Pre sowing comment: good knockdown. Good rains at end of March.

Early seaaon comment: germinated well, looks to be some simazine damage. Good rains keep growing going.

Mid season comment: dry July. Trial clean of weeds.

Pre harvest comment: good rains in August and September finishes off, trial still thin from probable simazine damage.

Artificially applied nitrogen had no significant effect on crop establishment or on early growth as determined from NIR testing 

• For further conclusions please see the attached trial report.

• Fungicide application for stem rust control was more effective and economic where product application was made prior to visible infection in the crop.
• Where fungicide application was made at an early stage of grian fill (GS 71) disease control of stem rust was inferior to the same products applied at the same rate 16 days earlier at 50% ear emergence (GS 55).
• Higher rates of fungicide (label rates for stem rust control) need to be employed for this disease in order to give effective control; this is particularly the case with fungicides containing a single active ingredient such as tebucanazole (e.g. Folicur) or epoxiconazole (e.g. Optus).
• The strobilurin/triazole mixture of azoxystrobin/cyproconazole (Amistar Xtra) gave excellent stem rust control at its highest rate but its higher cost reduced its economic return.
• The performance of propiconazole (e.g. Tilt) against stem rest was poor in terms of disease control, relative to other products tested.

• Fungicides can be employed successfully to control stem rust in wheat (Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici) but timing in relation to disease development is crucial.
• In susceptible cultivars fungicide application must be made at a very early stage of disease development, preferably before it can be seen.
• Fungicide activity is limited in scenarios where disease is already established in the stem at application, in these cases cultivar resistance was far more effective in defence against this disease than fungicides.
• Propiconazole (Tilt) gave significantly poorer stem rust control than the other fungicides tested at full label rates.
• Prothioconazole the partner azole to tebuconazole in Prosaro was particularly strong on stem rust, making Prosaro one of the most cost effective fungicides for control of this disease.

• Maximise wheat WUE by ensuring as much crop flowers during the optimal period as possible – sow on time or early!
• Early sown, slow maturing varieties (winter and spring) yield as well as or better than faster maturing varieties sown later
• Including an early sown variety in a cropping program can greatly increase whole-farm yield

• Be vigilant and monitor every paddock – they can be very different ƒ
• Do not spray after head emergence – the damage has been done ƒ
• Use early season treatments in the Wimmera and be prepared to apply one spray in crop if it is required. ƒ Stripe rust is a permanent fixture in our environment
• We must all be prepared to control the disease WHEN (not IF) it occurs in 2006.

• In 2017, don’t let stubble compromise the big things (weeds, disease, timeliness)
• If the intent is to retain stubble:
◊ Pro-actively manage the stubble for your seeding system
◊ Diversify (add legumes to rotation), deep band N and manage invertebrates. Mice could also be a major problem
◊ For tined seeders, reduce stubble load by mulching, incorporation + nutrients, baling, grazing and consider sowing at 15-19 degree angle to previous sown row
• If stubbles are too thick to sow through, consider strategic late burn, especially before 2nd wheat crop or if sowing canola into large stubbles
• Early monitoring is essential to see how effective actions are to allow for re-planning

• Different methods of stubble handling had little impact on yield.
• Early soil testing allowed good decision making for crop nutrition and budgeting.
• Soil biota were more active in the in-row root zone, as opposed to the mid row zone.

• In 2017, don’t let stubble compromise the big things (weeds, disease, timeliness).
• If the intent is to retain stubble:
• Pro-actively manage the stubble for your seeding systemDiversify (add legumes to rotation), deep band N and manage invertebrates. Mice could also be a major problem.
• For tined seeders, reduce stubble load by mulching, incorporation + nutrients, baling, grazing and consider sowing at 15-19 degree angle to previous sown row.
• If stubbles are too thick to sow through, consider strategic late burn, especially before second wheat crop or if sowing canola into large stubbles.
• Early monitoring is essential to see how effective actions are to allow for re-planning.

• In wet years, barley sown into cereal stubble can suffer badly from yellow leaf spot.
• In dry years, this is not a problem.
• However, the barley still performed better where the wheat stubble has been burnt.

• The best yield response by wheat was to zinc. 
• Zinc induced early maturity and produced better root systems than without zinc.
• The increase in yield was mainly related to superior root development which in turn had some effect on the severity of eelworm and root rot.

