• 40 kg N/ha applied upfront was the best yielding treatment for 2015, with the best protein results where the 40 Kg of N was applied as Urea.
• We found that 20 kg N/ha applied as a Zn enriched Urea product achieved a yield close to 40 kg N/ha as straight urea and we plan to test this treatment again in 2016.
• The timing and form of S application did not have any effect in 2015.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-
coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by over 20%.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increase yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N, S and Zn to the sand.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by more than 20%.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increased yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N,S and Zn to the sand.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-
coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by over 20%.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increase yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N, S and Zn to the sand.

• The highest yield in 2016 at Loxton could be achieved with either 40 kg N/ha as urea or 20 kg N/ha as Zn-coat urea or Zn-enriched MAP.
• Compared to applying 20 kg N/ha as normal urea, using Zn-
coated urea (20 kg N/ha) or Zn-enriched MAP with urea (20 kg N /ha) increased yield by over 20%.
• This is the second consecutive season that Zn coated Urea at sowing (20kg N/ha) has significantly increase yield compared to normal Urea (20 kg N /ha).
• Applying foliar Zn has not increased yield at this site in 2015 or 2016.
• Nitrogen was a key driver of wheat productivity again, with 40 kg/ha N at sowing increasing yield by over 20% compared to 20 kg/ha N at sowing, but water use efficiency remained poor on this sandy soil.
• There was also no benefit in delaying N application at Ouyen, however very high rates (60-80 kg/N ha) using higher late application rates increased yield on the midslope.
• In 2016 there was a large difference in yield between the midslope (2.90 t/ha) and the nearby sand dune (0.86 t/ha) at Ouyen which could not be closed through the addition of N, S and Zn to the sand.

• The Yield Prophet uses the APSIM model to estimate wheat yields based on seasonal growing conditions and inputs.
• The outcomes of the Yield Prophet allow farmers to make better pre-sowing and in-crop management decisions which reduce risk and optimise returns.
• The Yield Prophet reports on crop growth during the season; availability of soil water and soil N; likely responses to N fertiliser; and calculates probabilities for yield and protein.
• The Yield Prophet is a web based service and accessible to subscribers and visitors on www.yieldprophet.com.au/yieldprophet.

• The APSIM wheat model was adapted and tested for southern Mallee conditions and demonstrated to be a powerful tool to evaluate risk exposure of farmers to climate variability.
• The model was tested and found to be reasonably accurate in estimating soil water based on rainfall events and also in relation to being able to simulate historical wheat yields.
• From the analysis of historical climate, using data in years after an El Nino event, the model predicts that the chance of a good yields during 2003 is about 50% (this is higher than the 33% that would be expected from the long term average), while the chance for a poor season is about a 20% (this is lower than the 33% that would be expected from the long term average).
• Our results also highlight the importance of taking into account soil water at sowing to analyse climate risk exposure in the Birchip area.

• With high grain prices, small increases in productivity can significantly improve farm profitability.
• At Goolagong, NSW, wheat yields were significantly increased by the use of a balanced fertiliser regime including N, P, K, S, Mg and Zn.
• An analysis of gross margins showed that the application of secondary and trace elements would have significantly improved farm profitability.
• Zinc-efficient (Excalibur) and inefficient (Gatcher) wheat cultivars grown in calcareous subsoil with low micronutrient levels, high pH and B. Treatments were +/- basal nutrients (exc Zn) and +/-Zn.
• Gatcher produced 47% more DM tops and double the root length density of Excalibur by maturity.
• Excalibur was far more efficient in Zn uptake and 7 times more efficient than Gatcher in partitioning zinc to grain.
• Simulated dry sowing was not shown to have any detrimental effect on Zn fertiliser use efficiency.

Result: Fertiliser incubated in dry soil tended to have greater lability but diffusion was limited, although this did not have any effect on availability to subsequent wheat.

• This set of trials indicates that SACOA ‘Irrigator’ banded wetting agent can improve crop establishment and grain yield but that responses can be highly variable. The 27-32% yield increase seen in 3 of the trials is very encouraging. Based on these and other trials it can be suggested that banded wetting agents are most likely to be effective when:
• Soils are moderate to strongly repellent and there are few residual roots form the previous year’s crop; and points and tines are used for seeding.
• Banded wetter is applied in a consistent stream to the base of relatively stable furrows. Collapsing furrows, furrow infill and a disrupted band of wetting agent can reduce efficacy. Presswheels with a more rectangular cross section tend to rip up furrow walls and the disturbed soil buries and mixes banded wetting agent. ‘V’ section or round section presswheels with no deep flange reduce such problems.
• The banded wetting agent kit needs to be robust and reliable and needs to accurately apply the wetting agent in a continuous stream into the base of the furrow
• Crops sown early into dry or partially dry soil before opening rains derive more benefit from banded wetter. Banded wetting agents are typically less beneficial when used later in the sowing program when there has already been rain and the soil has started to wet up.
• Growers already using wetting agents are tending to modify their usage of banded wetter to better match the likelihood of significant benefits. Some growers only use banded wetter for the dry seeding or early part of the program and don’t use it later in the program after there has been more rain.  Other growers are planning to use higher rates of banded wetter early in the program but then aim to reduce the rates when sowing later in the season. Both of these strategies will reduce cost while maximising the opportunity for benefits to crop establishment and yield. Current research in the state is showing that different banded wetting agent products can have a wide range of effects of crop establishment and especially on yield. DAFWA is continuing to research a range of products to help growers evaluate which types of banded wetting agent are more suitable for their farming system.

• This set of trials indicates that SACOA ‘Irrigator’ banded wetting agent can improve crop establishment and grain yield but that responses can be highly variable. The 27-32% yield increase seen in 3 of the trials is very encouraging. Based on these and other trials it can be suggested that banded wetting agents are most likely to be effective when:
• Soils are moderate to strongly repellent and there are few residual roots form the previous year’s crop; and points and tines are used for seeding.
• Banded wetter is applied in a consistent stream to the base of relatively stable furrows. Collapsing furrows, furrow infill and a disrupted band of wetting agent can reduce efficacy. Presswheels with a more rectangular cross section tend to rip up furrow walls and the disturbed soil buries and mixes banded wetting agent. ‘V’ section or round section presswheels with no deep flange reduce such problems.
• The banded wetting agent kit needs to be robust and reliable and needs to accurately apply the wetting agent in a continuous stream into the base of the furrow
• Crops sown early into dry or partially dry soil before opening rains derive more benefit from banded wetter. Banded wetting agents are typically less beneficial when used later in the sowing program when there has already been rain and the soil has started to wet up.
• Growers already using wetting agents are tending to modify their usage of banded wetter to better match the likelihood of significant benefits. Some growers only use banded wetter for the dry seeding or early part of the program and don’t use it later in the program after there has been more rain.  Other growers are planning to use higher rates of banded wetter early in the program but then aim to reduce the rates when sowing later in the season. Both of these strategies will reduce cost while maximising the opportunity for benefits to crop establishment and yield. Current research in the state is showing that different banded wetting agent products can have a wide range of effects of crop establishment and especially on yield. DAFWA is continuing to research a range of products to help growers evaluate which types of banded wetting agent are more suitable for their farming system.

