater in open pollinated var. Bonito), increased seeding rates and increased seed size at both the Cunderdin and Mingenew sites, with seed size and seeding rate interactions at Mingenew.
• Weed densities were reduced by seed size and seeding rates at Cunderdin. No significant decreases were identifies at Mingenew due to the high weed densities.
• Ryegrass biomass was reduced by Pollination type (reduced in the open pollinated var. Bonito), increased seed size at both the Cunderdin and Mingenew sites. Seeding rate was found to reduce ryegrass biomass at the Cunderdin site.
• Canola yield was increased by increasing seeding rate and seed size in both weedy and weed free situations at the Cunderdin and Mingenew sites.

In 2019, the three trial sites experienced vastly different rainfall and crop germination patterns. The Kojonup site had good soil moisture throughout the growing season resulting in a rapid crop germination. The York and Miling sites however were seeded into completely dry conditions with the wheat germination in the TOS 1 treatments occurring more than six weeks after seeding. The bioassay experiment showed that at all sites, Sakura was the most persistent herbicide. This was evident in the field results where the persistence and activity of Sakura resulted in lower ryegrass emergence, lower seed production and a higher wheat yield. Furthermore, the results showed that at the Kojonup site, which was sown into excellent soil moisture, Trifluralin was also very effective.

The TOS response was variable; the first time of seeding showed better weed control and wheat yields at Miling and York whereas the delayed time of seeding was advisable at the moist Kojonup site. It was also found that increasing the wheat density increased crop competition which in turn reduced ryegrass emergence, ryegrass biomass and ryegrass seed production for all herbicide treatments studied. 

• Select crops best adapted to the soil and climatic conditions of your region; faba bean is the pulse crop best adapted to soils prone to waterlogging.
• Avoid soils with acidic subsurface layers and/or shallow topsoil that limit root development and impermeable subsoil that restrict drainage.
• Test soil pH at 5cm intervals to a depth of 20 cm, to detect subsurface acidity.
• Select paddocks at least two years before sowing acid-sensitive crops to allow time for applied lime to react and increase soil pH, if required.
• Sow early in the recommended sowing window for your location, to encourage effective nodulation, early vigour and biomass accumulation before the onset of cold, wet conditions.

Executive summary

Recently interest in the role of renovation cropping in the farming systems of the Western Australian wheatbelt has increased.  It has been proposed as a means of addressing the apparent decline in soil quality in some intensively cropped areas and the increased incidence of herbicide resistance. 

Renovation cropping involves either turning a crop into the soil at flowering or cutting the crop and leaving it on the soil surface.   This is done to maximise the amount of organic matter added to the soil and to control weeds most effectively.  In the Western Australian wheatbelt the focus has been on using pulses, although a range of crops can be used.  The pulse phase of a rotation is favoured as pulses improve the nitrogen status of the soil. In addition the returns to pulses are lower relative to cereals and canola, so the forgone profit in the year of renovation cropping is lowest.

Renovation cropping leads to changes in soil conditions that persist for at least the following season.  It reduces weed numbers in the following crop by reducing seed set, increases the availability of nutrients and may improve soil structure.  Lower weed numbers reduce the carry-over of root diseases thus providing a disease break for the following cereal crop.  Recent trials have shown likely yield increases of 20-30% above those after a pulse crop and increased grain protein levels in the following cereal.

The main cost of green manuring is the income lost by sacrificing grain production.  The loss in income plus any additional costs associated with soil renovation need to be recouped in the following season(s).  Therefore the income from the yield increase(s) in the subsequent year(s) needs to be equal to or greater than the total costs of renovation, including the income forgone.

Despite the increase in interest in renovation cropping, no comprehensive economic analysis has been undertaken to determine its role in Western Australian farming systems.  This study investigates circumstances under which renovation cropping is likely to be profitable and estimates the needed increase in farm profit, given the variability of yields that result from seasonal influences.

To investigate the consequence of risky yields historical rainfall data was used to generate yield distributions for different rainfall zones, soil types and crops.  The yield distributions were used as input to a simulation model to determine the distribution of income, resulting from renovation cropping, in a lupin:wheat:wheat rotation.  The mean yield boost resulting from renovation cropping was estimated to be 3% based on trial results (F. Hoyle, pers. comm.). 

The results of the analysis showed that there is a 30-40% chance of increasing profit if yield is increased by 30% on average.  However, the results were very sensitive to the average increase in yield.  The probability that profit will be increased was halved when yield boost was reduced to 20%. 