• Grain yield at Hill River was increased on two soil types by 12% and 33% through the addition of soil amendments to the surface or subsoil.
• There was no yield difference between applying amendment to the surface or subsoil in 2016, except at one of the seven sites sown to lentils.
• There was little difference between applying large rates of synthetic fertiliser or applying 20 t/ha chicken litter.

Early vigour – no significant difference. 

NDVI, 3 September - no significant difference.

Yield – see results.

Yields ranged from 1.5-2.1t/ha at Minyip and 2.3 to 2.7t/ha at Lubeck. Oil contents ranged from 38- 43% with no clear varietal trends. Table 1 summarises the yields grown and the source and level of blackleg resistance. Hyola 60 and Surpass 603CL had the highest mean yields, followed by AVSapphire and ATR Beacon. The yields of ATR Stubby were comparable to the other triazine tolerant varieties. ATR Stubby is an early maturing variety and would be more suited to Mallee environments. Pioneer 45C05 and Pioneer 44C11 were sown at Minyip and performed well. These varieties are suited to the northern Wimmera and southern Mallee.

2019 Demonstration Key Messages

• The growing season rainfall in 2019 was below average at Perillup, and the summer cropping demonstration did not suffer from water-logging.
• Grain growers in this region believe that the soil drying effects from growing summer crops has the greatest potential benefit to winter cropping yields.
• In 2019, there was a 770kg/ha barley yield increase above the control from the plots where cowpea was grown in the summer.
• There was a 470kg/ha decline in winter barley yield in the plot that was planted to canola between January 30 and May 9, 2019.
• Nutritional requirements of summer crops need to be considered when selecting species. Cowpeas fixed useful nitrogen in the 90 growing days.
• The growing season rainfall in 2019 was above average in Williams, and the summer cropping demonstration site was severely water-logged.
• Buster Radish could also be a perfect non-machinery deep ripping tool with its great root system.

2018 Demonstration Key Messages

• The summer cropping demonstration sites were sown at two different timings. The Ryansbrook trial, 35km south west of Kojonup, was sown 4th October 2018 into moisture and the Woodgenellup trial was dry sown on the 30th January 2019 prior to a predicted rainfall event.
• According to our producer rainfall records, since 2003, every 4 out of 5 years they have had summer rainfall events in January and February. Unfortunately, in the 2018/19 summer there was minimal summer rainfall and the summer crops at the Ryansbrook site failed. The C4 grasses (millet and sorghum) persisted better with little to no moisture in the soil profile compared to the broadleaf crop types (canola and cowpea).
• At the Woodgenellup site germination was patchy however, plants have developed reasonable biomass.
• Winter season in-crop measurements will be taken at the Woogenellup site to determine the effect of the summer crop on water logging. Due to the failure of the summer crop at the Ryansbrook site, no further measurements will be taken at this

• After stem elongation, mature prickly lettuce plants are difficult to control.
• Controlling mature prickly lettuce plants early achieves better results.
• No single treatments, except paraquat, achieved 100% control of mature prickly lettuce plants that emerged after a wheat crop was harvested. The paraquat, either used alone or as a follow-up application, was the only outstanding treatment, achieving 100% control.
   

• Traditionally, forage legumes are sown after the main cropping program is completed and require the application of a pre-sowing knockdown herbicide to control established weeds.  This treatment seriously reduces early winter pasture production which is then compounded by the slow growth rate of legumes under the cold winter conditions. 
• Summer sowing offers early winter grazing in a mixed enterprise farm. The technique has the ability to lift the legume component in a pasture which has degraded through a range of factors such as drought and/or intensive cropping. On a farm without grazing animals, summer sowing can be used to produce a green fallow with a high legume content that can be brown manured to provide  high nitrogen residues  and maximise the organic matter for the benefit of subsequent crops.
• Summer sowing reduces establishment cost by firstly, minimising seed processing particularly in the case of serradella where seed extraction is difficult and expensive and secondly, sowing does not require a pre-sowing application of herbicide.
• The requirement to sow hard-seeded cultivars in summer or early autumn does lose some of the flexibility to tactically respond to seasonal conditions and this needs to be balanced against the clear productivity advantages demonstrated.