• Sowing at the earliest opportunity (which requires rainfall) is an important component of reducing the risk of canola production in low rainfall environments.
• The amount of N available to the crop is critical to productivity in a canola crop that has established well.
• Applying adequate doses of fertiliser N at seeding or early in the crop’s development have produced the highest grain yields but this was less important in a wet spring like 2016.
• Legumes can provide N to a subsequent canola crop, but in many cases, canola growing on legume residue will still respond to fertiliser N inputs.
• Analysis of the profit-risk context for optimal N inputs for canola produced in low rainfall environments is underway.

• Cobra and Mace were significantly higher yielding than Emu Rock at all seeding densities (P<0.05). There was a yield increase for Emu Rock and Cobra when plant density increased from 83 plants/m2 to 130 plants/m². Further  increases in plant density did not improve or reduced grain yield of these varieties. There was a yield increase for Mace from 130 plants/m2 162 plants/m2. Increasing plant density did not influence grain screenings which were less than 2% for all varieties.
• At Badgingarra, nitrogen application at seeding (14, 30, 60 and 90 kg/ha) did not affect grain yield at either seeding densities (data not provided).   The soil was a red sandy loam with nitrate levels in the top 20 cm of soil at 55mg/kg.   Protein levels in the grain were in excess of 12.5% for all treatments and varieties.  The higher split nitrogen application did significantly increase protein by 0.4% however without a yield increase the late N application was not economical.   This may be a strategy to consider for high yielding varieties such as Mace.  At the higher plant density, and higher yield, Mace had lower protein than Cobra and Emu Rock.  

Early sowing (15 April) had the largest positive impact on canola yield when comparing a range of treatments trialled in 2014, similar to results observed in 2013. Sowing on 15 April improved yields up to 45%, depending on variety, compared to 13 May sowing date. Good seeding depth and the correct seed rate proved important in maximising canola yield at the sites trialled in 2014, but not to the same extent as time of sowing. Sowing at 4.5 kg/ha at a 2 cm depth gave a 13% yield improvement over sowing at 1.5 kg/ha at 1 cm depth. Achieving approximately 50 plants/m2 of triazine tolerant varieties and 40 plants/m2 of Clearfield tolerant varieties was needed to maximise canola yields in trials conducted at Minnipa Agricultural Centre in 2014. Using farmer retained open pollinated seed did not cause a yield penalty when compared to commercially purchased seed in trials conducted at Minnipa in 2014.

• Early sowing (22 April) had the largest positive impact on canola yield when comparing a range of treatments trialled in 2015, similar to results observed in 2013 and 2014. Sowing on 22 April improved yields up to 12%, depending on variety, compared to 29 April sowing date.
• Different management practices are needed to establish canola on different soil types under marginal moisture conditions. On a loamy soil at Minnipa deeper sowing (to 4 cm) produced the highest yields, whereas shallower sowing (1 cm) produced the highest yields at Piednippie, particularly with the smaller seeded variety Stingray.
• Trials at Piednippie in 2015 showed that yields up to 0.8 t/ha are achievable in a below average rainfall season, provided the crop is established early and achieves around 50 plants/m2 in open-pollinated varieties.
• Results from similar trials in 2013, 2014 and 2015 have all shown that the highest yielding canola has consistently come from plots with plant establishments of over 50 plants/m2 for open pollinated varieties and 40 plants/m2 for hybrid varieties.

• Early sowing (22 April) had the largest positive impact on canola yield when comparing a range of treatments trialled in 2015, similar to results observed in 2013 and 2014. Sowing on 22 April improved yields up to 12%, depending on variety, compared to 29 April sowing date.
• Different management practices are needed to establish canola on different soil types under marginal moisture conditions. On a loamy soil at Minnipa deeper sowing (to 4 cm) produced the highest yields, whereas shallower sowing (1 cm) produced the highest yields at Piednippie, particularly with the smaller seeded variety Stingray.
• Trials at Piednippie in 2015 showed that yields up to 0.8 t/ha are achievable in a below average rainfall season, provided the crop is established early and achieves around 50 plants/m2 in open-pollinated varieties.
• Results from similar trials in 2013, 2014 and 2015 have all shown that the highest yielding canola has consistently come from plots with plant establishments of over 50 plants/m2 for open pollinated varieties and 40 plants/m2 for hybrid varieties.

Early sowing (15 April) had the largest positive impact on canola yield when comparing a range of treatments trialled in 2014, similar to results observed in 2013. Sowing on 15 April improved yields up to 45%, depending on variety, compared to 13 May sowing date. Good seeding depth and the correct seed rate proved important in maximising canola yield at the sites trialled in 2014, but not to the same extent as time of sowing. Sowing at 4.5 kg/ha at a 2 cm depth gave a 13% yield improvement over sowing at 1.5 kg/ha at 1 cm depth. Achieving approximately 50 plants/m2 of triazine tolerant varieties and 40 plants/m2 of Clearfield tolerant varieties was needed to maximise canola yields in trials conducted at Minnipa Agricultural Centre in 2014. Using farmer retained open pollinated seed did not cause a yield penalty when compared to commercially purchased seed in trials conducted at Minnipa in 2014.

Early sowing (15 April) had the largest positive impact on canola yield when comparing a range of treatments trialled in 2014, similar to results observed in 2013. Sowing on 15 April improved yields up to 45%, depending on variety, compared to 13 May sowing date. Good seeding depth and the correct seed rate proved important in maximising canola yield at the sites trialled in 2014, but not to the same extent as time of sowing. Sowing at 4.5 kg/ha at a 2 cm depth gave a 13% yield improvement over sowing at 1.5 kg/ha at 1 cm depth. Achieving approximately 50 plants/m2 of triazine tolerant varieties and 40 plants/m2 of Clearfield tolerant varieties was needed to maximise canola yields in trials conducted at Minnipa Agricultural Centre in 2014. Using farmer retained open pollinated seed did not cause a yield penalty when compared to commercially purchased seed in trials conducted at Minnipa in 2014.

Early sowing (15 April) had the largest positive impact on canola yield when comparing a range of treatments trialled in 2014, similar to results observed in 2013. Sowing on 15 April improved yields up to 45%, depending on variety, compared to 13 May sowing date. Good seeding depth and the correct seed rate proved important in maximising canola yield at the sites trialled in 2014, but not to the same extent as time of sowing. Sowing at 4.5 kg/ha at a 2 cm depth gave a 13% yield improvement over sowing at 1.5 kg/ha at 1 cm depth. Achieving approximately 50 plants/m2 of triazine tolerant varieties and 40 plants/m2 of Clearfield tolerant varieties was needed to maximise canola yields in trials conducted at Minnipa Agricultural Centre in 2014. Using farmer retained open pollinated seed did not cause a yield penalty when compared to commercially purchased seed in trials conducted at Minnipa in 2014.

• Early sowing had the largest positive impact on canola yield when comparing a range of treatments trialled in 2013. Good seeding depth and the correct seed rate were also important in maximising canola yields, but not to the same extent as time of sowing.

• Average grain yield was higher at Hart in 2011 (2.9t/ha) compared to 2010 (2.5t/ha) and 2009 (2.4t/ha).
• Similarly to previous favourable seasons, no sowing time response was observed in 2011.
• Blackspot severity was low in 2011 because spore release was high prior to sowing and emergence.
• A 4% yield increase was achieved through fungicide applications but this was not economical in 2011.
• Recently released PBA varieties Gunyah, Twilight, Oura and Percy all performed similarly to Kaspa.
• Potential releases OZP0819 and OZP0903 both yielded 8% higher than Kaspa, while Alma was the lowest yielding variety, 7% below Kaspa.