The yield increase required to make renovation cropping profitable can vary between 100% under the worst case and below 10% under the best case.  The variability depends on grain prices, grain yield in the renovation phase (if a commercial crop had been was harvested), and the cost of renovation and grain yields in the following crop phase.

The likelihood that profit will be increased depends largely on minimising income forgone relative to the increase in income in the following years.  Therefore green manuring will be most profitable when done in years when the grain yield of the pulse crop is low, and/or when the following cereal yield is very high. 

Weather forecasts are not yet sufficiently developed to predict potentially good years over 12 months ahead, so renovation needs to be undertaken in poor years to maximise the chances of increasing profit.

Identifying poor yielding years prior to renovation does present some difficulty although weather forecasts may improve the chances of undertaking renovation in the 'right' year.  .  Also yield potential is determined directly by biomass of the crop, so this may be used as an early indicator of yield.  Where waterlogging or disease has caused low vegetative growth, resistant weeds are widespread in a paddock, or where frost has damaged the crop green manuring is more likely to be a profitable option. 

This suggests a role for tactical use of renovation cropping so that it is undertaken in years where the forgone income is minimised (i.e. it is done in poor yielding years).  The results of the analysis show that only small yield increases in the following cereal crop are necessary to break even in these circumstances. 

The analysis highlighted gaps in the knowledge of the impact of renovation cropping that may be important for more comprehensive economic analysis, or information that may improve the grower’s ability to undertake the practice profitably.  Further research into green manuring could include:

• Determining whether the profitability of green manuring can be increased using long term weather forecasts.  Improving the estimates of the probability of achieving different yields may allow farmers to renovate soils in years that have lower risk.
• More information on the effects of green manuring on yield and protein for different crops under different conditions is required to better assess the economic advantages of green manuring
• The profitability of green manuring relative to other methods of improving sustainability of cropping also needs to be addressed.

 

Executive summary

Recently interest in the role of renovation cropping in the farming systems of the Western Australian wheatbelt has increased.  It has been proposed as a means of addressing the apparent decline in soil quality in some intensively cropped areas and the increased incidence of herbicide resistance. 

Renovation cropping involves either turning a crop into the soil at flowering or cutting the crop and leaving it on the soil surface.   This is done to maximise the amount of organic matter added to the soil and to control weeds most effectively.  In the Western Australian wheatbelt the focus has been on using pulses, although a range of crops can be used.  The pulse phase of a rotation is favoured as pulses improve the nitrogen status of the soil. In addition the returns to pulses are lower relative to cereals and canola, so the forgone profit in the year of renovation cropping is lowest.

Renovation cropping leads to changes in soil conditions that persist for at least the following season.  It reduces weed numbers in the following crop by reducing seed set, increases the availability of nutrients and may improve soil structure.  Lower weed numbers reduce the carry-over of root diseases thus providing a disease break for the following cereal crop.  Recent trials have shown likely yield increases of 20-30% above those after a pulse crop and increased grain protein levels in the following cereal.

The main cost of green manuring is the income lost by sacrificing grain production.  The loss in income plus any additional costs associated with soil renovation need to be recouped in the following season(s).  Therefore the income from the yield increase(s) in the subsequent year(s) needs to be equal to or greater than the total costs of renovation, including the income forgone.

Despite the increase in interest in renovation cropping, no comprehensive economic analysis has been undertaken to determine its role in Western Australian farming systems.  This study investigates circumstances under which renovation cropping is likely to be profitable and estimates the needed increase in farm profit, given the variability of yields that result from seasonal influences.

To investigate the consequence of risky yields historical rainfall data was used to generate yield distributions for different rainfall zones, soil types and crops.  The yield distributions were used as input to a simulation model to determine the distribution of income, resulting from renovation cropping, in a lupin:wheat:wheat rotation.  The mean yield boost resulting from renovation cropping was estimated to be 3% based on trial results (F. Hoyle, pers. comm.). 

The results of the analysis showed that there is a 30-40% chance of increasing profit if yield is increased by 30% on average.  However, the results were very sensitive to the average increase in yield.  The probability that profit will be increased was halved when yield boost was reduced to 20%. 

The yield increase required to make renovation cropping profitable can vary between 100% under the worst case and below 10% under the best case.  The variability depends on grain prices, grain yield in the renovation phase (if a commercial crop had been was harvested), and the cost of renovation and grain yields in the following crop phase.