• Traditionally, forage legumes are sown after the main cropping program is completed and require the application of a pre-sowing knockdown herbicide to control established weeds.  This treatment seriously reduces early winter pasture production which is then compounded by the slow growth rate of legumes under the cold winter conditions. 
• Summer sowing offers early winter grazing in a mixed enterprise farm. The technique has the ability to lift the legume component in a pasture which has degraded through a range of factors such as drought and/or intensive cropping. On a farm without grazing animals, summer sowing can be used to produce a green fallow with a high legume content that can be brown manured to provide  high nitrogen residues  and maximise the organic matter for the benefit of subsequent crops.
• Summer sowing reduces establishment cost by firstly, minimising seed processing particularly in the case of serradella where seed extraction is difficult and expensive and secondly, sowing does not require a pre-sowing application of herbicide.
• The requirement to sow hard-seeded cultivars in summer or early autumn does lose some of the flexibility to tactically respond to seasonal conditions and this needs to be balanced against the clear productivity advantages demonstrated.

• The results for summer sowing into an established perennial grass pasture were encouraging in a season with minimal spring rainfall. The results were negatively impacted by the low rainfall in spring. Drilling pod was more successful than broadcasting pod and then using animals to trample it into the soil.
• This was the first summer sowing trial into perennial grasses in WA so it is too early to develop recommendations, but it appears that you need to use 20 to 40 kg pod/ha to achieve a good seedbank. The mid-March sowing time is at the end of the ‘sowing window’ for summer sowing. Sowing in early February is desirable to maximize the time for hardseed breakdown.
• With summer sowing using pod rather than seed there is no need for de-hulling, so there is a cost saving per kilogram, but higher sowing rates are required as the seedlings need to compete with annual grasses, broadleaf weeds as well as the perennial grasses. The summer sowing method requires relatively high sowing rates and the concept relies to a large extent on farmers producing hard-seeded serradella pod on-farm at a low cost.After these promising results in 2010, similar trials will be undertaken in 2011 with local producers.

• The results for summer sowing into an established perennial grass pasture were encouraging in a season with minimal spring rainfall.  The results were negatively impacted by the low rainfall in spring.
• Drilling pod was more successful than broadcasting pod and then using animals to trample it into the soil.  This was the first summer sowing trial into perennial grasses in WA so it is too early to develop recommendations, but it appears that you need to use 20 to 40 kg pod/ha to achieve a good seedbank.  The mid-March sowing time is at the end of the ‘sowing window’ for summer sowing.  Sowing in early February is desirable to maximize the time for hardseed breakdown.
• With summer sowing using pod rather than seed there is no need for de-hulling, so there is a cost saving per kilogram, but higher sowing rates are required as the seedlings need to compete with annual grasses, broadleaf weeds as well as the perennial grasses.  The summer sowing method requires relatively high sowing rates and the concept relies to a large extent on farmers producing hard-seeded serradella pod on-farm at a low cost.
• After these promising results in 2010, similar trials will be undertaken in 2011 with local producers.

Traditionally, forage legumes are sown after the main cropping program is completed and require
the application of a pre-sowing knockdown herbicide to control established weeds. This treatment
seriously reduces early winter pasture production which is then compounded by the slow growth
rate of legumes under the cold winter conditions.

For further comments please see the attached trial report.

For most effective weed control of heliotrope an early applied residual herbicide such as Glean, Ally or Atrazine (be careful with plant backs for different crops!) is most effective. For grass and heliotrope control later in the season, weeds have to be sprayed before they are fully grown and flowering.

• Trials are underway investigating the effects of rotational grazing versus set stocking of stubble residues on surface cover and soil characteristics in arable paddocks.
• Early rain in 2014 disrupted the trial’s implementation but initial results on a stubble / self-sown pasture grazed in June indicated no difference between set stocking and rotational grazing on surface cover.

• The survey received 224 responses from growers aligned with the different farming systems groups participating in this project.
• 39% of the grower respondents identified barley grass as having a medium to high impact on their cropping systems.
• 40% of the grower respondents feel that barley grass emergence patterns have changed over the last 10 years and that it now emerges later in the season.