• Grain yield of field peas sown at Hart in 2010 averaged 2.5t/ha across all varieties.
• No time of sowing response was observed in 2010.
• Early sown plots with uncontrolled blackspot showed a 35% yield loss compared to the optimum control (fortnightly chlorothalonil), which yielded 3.6t/ha.
• Prospective releases OZP0703 and OZP0903 show a lot of promise, with OZP0703 performing similarly to Kaspa and OZP0903 yielding 10% greater.
• Chlorothalonil (Bravo), pyraclostrobin (Cabrio) and azoxystrobin plus chlorothalonil (Amistar Opti) increased yields compared to the nil treatment with disease pressure.

There is a difference between maximising biomass and the optimal biomass for maximum yield in a particular environment.

Maximising biomass creates agronomic problems such as increased foliar disease and early weed competition.

Irrigation can supply moisture during grain fill but cannot control the temperature - many of the winter wheats mature too late to avoid heat stress during grain fill. 

There is a difference between maximising biomass and the optimal biomass for maximum yield in a particular environment.

Maximising biomass creates agronomic problems such as increased foliar disease and early weed competition.

Irrigation can supply moisture during grain fill but cannot control the temperature - many of the winter wheats mature too late to avoid heat stress during grain fill. 

• Issues such as diseases and weeds are now starting to affect the profitability of the continuous wheat system.
• Minimum tillage needs ideal conditions at sowing to be successful on these soils.
• Seasonal variation has influenced cropping system comparisons, hence the need for the trial to continue into the future.

• Applying trace elements at sowing or as a foliar mid-season were equally effective in this particular year.
• Response of wheat plants to DAP with trace elements in the fertiliser compared to other methods for trace element application was variable and needs further investigation.

• No barley varietal differences in tolerance to metribuzin applied either pre-sowing or post-emergent have been detected in 3 years of trials on sandy loam soils at Walpeup and Woomelang.
• Crop damage from metribuzin has been known to occur in some commercial situations so label advice should be adhered to.

The long season winter canola varieties require a vernalisation period (cold requirement) before they become reproductive and
bud elongation starts to occur. This gives these varieties the ability to be sown early and then grazed without significantly affecting
grain yields. In 2016, three winter canola varieties were sown at Conmurra. They were sown at the same time as the spring sown
canola variety trials, and as a result, their full yield potential has not been achieved (Table 3). To try and maximise the benefits,
need to be prepared to sow early. There was no significant difference in yield between the three varieties sown.

Mid-row banding nitrogen at 133 kgN.ha⁻¹ gave a similar response to topdressing the same rate at GS31. It increased yield by 1.38 t/ha and grain N by 38 kgN.ha⁻¹ to give an ANRE of 30%. Mid-row banded N created a highly-concentrated band of ammonium which appeared to mostly survive a water-logging event.

Mid-row banding N appears to be a valid application method for nitrogen in a southern Riverina irrigated context, allowing all nitrogen requirements to be placed in the soil at sowing. This is applicable where a higher yield potential is known with some confidence, and seeding equipment can handle larger amounts of fertilizer at sowing. Hence, it may also be a useful technique in higher rainfall zones, where yield potential is high and waterlogging is more common.

On heavier soil types with higher levels of organic matter, using a speed tiller to incorporate a wheat stubble may assist in increasing canola yields. If incorporation occurs immediately post-harvest, then the addition of nitrogen may not be required if the soil nitrogen levels are adequate. If incorporation is delayed and occurs immediately prior to sowing, then the addition of nitrogen should be considered.

Bannister was the highest yileding variety from either sowing date.

• Hyola 60 was the highest yielding variety by a small margin.
• Pioneer45C05 and Pioneer 44C11. These are early maturing conventional varieties suited to the northern Wimmera and southern Mallee respectively. They may have a place for late sowing in medium to high rainfall districts.
• Within the top performing varieties at this site, there was a mix of varieties with conventional blackleg resistance and those containing resistance derived from Brassica sylvestris. This demonstrates that there are high yielding alternatives to B. sylvestris varieties, suited to this district, which carry a very much reduced risk of blackleg resistance breakdown. For example; ATRBeacon is an excellent early-mid season option with triazine tolerance, however it carries a blackleg rating of 6.5, so should be treated with Jockey if sowing in high rainfall areas.
• Although AVSapphire had significantly higher protein than other varieties tested, with 25.1%, all varieties had oil contents above 40% at this site.

• Crop intensive farming systems are running down soil carbon.
• Mixed species cover cropping offers a new approach that may address the issue.
• Local guidelines need to be developed so that farmers can make informed decisions about incorporating cover crops into their farming systems.

• Crop intensive farming systems are running down soil carbon. 
• Mixed species cover cropping offers a new approach that may address the issue.
• The cover crop species grown in 2019 had no influence on the growth, yield and grain quality of the wheat over-sown in 2020.

• Grazing vetch and lucerne can be used as a management strategy to improve lamb dry matter intake and growth rates during the late spring and early winter feed gaps.
• The Grazfeed decision support tool has predicted that while both legume forages (vetch and lucerne) will increase methane output (gCH4/day), there is a reduction in methane output per unit of animal product (gCH4/day/100gADWG).
• Moisture limitations can affect herbage production of lucerne, which in turn reduces the chances of growing lambs to achieve the full potential dry matter intake in low rainfall mixed farming systems.

Slow pasture growth rates during winter limit the potential gross margins from autumn and early winter
lambing in southern New South Wales (NSW) by limiting stocking rates and/or increasing supplementary feed
requirements. Dual-purpose crops can reduce the winter feed gap in mixed-farming systems by increasing
the available feed in winter. The simulation software AusFarm was used to model a mixed-farming system
at Wagga Wagga with Merino ewes joined to terminal sires and grazing lucerne-subterranean clover pasture
over a 41-year period. A paddock of dualpurpose wheat was then added to the system, and ewes were
allowed to graze the wheat crop when feed on offer reached 850 kg DM/ha and before GS31.

• Six sites in north-east Victoria on acid duplex soils were sampled monthly to monitor manganese concentrations in soil and weed crops in relation to changing seasonal conditions.
• Cool and/or moisture conditions were associated with exchangeable manganese of less than 50 ppm.
• High concentrations of exchangeable manganese (120 – 250 ppm) were associated with waterlogging or prolonged hot dry conditions.
• The rate of increase in exchangeable manganese was greatest under waterlogged conditions in winter there was a lack of more than one month before significant increases were observed.
• Manganese concentrations in wheat tops reached 800 – 1200 ppm at the 3 sites most severely waterlogged during 1981.
• At the better drained sites the concentrations were less than 400 ppm.
• It seems that high levels of exchangeable manganese during summer have little effect on subsequent wheat crops.
• Waterlogging may result in increased concentrations of plant manganese but perhaps only in young plants or after prolonged exposure, by which time other effects of waterlogging may already have severely limited growth.

• The trial at Morawa compared a canola-wheat sequence to a wheat-on-wheat sequence with either high or low input levels. Low input had lower fertiliser, lower seed density and cheaper herbicide options. We also incorporated a comparison of a very early wheat cultivar (Zippy) to a medium maturity cultivar (Wyalkatchem).
• Water use by the crop was estimated from the sum of the in-season rainfall and the change in soil water between sowing and harvest. By estimating the amount of soil evaporation as one third of in-season rainfall, we determined the amount of water used by the plant as transpiration. The ratio of crop yield to transpiration is the transpiration efficiency of the crop which has a potential of around 20-22 mm/kg/ha.
• The yield of Zippy was more stable than that of Wyalkatchem, but the earlier maturity resulted in a substantial yield penalty. Zippy yielded around 2 t/ha each year whereas Wyalkatchem responded more in better years. The yield penalty associated with the earlier maturing variety was not offset by the higher input level. Higher input actually increased the variability in annual gross margins.
• So far Wyalkatchem has a substantially greater cumulative gross margin than Zippy and there is little difference between the high and low input strategies.