The likelihood that profit will be increased depends largely on minimising income forgone relative to the increase in income in the following years.  Therefore green manuring will be most profitable when done in years when the grain yield of the pulse crop is low, and/or when the following cereal yield is very high. 

Weather forecasts are not yet sufficiently developed to predict potentially good years over 12 months ahead, so renovation needs to be undertaken in poor years to maximise the chances of increasing profit.

Identifying poor yielding years prior to renovation does present some difficulty although weather forecasts may improve the chances of undertaking renovation in the 'right' year.  .  Also yield potential is determined directly by biomass of the crop, so this may be used as an early indicator of yield.  Where waterlogging or disease has caused low vegetative growth, resistant weeds are widespread in a paddock, or where frost has damaged the crop green manuring is more likely to be a profitable option. 

This suggests a role for tactical use of renovation cropping so that it is undertaken in years where the forgone income is minimised (i.e. it is done in poor yielding years).  The results of the analysis show that only small yield increases in the following cereal crop are necessary to break even in these circumstances. 

The analysis highlighted gaps in the knowledge of the impact of renovation cropping that may be important for more comprehensive economic analysis, or information that may improve the grower’s ability to undertake the practice profitably.  Further research into green manuring could include:

• Determining whether the profitability of green manuring can be increased using long term weather forecasts.  Improving the estimates of the probability of achieving different yields may allow farmers to renovate soils in years that have lower risk.
• More information on the effects of green manuring on yield and protein for different crops under different conditions is required to better assess the economic advantages of green manuring
• The profitability of green manuring relative to other methods of improving sustainability of cropping also needs to be addressed.

 

This demonstration clearly showed that by adding a small amount of barley (16kg/ha) to serradella when re-seeding, early winter feed for livestock can be significantly increased.  However, as the photos from early September indicate, the serradella growth in spring can be held back due to competition from the barley. Increasing the frequency and intensity of grazing would help, as would the application of a grass selective herbicide to kill the barley in early spring when feed is becoming abundant. If the season was very poor, the barley might be left to increase total pasture production and groundcover for summer.  

There was a significant response to all nitrogen applications.

In an irrigated trial on Mackellar (feed wheat) at Hagley, Tasmania, plot yields ranged from 6.6 – 9.4 t/ha depending on the level of nitrogen and fungicide input. There was a significant response to nitrogen application, with an optimum that varied from 60 ‐120 kg/ha depending on whether fungicide was applied. There was a significant yield interaction (P=0.003) between the amount of applied nitrogen and the level of fungicide input, whereby the higher the level of applied nitrogen the greater was the need for fungicide input. Without fungicide application at stem elongation the optimum nitrogen input for the crop was 60 kg/ha N; however with fungicide application it was at least 90 kg/ha N. There was a significant increase in grain protein associated with increasing nitrogen level in the range of 60 ‐120 kg/ha N and a significant increase in protein associated with fungicide application.

• Stubble rentention increased the severity of frost events in experiments over two years
• There was no difference in floret sterility due to stubble treatment, but grain yield was highest where stubble was removed by burning. 
• Stubble rentention reduced the amount of heat stored in the soil during spring. With less heat stored there is less capacity for energy release at night to buffer against frost damage.
• Consider management strategies that avoid frost (e.g. crop choice, sowing date, variety choice) where high stubble loads are retained at sowing. 

The application of compost at 2 t/ha did not result in higher returns and the response under compost plus fertiliser treatments could be attributed to the application of fertiliser. Spading did not return any further gains in terms of yield or quality at this site in 2013. The high cost of spading and compost in the first year, have negatively influenced profit outcomes. Depending on future yield improvements, these treatments may pay for themselves over the longer term.

No measureable changes in soil condition as a result of adding 2 t/ha compost were measured in 2013 and 2014 that would add value to the long term profit of this site.

Machinery used for applying compost caused some compaction and due to the dry post-sowing conditions, crop germination was very patchy. The trial site experienced significant moisture stress early in the season and may not be representative of seasons experiencing an average or wetter start.

The SOI phase signal for April-May (available on the last day of May) and subsequent monthly phases can provide useful information on the likelihood for rainfall for the rest of the season. It can be a very useful tool for assessing the risk of topdressing nitrogen fertiliser (especially if it is used in combination with other indicators such as potential of the crop; decile trend and stored soil moisture).