51% of growers thought barley grass had become more common in their cropping paddocks. Some of the factors responsible for the increase in barley grass include delayed emergence and early seed-set, low efficacy of pre-emergence herbicides, particularly during dry starts to seasons, resistance to group A herbicides, continuous cereals in the system and wide crop row spacing

• From 2007 to 2009 field pea crops in the Hart district were sown in an even spread from early May through to June.
• The majority of crops were within 500 m of field pea stubble from the previous year.
• Blackspot was most severe in early sown crops adjacent to field pea stubble.
• There was a significant relationship between predictions of disease risk made by Blackspot Manager and the disease severity observed in these crops.

• Inoculum are living bacteria.
• Survial of rhizobia is vital for inoculation and effective nodulation of crop and pasture legumes.
• Chemicals and fertilisers can affect survival and persistence of rhizobia in the soil.
• Therefore, ensure high numbers of rhizobia are sown, especially where chemicals are used.

• The 2013 Tamworth and 2014 Trangie environments were not conducive to high levels of seed markings, with all varieties having <5% tiger stripe/blotches.
• The later sown chickpeas had a lower incidence of seed markings in two of the three environments.
• The 2015 Tamworth experiment was conducive to seed markings for the first sowing date (SD1). In this case, the most susceptible commercial varieties were PBA PistolA and PBA BoundaryA, with 9.7% and 6.7% of individual seeds having tiger stripe/blotches respectively.
• All five kabuli varieties did not display any seed markings in any of the three environments.
• All desi varieties showed at least low levels of tiger stripe/blotch type markings in one or more of the three environments and two sowing dates

Conclusions

Time of sowing and variety influence the amount of seeds showing the tiger stripe/blotching type markings in chickpea. Kabuli chickpeas do not suffer from this defect. Desi chickpeas sown in mid-June at Tamworth and Trangie had a lower incidence of this type of seed marking. Research is ongoing to identify both the genetic basis and the environmental triggers of tiger stripe/blotch type markings in desi chickpeas to minimise any potential risk to the Australian chickpea industry.

In 2001 the Rankins Springs CWFS plan to sow lupins across all treatments with the exception of organic treatment, which is considering vetch. The original plan was for barley in 2001, but at the last meeting a motion was passed for lupins to be sown this year to aid soil nitrogen levels.

• In 2016 only 40% of the barley grass was greater than 17 cm tall and had the potential to be collected by early swathing, or 60% of the barley grass seed had already shed or was below harvest weed seed collection height.
• Sampling of the swathed paddock area showed slightly better barley grass weed seed collection using swathing than from the rest of the paddock which was harvested normally.
• Seed capture at both swathing and harvest is higher with annual ryegrass than with barley grass.

• Nuseed Diamond achieved 5 t/ha grain yield from early sowing (watered for germination on 12 April).
• The high yield of Nuseed Diamond was due to its high biomass accumulation and high harvest index. ATR BonitoA was the lowest yielding variety, largely because it accumulated less biomass than hybrid non-TT varieties.
• Split nitrogen application resulted in higher grain yield than all nitrogen applied at sowing or all nitrogen
delayed to the 8-leaf stage.

• Substantially better brome control and seed set reduction is possible by using pre-emergence options other than trifluralin.
• The costly Sakura+Avadex treatment is likely to be the most effective.
• Consistency of performance of all pre-emergence herbicides for brome remains a problem
• On-row seeding on non-wetting sand showed that it can substantially improve early crop emergence.
• One reason for this is the likely wetter surface soil in rows at time of seeding.
• Seasonal conditions such as the long-wet season of 2016 will affect efficacy of both pre-emergence herbicides and the impact of additional crop competition on brome seed set suppression.
• Maintaining low seedbanks and having alternative options for weed seed control when faced with a risk of ‘blowouts’ in brome seed set is important given the chance of particularly poor control in some seasons.

• Substantially better brome control and seed set reduction is possible with pre-emergence options other than trifluralin.
• The costly Sakura+Avadex treatment is likely to be the most effective.
• Consistency of performance of all pre-emergence herbicides for brome remains a problem
• On-row seeding on non-wetting sand can substantially improve early crop emergence in part due to increased surface soil water accumulation in rows at time of seeding.
• Seasonal conditions such as the long wet season of 2016 will affect efficacy of both pre-emergence herbicides and the impact of additional crop competition on brome seed set suppression.
• Maintaining low seedbanks and having alternative options for weed seed control when faced with a risk of ‘blowouts’ in brome seed set is important given the chance of particularly poor control in some seasons.