• The trial at Morawa compared a canola-wheat sequence to a wheat-on-wheat sequence with either high or low input levels. Low input had lower fertiliser, lower seed density and cheaper herbicide options. We also incorporated a comparison of a very early wheat cultivar (Zippy) to a medium maturity cultivar (Wyalkatchem).
• Water use by the crop was estimated from the sum of the in-season rainfall and the change in soil water between sowing and harvest. By estimating the amount of soil evaporation as one third of in-season rainfall, we determined the amount of water used by the plant as transpiration. The ratio of crop yield to transpiration is the transpiration efficiency of the crop which has a potential of around 20-22 mm/kg/ha.
• The yield of Zippy was more stable than that of Wyalkatchem, but the earlier maturity resulted in a substantial yield penalty. Zippy yielded around 2 t/ha each year whereas Wyalkatchem responded more in better years. The yield penalty associated with the earlier maturing variety was not offset by the higher input level. Higher input actually increased the variability in annual gross margins.
• So far Wyalkatchem has a substantially greater cumulative gross margin than Zippy and there is little difference between the high and low input strategies.

Climate and production risk management can have a large impact on profit. We live in an area with highly variable rainfall from year to year and it is difficult to reliably predict winter and spring rainfall.

It is estimated that by sowing grazing oats the stocking rate can be increased from 5 DSE/ha to 8 DSE/ha, which has a financial benefit of $60/ha.

Management strategies at sowing essentially revolve around making the mice work harder to find seed.

• Weed sensing and selective spot spraying with machinery such as the WEEDSEEKER and WEED-IT selective spot sprayers has allowed for very cost effective broadacre spot spraying of weeds without spraying the whole paddock area.
• Selective spot spraying of hard to kill summer weeds is one application where this technology has a potential to save growers significant funds usually allocated to herbicides.
• Elevated rates of non-traditional or previously cost prohibited herbicides of a different resistance group can now be used to achieve much more reliable and faster control of herbicide resistant weeds.
• Robust rates of Glyphosate provided the most acceptable levels of control across the 3 winter weeds species tested.
• Gramoxone and Sprayseed at rates of 2L & 4L gave good control of brome grass, but both annual ryegrass and wild radish grew back and at the final ratings showed unacceptable levels of control.
• In a region where Glyphosate tolerant ryegrass populations have been identified, the lack of alternative modes of action to reliably control annual ryegrass and wild radish in fallow is of real concern.

• Weed sensing and selective spot spraying with machinery such as the WEEDSEEKER and WEED-IT selective spot sprayers has allowed for very cost effective broadacre spot spraying of weeds without spraying the whole paddock area.
• Selective spot spraying of hard to kill summer weeds is one application where this technology has a potential to save growers significant funds usually allocated to herbicides.
• Elevated rates of non-traditional or previously cost prohibited herbicides of a different resistance group can now be used to achieve much more reliable and faster control of herbicide resistant weeds.
• Robust rates of Glyphosate provided the most acceptable levels of control across the 3 winter weeds species tested.
• Gramoxone and Sprayseed at rates of 2L & 4L gave good control of brome grass, but both annual ryegrass and wild radish grew back and at the final ratings showed unacceptable levels of control.
• In a region where Glyphosate tolerant ryegrass populations have been identified, the lack of alternative modes of action to reliably control annual ryegrass and wild radish in fallow is of real concern.

• Weed sensing and selective spot spraying with machinery such as the WEEDSEEKER and WEED-IT selective spot sprayers has allowed for very cost effective broadacre spot spraying of weeds without spraying the whole paddock area.
• Selective spot spraying of hard to kill summer weeds is one application where this technology has a potential to save growers significant funds usually allocated to herbicides.
• Elevated rates of non-traditional or previously cost prohibited herbicides of a different resistance group can now be used to achieve much more reliable and faster control of herbicide resistant weeds.
• Robust rates of Glyphosate provided the most acceptable levels of control across the 3 winter weeds species tested.
• Gramoxone and Sprayseed at rates of 2L & 4L gave good control of brome grass, but both annual ryegrass and wild radish grew back and at the final ratings showed unacceptable levels of control.
• In a region where Glyphosate tolerant ryegrass populations have been identified, the lack of alternative modes of action to reliably control annual ryegrass and wild radish in fallow is of real concern.

• Weed sensing and selective spot spraying with machinery such as the WEEDSEEKER and WEED-IT selective spot sprayers has allowed for very cost effective broadacre spot spraying of weeds without spraying the whole paddock area.
• Selective spot spraying of hard to kill summer weeds is one application where this technology has a potential to save growers significant funds usually allocated to herbicides.
• Elevated rates of non-traditional or previously cost prohibited herbicides of a different resistance group can now be used to achieve much more reliable and faster control of herbicide resistant weeds.
• Robust rates of Glyphosate provided the most acceptable levels of control across the 3 winter weeds species tested.
• Gramoxone and Sprayseed at rates of 2L & 4L gave good control of brome grass, but both annual ryegrass and wild radish grew back and at the final ratings showed unacceptable levels of control.
• In a region where Glyphosate tolerant ryegrass populations have been identified, the lack of alternative modes of action to reliably control annual ryegrass and wild radish in fallow is of real concern.

• Gramoxone at 1.0L/Ha is the best & most cost effective treatment for fast grass control in the short period before sowing
• If the sprayed grass paddock is left un-sown for several days, the Glyphosate and Boxer Gold treatment proved to have slower visual control but more reliable grass control over the longer period (95%).
• The high rate of Glyphosate CT (2.0L/Ha) was also quite good at the later time of rating (24DAA), 1.0L/Ha did not provide acceptable control (77%)
• Rainfall after application would have greatly enhanced the activity of the soil residual herbicides such as Boxer Gold, Sakura and Outlook
• The possible foliar absorption of Boxer Gold when mixed with Glyphosate made it a clear winner in this trial. It was by far the cleanest treatment at 24 DAA in the absence of tillage. Gramoxone + Sakura(92%) & Gramoxone + Outlook (90%) were very close behind (no tillage).
• Addition of Logran B Power or Hammer did not improve ryegrass control when mixed with Roundup CT or Gramoxone.
• Addition of 500ml Alliance to 1.0L Gramoxone may improve broadleaf weed control, particularly small capeweed, but no improvement in grass control.

• The waterlogging event affected all treatments, such that both the chlorophyll content index (CCCI) and normalised difference red edge (NDRE) were similar for all treatments immediately after the water-logging event.
• The topdressed treatments recovered better after the waterlogging event than the mid-row banding (MRB) treatments.
• MRB showed an acceptable yield and apparent nitrogen recovery efficiency (ANRE) in both waterlogged and non-waterlogged conditions, but similar or less than N topdressing treatments. The topdressing treatments had surprisingly high ANRE.
• The mid-row banded nitrogen declined during the season, presumably with nitrification and uptake. Some mid-row banded nitrogen was still evident 131 days after sowing.
• The majority of the mid-row banded nitrogen was present as ammonium during the season, which allowed it survive the waterlogging event

• Growers need to be aware that glyphosate, trifluralin and diflufenican residues, plus the glyphosate metabolite AMPA, can accumulate to agronomically significant levels in certain soils.
• These findings suggest that the current risk of damage to crops in NSW is minor compared with some sites in WA that have lower rainfall and sandy soils with low organic matter.
• The risk to soil biological processes is generally minor when herbicides are used at label rates and given sufficient time to dissipate before re-application.
• However, given the frequency of glyphosate application and the persistence of trifluralin and diflufenican, further research is needed to define site-specific critical thresholds for these chemicals to avoid potential negative effects on soil function and crop production.