• There is little to be concerned about from implementing a strategic tillage provided:
  • That it is not frequent, say less frequent than once every five years based on the above.
  • That we consider the well-known risks for erosion such as slope, groundcover, and current weather, and the soil moisture at the time of the proposed tillage. Hence, we suggest leaving the tillage as late as possible so as to avoid the chance of erosive rainfall between tillage and crop establishment.

• The combination of Triazine Tolerant (TT) and Roundup Ready (RR) herbicide provided superior control of ryegrass and wild radish over individual chemistry treatments.
• Canola is an important rotational winter crop however, with increasing herbicide resistance across multiple chemistries in WA, growers are experiencing increasingly limited options with the current herbicide tolerance technologies available.
• Hyola RT® Technology allows the combination of strong knockdown and residual broad-spectrum herbicides from different herbicide groups and modes of action, targeting a wide range of weed species.
•  Hyola RT® will provide an important role in addressing the increasing Clethodim resistance problem.
• RT® dual herbicide tolerant Hybrids have now demonstrated their value as a new competitive integrated weed management (IWM) tool, also providing increased convenience and flexibility of in-crop weed control.

• The value of stored soil moisture at seeding in the Northern Agricultural Region of WA is not well understood.
• In trials so far, value of stored soil moisture at seeding has varied depending on season and soil type.
• In 2013, additional water at seeding increased yield by about 500 kg/ha at the sand site, and by 1000-2000 t/ha at the loam site.
• Trials such as these will help to unravel the value of stored soil moisture so that it can better be used as a predictor of crop performance and nutritional requirements.
• Available water at sowing is a poor predictor of expected yield and cannot be used as a simple tool for adjusting input levels. We need to develop an ability to understand when and why the water will be of benefit. 

For some, 1993 waws the best year ever. For others a disaster caused by mice, frost and the decision to plant a majority of barley crop.

• The application of N increased yields of all cereals grown on a wheat stubble.
• The application of fungicides controlled leaf diseases in wheat and barley, and increased the grain yield of wheat.

• Across three years addition of trace elements and fluid fungicide in-furrow did not provide increases in emergence, tillering or final yield - although this contradicts what other farmers have reported.
• Liquid N at sowing can improve crop emergence and early vigour, especially under dry conditions .
• Full liquid systems did not provide a profit benefit (due to higher input costs) even where they did provide increased yield which was not in all years.
• Recommendation most likely to provide higher returns for this area will be an in-furrow fertiliser system that incorporates some elements of liquid nitrogen and phosphorus fertiliser ,trace elements, fungicides and granular phosphorus and nitrogen fertiliser.

• Hand weeding wild radish is feasible if you can pick the right paddock with a low enough weed density. The trick is picking the right paddocks.
• This is a viable practice where wild radish density is approximately 5 to 10 plants/ha or less. At very low densities this practice is both economically and logistically feasible.
• A side-by-side all terrain vehicle (ATV) with a trailer would be ideal. With this equipment, teams of two could work together with the driver picking radish given the ease of stepping into and out of these vehicles. This would reduce the cost and make life easy and safe for the workers.
• Spray a boundary lap and any areas where high density is expected. We encountered high radish densities near the edges of paddocks which slowed down the process and increased the cost. These sprayed areas can also be hand weeded to remove resistant survivors.
• Spend time assessing the paddocks. We managed to make accurate wild radish density assessments in one paddock. The problem was that we didn’t do enough assessment and we were faced with surprises in the other two paddocks.
• Drones /weed detection will have their day. We have un-sprayed paddocks that now have as few as 2 wild radish per hectare in crop. It is simply not worth spending upwards of $25/ha to spray these crops not to mention the environmental issues. These paddocks are currently rare but they show what is possible.

This trial illustrated that there can be some significant benefits to deep ripping post sowing.

• The average yields peaked at the mid May sowing.
• Grain quality results were not available at the time of print, but will be available by the Crop Updates.

For further information please see attached trial report.

• There was rapid change in soil pH at this site in the first few years following the establishment of this trial.

• Despite the initial changes in soil pH, there were no positive grain yield responses between 1996-1999.

• In the 2000 wheat crop, there was a negative response to 2t/ha in 2000. 

• There has been a dramatic decline in soil pH across all treatments since 2000, despite a total of 4t/ha of lime being applied across the site (two applications of 2t/ha in circa 2009 and 2013.