Growing season lengths did not necessarily influence variety feed value; both early and late maturing varieties performed equally well in the 2012 dry season. Hindmarsh barley was one of the best varieties: it consistently produced valuable feed at both sites and had highest grain yield at Birchip (ungrazed 3.1t/ha). Keeping plants fresh through rotational grazing will ensure stock nutrition requirements are being met.

Growing season lengths did not necessarily influence variety feed value; both early and late maturing varieties performed equally well in the 2012 dry season. Hindmarsh barley was one of the best varieties: it consistently produced valuable feed at both sites and had highest grain yield at Birchip (ungrazed 3.1t/ha). Keeping plants fresh through rotational grazing will ensure stock nutrition requirements are being met.

• Richmond produced an average yield 7% higher than Soya 791 in advanced variety evaluations at early sowing dates (first week in December) over six seasons.
• Richmond produced an average yield 7.7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in advanced variety evaluations at late sowing dates (mid January) over eight seasons.
• In on-farm experiments, Richmond yielded 16% higher than Soya 791 in a wide-row system on the northern slopes, and 7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in a narrow-row coastal system.
• In addition to higher yield potential, Richmond is tolerant to lodging and pre-harvest weather damage, has clean leaf drop, large seed size and high protein, and is resistant to powdery mildew. This combination of traits provides greater crop security and a full range of market options for growers, and high quality grain for buyers and processors.

Conclusions:

The Australian soybean variety RichmondA produces large grain (22 g/100 seed) with a clear hilum and high levels of protein (42% dry matter), which is suitable for all markets including human consumption and export. The traditional variety, Asgrow A6785, has small grain (<16 g/100 seed) with a brown hilum and protein levels less than 40%, which limits the range of markets to which it is suited. The traditional variety, Soya 791, has average sized grain Agronomy(19 g/100 seed) with a light brown hilum and high levels of protein (42%). Both A6785 and Soya 791 are prone to excessive vegetative growth, especially at an early sowing date. However, this is not necessarily converted into grain yield as demonstrated in the on-farm experiment at Harwood.

RichmondA is superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in terms of grain yield, tolerance to lodging, tolerance to pre-harvest weathering and clean leaf drop. RichmondA offers a summer legume option with high yield and high grain quality for early, mid or late sowing windows in northern New South Wales. The variety’s performance was not adversely affected by the range of soil types and farming systems reported in this paper; it was superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in all situations. RichmondA is resistant to powdery mildew. This package of traits represents a significant advance in soybean varieties for the North Coast, Tablelands, Northern Slopes and Liverpool Plains production regions of northern New South Wales.

The results of the on-farm experiment of RichmondA versus Soya 791 in a wide spacing, single row system at Oakwood demonstrates the variety’s ability to compensate for wide rows and the associated lower plant populations in dryland systems. Row spacing and plant population interactions of new soybean and mungbean varieties are being investigated in the current NSW DPI–GRDC project DAN00171

Key messages: 

• Richmond produced an average yield 7% higher than Soya 791 in advanced variety evaluations at early sowing dates (first week in December) over six seasons.
• Richmond produced an average yield 7.7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in advanced variety evaluations at late sowing dates (mid January) over eight seasons.
• In on-farm experiments, Richmond yielded 16% higher than Soya 791 in a wide-row system on the northern slopes, and 7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in a narrow-row coastal system.
• In addition to higher yield potential, Richmond is tolerant to lodging and pre-harvest weather damage, has clean leaf drop, large seed size and high protein, and is resistant to powdery mildew. This combination of traits provides greater crop security and a full range of market options for growers, and high quality grain for buyers and processors.

Conclusions:

The Australian soybean variety RichmondA produces large grain (22 g/100 seed) with a clear hilum and high levels of protein (42% dry matter), which is suitable for all markets including human consumption and export. The traditional variety, Asgrow A6785, has small grain (<16 g/100 seed) with a brown hilum and protein levels less than 40%, which limits the range of markets to which it is suited. The traditional variety, Soya 791, has average sized grain Agronomy (19 g/100 seed) with a light brown hilum and high levels of protein (42%). Both A6785 and Soya 791 are prone to excessive vegetative growth, especially at an early sowing date. However, this is not necessarily converted into grain yield as demonstrated in the on-farm experiment at Harwood.

RichmondA is superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in terms of grain yield, tolerance to lodging, tolerance to pre-harvest weathering and clean leaf drop. RichmondA offers a summer legume option with high yield and high grain quality for early, mid or late sowing windows in northern New South Wales. The variety’s performance was not adversely affected by the range of soil types and farming systems reported in this paper; it was superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in all situations. RichmondA is resistant to powdery mildew. This package of traits represents a significant advance in soybean varieties for the North Coast, Tablelands, Northern Slopes and Liverpool Plains production regions of northern New South Wales.

The results of the on-farm experiment of RichmondA versus Soya 791 in a wide spacing, single row system at Oakwood demonstrates the variety’s ability to compensate for wide rows and the associated lower plant populations in dryland systems. Row spacing and plant population interactions of new soybean and mungbean varieties are being investigated in the current NSW DPI–GRDC project DAN00171

 

KEY MESSAGES:

• Richmond produced an average yield 7% higher than Soya 791 in advanced variety evaluations at early sowing dates (first week in December) over six seasons.
• Richmond produced an average yield 7.7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in advanced variety evaluations at late sowing dates (mid January) over eight seasons.
• In on-farm experiments, Richmond yielded 16% higher than Soya 791 in a wide-row system on the northern slopes, and 7% higher than Asgrow A6785 in a narrow-row coastal system.
• In addition to higher yield potential, Richmond is tolerant to lodging and pre-harvest weather damage, has clean leaf drop, large seed size and high protein, and is resistant to powdery mildew. This combination of traits provides greater crop security and a full range of market options for growers, and high quality grain for buyers and processors.

CONCLUSIONS; 

The Australian soybean variety RichmondA produces large grain (22 g/100 seed) with a clear hilum and high levels of protein (42% dry matter), which is suitable for all markets including human consumption and export. The traditional variety, Asgrow A6785, has small grain (<16 g/100 seed) with a brown hilum and protein levels less than 40%, which limits the range of markets to which it is suited. The traditional variety, Soya 791, has average sized grain Agronomy NORTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2017 | 53 (19 g/100 seed) with a light brown hilum and high levels of protein (42%). Both A6785 and Soya 791 are prone to excessive vegetative growth, especially at an early sowing date. However, this is not necessarily converted into grain yield as demonstrated in the on-farm experiment at Harwood. RichmondA is superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in terms of grain yield, tolerance to lodging, tolerance to pre-harvest weathering and clean leaf drop. RichmondA offers a summer legume option with high yield and high grain quality for early, mid or late sowing windows in northern New South Wales. The variety’s performance was not adversely affected by the range of soil types and farming systems reported in this paper; it was superior to A6785 and Soya 791 in all situations. RichmondA is resistant to powdery mildew. This package of traits represents a significant advance in soybean varieties for the North Coast, Tablelands, Northern Slopes and Liverpool Plains production regions of northern New South Wales. The results of the on-farm experiment of RichmondA versus Soya 791 in a wide spacing, single row system at Oakwood demonstrates the variety’s ability to compensate for wide rows and the associated lower plant populations in dryland systems. Row spacing and plant population interactions of new soybean and mungbean varieties are being investigated in the current NSW DPI–GRDC project DAN00171

• Schooner and Gairdner have been the preferred malting barley varieties in southern NSW. Schooner generally achieves better quality in the lower rainfall parts of the cropping belt.
• Gairdner has proved to be the highest yielding malting variety, but is prone to high screenings under dry conditions, late sowing and excessive nitrogen or seeding rates.

• Barley is a valuable rotation crop as it is not susceptible to many wheat foliar diseases (yellow spot, stripe rust, septoria), suffers less yield loss from root diseases, and competes well with weeds.
• Schooner and Gairdner have been the preferred malting varieties in central NSW. Gatrdner has proved to be the highest yielding malting variety, but is prone to high screenings under dry conditions, late sowing and excessive nitrogen or seeding rates.
• Buloke, a new potential malting variety for the mid-lower rainfall parts of the region performed well in 2005.
• Fitzroy, Baudin and Cowabbie yielded well in the mid-higher rainfall areas.
• Tilga and Tantangara are high yielding feed varieties with Tilga better suited to drier areas. Binalong, Mackay and Grout are new feed grain lines particularly suited to the northern half of the State.
• Seeding rates of 70-120 seeds/m2 are likely to be a good compromise for yield and grain quality for barley; the higher rate should be used with late sowing and in wetter areas, but care is needed with Gairdner which is prone to high screenings.

• Early disease control is important for reducing initial AB infection levels in field pea crops with a yield potential above 1.5 t/ha.
• A late fungicide spray is important to control AB in spring when rainfall is conducive to disease spread and pod and seed infection.
• Early sowing into a high disease risk window with new fungicide actives evaluated in this project, were demonstrated to have improved yield benefits over later sowing in the 2017 season.

• Early disease control is important for reducing initial AB infection levels in field pea crops with a yield potential above 1.5 t/ha.
• A late fungicide spray is important to control AB in spring when rainfall is conducive to disease spread and pod and seed infection.
• Early sowing into a high disease risk window with new fungicide actives evaluated in this project, were demonstrated to have improved yield benefits over later sowing in the 2017 season.

• In 2013, all barley varieties had a similar yield response to nitrogen (N). Commander, La Trobe and Hindmarsh were the highest yielding and subsequently the most profitable varieties.
• 120kg N/ha (260kg/ha urea) was the best rate to achieve the greatest profitability at a very N responsive site at Nhill.

• At Cummins, an increase of up to 100% grain yield in wheat to 5 t/ha over the control was reached by applying 120 kg N/ha (two split applications of 60 kg/ha each at emergence and before GS31) and extra irrigation (50 mm) at GS31.
• At Lock, up to a 19% higher grain yield to 5 t/ha was achieved compared to control by adding extra irrigation (50 mm) at GS31.
• At Minnipa, an increase of up to 31% grain yield to 3 t/ha over the control was achieved by adding extra irrigation (50 mm) at GS31 and applying 120 kg N/ha in two split applications of 60 kg/ha at emergence and by GS31.
• Water use efficiency (WUE) improved with N fertilisation by GS31 at Minnipa and Cummins.
• The split application of 120 kg N by GS31 may only be a good investment in paddocks where crops with N requirements (e.g. canola) were grown in the previous season or soil N at sowing was low (less than 44 kg/ha) and with average or above average seasonal soil moisture at GS31.

The faba crop contributed a significant amount of N, resulting in less symptoms of waterlogging during winter, reduced N applied through the season but insignificant yield effects and changes to barley grain quality.

• The 2014 wheat crop at Karoonda had a harvest index of 0.4 and fertilizer N recovery was 35%.
• Wheat stubble from the 2014 crop contained 16 kg N/ha and had a C:N ratio of 95 which is common for cereal crop residues in these environments .
• Mineralization during summer resulted in the accumulation of 18-33 kg/ha of mineral N to 50cm depth across all the treatments at sowing in 2015.
• Incorporation of 2014 cereal stubble increased microbial biomass and N supply potential at sowing in the surface soil when compared with standing stubble.
• The management of cereal stubble affects the microbial activity that influences the cycling and supply of nutrients (nitrogen (N) and phosphorus) to growing crops.
• There was no significant effect of management of 2014 stubble on subsequent wheat grain yield in 2015.

• Legume pasture species and management practices have been investigated to determine the most important factors for improving nitrogen inputs to the soil.
• Results have shown significant improvements in the soil available nitrogen after growing pastures with a high proportion (>75%) of legumes.
• The increased soil nitrogen from good stands of pasture legumes is also reflected in the yield and quality of wheat grown the following year.
• A short pasture (2-3 seasons) will provide a significant increase in soil nitrogen and a yield and/or protein response. A long pasture (5 seasons) may not provide more nitrogen than one of 4 seasons.
• No legume species has performed consistently better than any other species.
• Sowing a mixture of inoculated pasture legume species that are suited to the region is important to spread the risk and ensure a good stand of legumes is achieved.
• Weed control using grazing management and/or chemical control is seen as the best way to maintain a high level of legumes in the paddock and therefore increase soil nitrogen

• All varieties responded similarly to applied nitrogen.
• Hindmash and Commander yielded well; all varieties achieved malt.

• With a soil nitrogen (N) content of 103 kg N/ha at sowing, Mace wheat yielded 3.1 t/ha with no N fertiliser applied and contained 6.6% protein.
• Optimum gross margins were recorded with 75 kg N/ha, though none of the N levels up to 100 kg N/ha reached 9% protein.
• Yield response was greatest for N application timings at sowing, GS31, or a split application between GS31 and GS39.
• A crop sensor was used to measure in season nitrogen responsiveness and was able to predict the optimal N rate.

Four nitrogen fertiliser products were compared for efficacy in relation to providing the crop with sufficient N to optimize production at two sites, Birchip and Marnoo. The products compared were: granular Urea, granular Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN), liquid Urea Ammonium Nitrate (UAN) and liquid Urea. The products were applied three times (pre-sowing; at the five leaf stage and at the end of tillering).

• Grain yields of wheat were higher when additional nitrogen was applied at sowing compared to when applied at GS31.
• Timing of nitrogen application is essential to maximise plant growth and achieve yield potential.
• Grain protein was only higher when delayed nitrogen application was applied, which resulted in reduced wheat yield.
• Starting soil moisture, paddock rotation history and potential yield of crop are important factors to consider when deciding amount of nitrogen to apply and timing.
   

• Grain yields of wheat were higher when additional nitrogen was applied at sowing compared to when applied at GS31
• Timing of nitrogen application is essential to maximise plant growth and achieve yield potential
• Grain protein was only higher when delayed nitrogen application was applied, which resulted in reduced wheat yield
• Starting soil moisture, paddock rotation history and potential yield of crop are important factors to consider when deciding amount of nitrogen to apply and timing

For further information see Payne, RA and Ladd, JN (1993) Soil organic matter and nitrogen management in dryland cropping systems, Part II: Nitrogen requirements for dryland cereal crops. Dept Primary Industries of SA. Technical Report No. 212 (Agdex 536).