• The source of the subsequent applications of lime applied by the farmer is unknown

In 2012, early sown barley and canola gave the highest yields and gross returns. The early sown crops were able to withstand frosts and avoid the worst of the dry spring. Despite the different growth habit (erect vs prostrate) of many of the barley varieties, no one variety responded better to the altered sowing times or density than any other. Growers should plant all barley varieties at their chosen timing and plant density, and make their selection on the basis of other factors (e.g. disease resistance).

In 2012, early sown barley and canola gave the highest yields and gross returns. The early sown crops were able to withstand frosts and avoid the worst of the dry spring. Despite the different growth habit (erect vs prostrate) of many of the barley varieties, no one variety responded better to the altered sowing times or density than any other. Growers should plant all barley varieties at their chosen timing and plant density, and make their selection on the basis of other factors (e.g. disease resistance).

• The 2000 season was not conducive to the spread of leaf rust with the hot dry summer preventing the carry over of rust spores on volunteer cereals.
• For further results please see the attached trial report.

Cu fertiliser greatly increased yield from 0.6 t/ha to 1.60 t/ha.  

In general oxide source was equal to or superior to the sulfate source in wet mixes. In dry mixes in the same trial Cu oxide was only 66 % as effective as the sulfate.

A recent development in diagnosing Cu problems by a technique of using the youngest fully emerged leaf. Copper concentrations of less than 1.3 ppm (mg/kg) in the yougest fully emerged tissue , suggest that soil Cu deficiency will reduce grain yield .

The tissue testing technique was used on arange of Cu trila in the district to confirm the method (UWA Lonragan, Robson , Snowball)

For the first time it has been possible to distinguish crop damage caused by Cu deficiency from that caused by other factors such as frost, drought and root rots which produce similar symptoms.

Cu fertiliser greatly increased yield from 0.6 t/ha to 1.60 t/ha.  

In general oxide source was equal to or superior to the sulfate source in wet mixes. In dry mixes in the same trial Cu oxide was only 66 % as effective as the sulfate.

A recent development in diagnosing Cu problems by a technique of using the youngest fully emerged leaf. Copper concentrations of less than 1.3 ppm (mg/kg) in the yougest fully emerged tissue , suggest that soil Cu deficiency will reduce grain yield .

The tissue testing technique was used on arange of Cu trila in the district to confirm the method (UWA Lonragan, Robson , Snowball)

For the first time it has been possible to distinguish crop damage caused by Cu deficiency from that caused by other factors such as frost, drought and root rots which produce similar symptoms.

For a full list of take home messages please see the attached trial report.

Please see attached trial report for take home messages.

• One hundred barley lines from a world collection were grown in plant breeders' plots (4 rows x 5 m) on a severely manganese-deficient soil.
• Only 10% of the lines showed good tolerance of manganese-deficient conditions, which were severe enough to kill many of the entries in the tillering stage.
• Extreme sensitivity to manganese deficiency was shown by all progeny of CI3576, an introduction from Egypt, which has conferred considerable yield advantage and disease resistance on its progeny under more highly fertile conditions.
• In all, there were 20 lines from CI3576, including Corvette, and Galleon, a newly released high-yielding feed barley.
• At present, Galleon is not recommended for calcareous sands, pending further agronomic work on its manganese fertilizer requirements.
• The established variety Clipper and its relatives, and Forrest, were also sensitive to manganese deficiency. The tolerant lines fell into three genetically related groups, all of which had pedigrees going back to traditional English land races or their derivatives.

Tor top dressing to be effective on canola the following points are required:

• It needs to be applied to a crop with marginal soil N levels that has the potential to respond.It must be applied before the crop suffers an unreasonable yield potential loss due to N deficiency.
• This will usually mean top dressing before stem elongation.
• The crop also needs good growth conditions after top dressing so that it has potential to provide an economic response.

• Field peas yielded significantly higher then both lupins and vetch.
• Field peas and undersown barley had significantly higher gross margins than lupin and vetch.
• In terms of gross margins there was no significant difference between field peas/undersown barley, undersown barley/vetch and lupins/vetch.
• When choosing to grow a pulse crop the following management issues are critical: time of sowing, paddock selection, species selection and disease and pest management.