• Paddock variance was measured across two paddocks through EM (electromagnetic) surveys. Based on this variance, high and low EM zones were identified.
• Two small plot trials compared nitrogen (N) response in a high and low EM zone of two paddocks sown to Trojan wheat, one in Yarrawonga (sown 22 April) and the other in Dookie (sown 12 May).
• • Both paddocks had high levels of nitrogen available in the soil (120–200kg N/ha 0–60cm) irrespective of zone.
• The largest response to nitrogen (1t/ha) was observed in the high EM zone at Dookie, where the highest levels of available soil nitrogen were recorded (200kg N/ha).
• Dry matter (DM) differences and normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) readings at the Dookie site suggested the crop canopy was responding to applied nitrogen; this indicates the crop did not benefit from the high levels of soil nitrogen present (possibly as a result of later sowing or subsoil constraints).
• At the Yarrawonga site there were no significant indications from NDVI readings that a response to nitrogen fertiliser was likely; this was supported by high grain yields in the nil nitrogen plots (5.8t/ha and 6.4t/ha in the high and low EM zone respectively).
• At the Dookie low EM site, grain protein of 11.9% in the lowest-yielding treatment suggested there was sufficient soil nitrogen available to meet crop yield and protein requirements; this contrasts with in-crop NDVI measurements, which suggested the crop would respond to applied nitrogen.
• At Yarrawonga nitrogen application strategies based on NDVI readings meant nitrogen application was
• delayed until third node (GS33) in the high EM zone, which resulted in only limited uptake. A slightly earlier second node (GS32) application in the low EM zone resulted in an excellent response (0.39t/ha)to the NDVI-based approach.

Key findings:

• This site was fairly unresponsive to nitrogen (N) application. Yield and screenings did not significantly change with increasing rates of N, but there were moderate responses in grain protein to all rates of applied N in all varieties.
• The 40 kg N/ha at sowing + 40 kg N/ha in crop treatment had a significant increase in grain protein above the 40 kg N/ha at sowing only treatment in all varieties, but was not significantly different from the 80 kg N/ha at sowing treatment

Results:

There were moderate responses in grain protein to all rates of applied N in all varieties. The 40 kg N/ha at sowing + 40 kg N/ha in-crop treatment showed a significant increase in grain protein above the 40 kg N/ha at sowing only treatment in all varieties, but was not significantly different from the 80 kg N/ha at sowing treatment. Screening levels were low, with only Dart above 5% in some treatments. Dart, being the quickest variety in this trial, flowered and reached grain filling ahead of the other varieties, most likely causing it to be filling grain and losing green leaf during the hotter and drier part of September. The slower varieties probably benefited more from the late spring rains in this season

Key findings:

• This site was only moderately responsive to nitrogen (N) application. Yield and protein generally increased in all varieties with the 20 kg N/ha and 40 kg N/ha rates. However, yield decreased with higher application rates.
• Protein and screening levels increased with N rates above 40 kg N/ha.
• KioraA produced the highest screening levels. The sowing date of 5 May at Nyngan is probably a bit late for KioraA, which would have exacerbated screenings.
• Varieties with comparatively lower biomass such as DartA, LancerA, SpitfireA and SunmateA maintained higher yield and lower screening levels even with the higher N application rates with a corresponding lower impact on harvest index also observed in these varieties.

Conclusions:

Conditions at sowing were very wet. There was no effective in-crop rainfall after August and combined with temperatures above 35⁰C in September resulted in a hard finish to the season.

This site had a high background starting N level (233 kg N/ha) which was surprising given the history of continuous cropping – 17 years of crop (Wheat 40%, canola 20%, barley 20%, pulse 20%) with additional N (above starter fertiliser application) only applied once in 1999. The lower rates of 20 and 40 kg N/ha gave modest yield increases in most varieties however rates higher than this tended to reduce yield and also caused screenings levels to increase in this trial. Protein levels increased with N application rates of 40 kgN/ha and above as seed size decreased.

Biomass and harvest index data (data not shown) showed that increasing N rate in heavier strawed varieties such as EGA_Gregory, Viking, Kiora produced more dry matter with comparatively less grain yield i.e. lower harvest index.

Key mesages:

• There was a decline in yield with all rates of applied nitrogen (N), which was likely to be associated with high levels of residual soil N at the site.
• Grain protein increased with all rates of applied N in all varieties, most likely due to decreased grain size.
• Sowing time had the greatest influence on yield, with the earlier sowing time yielding close to 1 t/ha better than the later sowing time for each variety.

Conclusions:

This trial site had a high starting soil N level of 233 kg N/ha (0–120 cm) which probably contributed to declining yield with increasing rates of N application. However, protein levels still increased with increasing rates of N application, but this was most likely due to decreased grain size. Most varieties yielded almost 1 t/ha higher with TOS 1 compared with TOS 2. Sunmate and Suntop generally performed similarly at both sowing times. They were the highest yielding varieties at each sowing date, but also had lower protein achievement. Lancer and Spitfire also performed similarly at the two sowing dates and were generally lower yielding than Sunmate or Suntop at each sowing time, but obtained higher grain protein levels.

• The experiment was highly responsive to nitrogen application (N).
• Averaged across the two sowing dates, yield ranged from 0.89 t/ha in LRPB DartA without applied N to 4.95 t/ha in LRPB FlankerA with the highest application rate of 160 kg N/ha.
   

• Urea increased wheat grain yield significantly over the nil when banded at sowing.
• There was no significant difference between urea, UAN or MAXamFLO when applied at the same rate of nitrogen and incorporated by sowing, banded or applied at pre-sow, banded and post.

With extremely dry conditions following both sowing on 6 June and nitrogen application, there was no response to nitrogen application in this trial, despite the low level of available soil nitrogen (52kg/ha N, 0-130cm) recorded at the start of the season. • With yields in the range of 1.3-1.6t/ha, there was no response to applied nitrogen regardless of the timing or product used. • There was no evidence to indicate that, under these conditions, liquid fertiliser (Easy N - 32% w/w (16% urea, 8% nitrate and 8% ammonium) or Green Urea 14 (an agrotain urease inhibitor coated urea) were superior to straight urea (46%N).

• Later applications of nitrogen (GS30 & GS37) were the most profitable with the highest yield and quality, for malt barley in 2010.
• There was no significant differences in yield of varieties between early and later sowings.
• Crop sensors provide a good measure of nitrogen response and can improve nitrogen use efficiency.

• Although increasing the frequency of N applications appeared to slightly increase grain yield (machine harvested) compared to all “up front” in seedbed yield differences were not statistically significant.
• As a general comment, timing of N application did not affect the grain yield, whether it be all up front or split over 4 timings up to V6.
• The nil applied N treatment yielded 9.49t/ha.
• However N content of the grain at harvest was greater where split applications involving later timings were compared to all the nitrogen applied at sowing indicating greater N fertiliser efficiency
• However, unless there is a premium for the maize protein in the grain resulting from later N timings the difference may be of little value to the grower.
• Soil N prior to sowing and watering up was 25 kg N/ha (0-60cm). The nil treatment contained a total of 147 kg N/ha at harvest, suggesting in-crop mineralisation resulted in 122 kg N/ha released to the crop.