• Barley crops showing foliar symptoms of a disorder recognised as boron toxicity were analysed for boron and other nutrients.
• Samples were obtained from sites throughout the cropping districts of South Australia.
• In plants with characteristic foliar symptoms, the concentration of boron alone was sufficient to account for the crop disorder.
• The mean concentration in affected plants was 151 mg/kg and in control plants 23 mg/kg.
• Slight accumulations of sodium and chloride were associated with the disorder, along with slightly lower calcium concentrations.
• The nutrient balance was consistent with association of the toxicity with sodic and saline soils.
• Severe boron toxicity is widespread in barley crops in South Australia.

• Deep placed trace elements can be more effective than the same amount placed just below the seed.
• Foliar application of trace elements was just as effective as deep placement at increasing crop yields.
• Deep placement increased grain uptake of all nutrients compared to other methods of trace element application.

• Only 31 per cent of the applied urea nitrogen (N) was taken up by the wheat crop in 2014. This low fertiliser use efficiency may be partly related to the season; unused N in the soil can benefit the following crop.
• In a decile 1 season, different stubble retention practices had no effect on microbial biomass and N supply potential (avg. 58kg N/ha).
• Labelling a wheat crop with 15N allows researchers to quantify the fertiliser use efficiency and trace the N from stubble to the subsequent crop.

With pasture growing in a dry spring, not accessing stored water and producing little biomass, the effect on soil water/nitrogen and on the following crop is minimal. Prioritise paddocks which need medic seed set for retaining as pastures, but terminate more pastures later if feed is an issue. In a year when pasture is growing fast and using water and possibly fixing nitrogen, the trade-off may not be so flat (or simple) and will depend more on the following season (unpredictable).

• Over the last four years, trafficking at any level has not decreased crop production on a heavy Minnipa soil so moving to controlled traffic farming on this soil type is not likely to increase crop production due to less trafficking in the paddock.
• Trafficking on a deep sand (trial at Loxton in the northern mallee) has substantially reduced crop production for at least 4 years so CTF may have additional benefits on deep sands, especially if ripping is used to correct existing compaction.
• Similar to many previous trials, ripping has not benefited production on the heavy Minnipa soil.

Over the 1990’s the most profitable farming system for each region was determined by losses in poor years rather than the profits in good years. Businesses with high costs associated with intensive cropping and high inputs, were impacted more by losses than businesses with moderate adoption of new crop types and moderate inputs.

• Occurrence of blackleg infection was generally low at Westmere in 2013.
• The ‘Rolls Royce’ treatment of Jockey seed treatment, Impact on fertiliser and two applications of Prosaro yielded significantly higher than the control (600 kg/ha difference).
• All treatments that received foliar applied Prosaro had significantly less infection at green bud compared to only seed or fertiliser fungicide or nothing.
• Prosaro’s ability to control blackleg is clear however yield results in a year with low blackleg burden make it difficult to distinguish between in furrow and foliar fungicide control.
   

A thorough understanding of trifluralin application techniques can be the difference between poor and excellent ryegrass control. It can also help achieve target plant establishment. This demonstration showed an increase in ryegrass control when up to 3L/ha trifluralin was applied. Rates above 3L/ha trifluralin did not result in additional ryegrass control. The influence of water rates was minimal due to the lack of stubble residue which shows that water rates of 50L/ha are acceptable in situations where there is very little residue from the previous crop.

Frame is more tolerant to high rates of trifluralin compared to Goldmark and Silverstar.

• All triticale varieties evaluated showed some degree of susceptibility to stripe rust with Breakwell being the most susceptible. Grain yield rankings largely reflect this with Breakwell finishing a distant last.
• Hawkeye was significantly higher yielding than all other varieties and this was probably assisted by significantly less lodging compared with the other varieties except Blackwell.
• Further trials will be conducted in 2009-10 to evaluate the performance of Hawkeye and screen for new disease resistant material from other breeding programs.

• Sow varieties inside their recommended window.
• Triticale may have a niche in the eastern areas of Central West NSW.
• Triticale is less tolerant of moistures at flowering than wheats.
• Delivery points and markets are a major influence on triticale production.

• There was a significant step up in 2013 wheat yields from rotations which included a one year break previously compared to where there had been a two year break.
• The break crop benefit of a one year break may only last one season if grass weeds are a significant factor.
• Large break crop benefits of 0.5-1.25 t/ha were achieved following a two year non-cereal break phase compared to continuous wheat.
• The benefit of a two year break had little to do with the phases chosen for those two breaks.
• The eight most profitable crop sequences over a three year period in this trial had two year breaks in them.