• The highest grain yield (machine harvested) achieved was 16.36 t/ha with the applied N rate of 240 kg N/ha in a crop producing 30.63 t/ha dry matter at 50.45% harvest index.
• N applications above 240kg N/ha were uneconomic in the trial.
• The nil control treatment yielded 10.89 t/ha in a crop producing 26t/ha dry matter at 51% harvest index.
• Available Soil N prior to sowing and watering up was 34 kg N/ha (0-60cm). The nil control N offtake at harvest was 241 kg N/ha, suggesting in-crop mineralisation resulted in 207 kg N/ha of the N taken up.
• At the highest level of N (560kg N/ha) there was no advantage to applying 80 Kg N/ha of the dose very late at tasselling.

• Header grain yields averaged 18.2t/ha with no yield benefit observed from applying pre-drill urea in the trial when N was applied post sowing as fertigation.
• In a trial with an overall dose of post sowing N of 207 kg N/ha applied via fertigation there was no significant yield increase from the earlier pre-drill N applications of between 0 – 315kg N/ha.
• The economic optimum level of nitrogen applied was 252kg N/ha (45N pre-drill + 207kg N as fertigation).
• No significant differences were recorded in total dry matter (DM) content at V6 or at harvest with an average DM content of 34.6t/ha.
• The N content at harvest revealed an average N content of 462kg N/ha with a range of approximately 415-530kg N/ha in the crop, but there were no statistical differences.
• The N offtake at harvest indicated soil mineralisation provided up to 165kg N/ha to grow the crop with lower N efficiency recorded from applied fertiliser at higher overall N rates.
• There were no significant differences in test weight (mean 81.1) or harvest index (mean 51.7%).

•  Delaying post sowing applications of nitrogen (92 kg/ha N) to the flag leaf stage for both Kellalac and MacKellar at the Gnarwarre site, resulted in the best grain yield and grain quality.
• Application of nitrogen (35 kg/ha N) to barley at the early jointing stage (GS32), gave the best grain yield and quality at Gnarwarre.
• Late nitrogen applications appeared to result in more flower sites (florets) filling with grain for both wheat and barley. 
• For further conclusions please see the attached trial report.

• Work conducted in low and medium rainfall environments indicate that N2O emissions are low from an overall national perspective. • Results showed that there was no clear response of N2O emissions to nitrogen applied at sowing and post sowing. • High pre-seeding soil mineral nitrogen raises the possibility of higher N2O losses over the fallow period following significant rainfall.

• Work conducted in low and medium rainfall environments indicate that N2O emissions are low from an overall national perspective. • Results showed that there was no clear response of N2O emissions to nitrogen applied at sowing and post sowing. • High pre-seeding soil mineral nitrogen raises the possibility of higher N2O losses over the fallow period following significant rainfall.

Preliminary results showed the level of nitrous oxide emissions did not increase over the 2013 winter as a result of near capacity soil water contents coupled with increased nitrate nitrogen levels resulting from seeding and in-crop nitrogen applications on the canola compared with a pulse crop and legume pasture.

Preliminary results showed the level of nitrous oxide emissions did not increase over the 2013 winter as a result of near capacity soil water contents coupled with increased nitrate nitrogen levels resulting from seeding and in-crop nitrogen applications on the canola compared with a pulse crop and legume pasture.

• Wheat established by no-till yielded at least as well as full cut sowing on stony soils in 2009.
• Seed scattered on soil surface germinated at Lock in 2009!
• Hydraulic tines, K-Hart discs and Canadian designed points are excellent options for no-till on stony soils.

• Noodle wheat production was not suited to this paddock due to the high soil nitrogen levels. Milling wheat production was a much better choice for this paddock as evidenced by the performance of Mitre. High soil nitrogen levels resulted in protein levels too high for the noodle varieties to achieve their ASWN potential for all plots at the site except Lorikeet with no urea at sowing.

• The variety Janz outyielded both other varieties at both times of sowing. 
• The earlier time of sowing outyielded the later time of sowing. 

1. The district practice Baseline system is the most profitable to date. However apart from the 2016 winter crop there is very little difference between the seven grain systems.
2. Water use efficiency is higher for cereals than pulses and is highest in high-yielding crops.
3. Subsoil constraints are limiting PAW extraction by pulse crops.

Key findings:

• Faba beans sown to target 20 plants/m2 appears to optimise yield in northern regions of NSW.
• Faba beans sown to target 30 plants/m2 appears to optimise yield in central regions of NSW.
• Faba beans sown to Doza appears more prone to frost damage than either PBA Warda or PBA Nasma get 30 plants/m2 appears to optimise yield in central regions of NSW.

Conclusions:

Limited data from the first year of trial results in 2015 suggests that for northern and western sites, 20 plants/m2 is a preferred target plant density, while in central areas 30 plants/m2 is a better option to achieve optimum yield with faba bean grown under dryland cropping conditions. Large seed does not necessarily confer higher yield, with PBA Nasma out yielding PBA Warda at only one location, Trangie, in 2015. Doza appears more prone to frost damage than either PBA Warda or PBA Nasma. Frost tolerance is a key attribute for the faba bean breeding program in northern NSW, with new releases (particularly PBA Nasma) targeted at having better tolerance than Doza, which was apparent in these trials in 2015.

• Sowing date, uniform sowing depth and weed control are just as important to maintain yields in a wide row system as in conventional systems.
• The results in 2001 indicate that the wide-row system has potential at the yield levles typically achieved in the central-northern Mallee.

• Nutrient omission experiment at 7 sites.
• Take homes messages were that phosphorus was a limiting factor to grain yield in 2015. Zinc was limiting yield at three locations.
• Iron was a limiting factor on a grey-brown vertosol with a 50 year cropping history.
• 12 treatments were; Zero nutrients, All nutrients, - N, - P, - K, - Ca, - B, - Cu, - Zn, - Mn, - Mg, - Fe.
• Application method varied between nutrients. Both P and N were applied at sowing, at 10 kg P/ha as Trifos and 10 kg N/ha as urea, respectively. Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn, Cu and Fe were applied as chelates in a foliar spray. K was applied as Potassium citrate and B as Boron ethanolamine as foliar sprays. N and P applied at sowing, all other nutrients sprayed at mid vegetative stage. PBA HatTrick was sown at all sites at 30 plants/m2.
• Sites differed in responses.
• Rowena showed no significant responses to applied nutrients.
• The Trangie, Edgeroi and Coonamble sites showed yield responses to applied Zn of, 28, 18 and 7%, respectively. Coonamble, Nowley, Moree and North Star had responses to applied P of, 4, 15, 15 and 11%, respectively.
• Also at the Coonamble site, a grey-brown vertosol which has been cropped since the early 1960s, also showed an 8% yield response to applied Fe.
• Older cropping country is showing responses to applied P as well as Zn and in one instance Fe.

• Wheat fertilised with DAP placed with seed yielded 0.5 t/ha (20%) less than wheat with DAP placed below seed in 2017 at Loxton but had no effect at Karoonda.
• Using 50 kg DAP/ha with the seed and 35 kg Urea/ha deep was better than 50 kg DAP/ha and 35 kg Urea/ha all below the seed on sand at Loxton.

• The main issue that needs to be kept in mind when interpreting the results is the relative maturity of varieties.
• The 5 June sowing date means that faster maturing varieties like Grout, Hindmarsh, Tilga and Schooner have an advantage over slower varieties like Gairdner and Tantangara and the results need to be interpreted in this context.

• Hail in early October negated the effect of early sowing due to increased shattering losses in the early canola over the later sown canola.
• Aphids were very damaging in the podding stages and would have significantly reduced yield and possibly oil content also.