• The later seeding had very poor crop establishment, resulting in significantly higher brome seed production (115% more panicles) than early seeding, but seeding time did not interact with herbicide treatment effects.
• Only the treatments including Sakura resulted in significantly (P<0.01) better brome control than trifluralin alone (measured by number of panicles/m2).
• Sakura alone resulted in 55% less brome panicles than trifluralin alone, and Sakura + Avadex resulted in 72% less brome panicles than trifluralin alone.
• Sakura’s extended residual soil activity, which can restrict root growth of brome, combined with the dry spring, was probably responsible for the reduced seed set.
• Substantially better brome control and seedset reduction is possible by using pre-emergence options other than trifluralin. The additional herbicide cost needs to be evaluated against the better level of control, including the longer-term seedbank benefits.

Whilst the streaming of UAN modestly reduced annual ryegrass (ARG) N percentage in the tissue, no difference in annual ryegrass seed production was evident. Due to the dry conditions in 2019, the application of supplementary UAN did not significantly increase wheat canopy closure or yield. Interestingly, UAN placement did affect the total nitrogen uptake in the ryegrass population, potentially increasing ARG competitiveness. Banding UAN to the crop row was found to increase ARG N uptake. As seeding systems provide herbicide free bands on otherwise herbicide treated soil for safe wheat establishment it was found that the majority of ARG emerged from these crop rows. Concentrating N applications to these regions may have inadvertently increased the N uptake in ARG. This study was conducted in York over the 2018 and 2019 seasons. A multi- environment trial analysis for the combined data to be completed.

• The herbicide treatment had a significant effect on annual ryegrass (ARG) plant density. Trifluralin only reduced ARG spike density by 20% compared to the untreated control, whereas Boxer Gold caused a 73% reduction in ARG spike density.
• Barley sown on 25 cm row spacing resulted in a 38% less ARG seed production compared to the 37.5 cm row spacing treatment.
• Barley sown using the splitter seed boot treatment had 32% lower ARG seed production than the narrow seed boot treatment.
• It was still profitable to control ARG with effective herbicide treatments. Based on cash grain price of feed barley of $250/t in 2019, Trifluralin would be expected to increase the gross margin by $32/ha as compared $71/ha increase for Boxer Gold.

 

No fertiliser had any effect at any rate on the establishment of canola when watered up.

• A replicated trial was conducted to compare grain yield of early sown Revenue wheat (cut and uncut for fodder) with that sown at a more traditional time, May.
• Both cutting and later sowing significantly reduced grain yield compared with the early sown uncut treatment.
• The most significant effect was the ability of the early sown plots to better tolerate the very wet conditions. With a root system actively depleting moisture from the soil profile in late autumn the early sown treatments entered winter with a depleted soil moisture bank whereas May sown plots struggled over winter due to additional water logging.
• March sown plots that were cut did not recover as well as in drier seasons. It is likely that the prolonged water-loggin created an addional stress on top of cutting to the detriment of crop recovery and grain yield.

Grazing crops early and/or lightly will generally not affect grain yields.

Plant recovery is supported by having more green material remaining after grazing; the more the merrier!

Early sown winter wheat can produce more biomass earlier in the season than spring wheat varieties.

• The disc machine had much less variation in seed placement than the tyne.
• The depth of incorporation with the single disc seeder increased slightly with speed, although speed of sowing did not significantly improve weed control.
• Crop growth was not affected by the speed of sowing with discs as hypothesized but there was a significant difference between the tyne and disc seeded treatments. The limited vigour of the wheat seedling sown by the disc seeder is probably the reason for generally lower yields than tyne sown plots. It is not clear whether reduced vigour was due to weed competition or herbicide toxicity as these factors weren’t tested separately in this trial. 
• For further detials, see attached trial report.

• Sowing date and varietal phenology both affected the exposure of canola to rain days and potential disease infection.
• Early sowing increased the level of pod blackleg infection.
• Early sowing increased sclerotinia infetion in the early flowering variety Hyola 575CL but not in the slower variety Pioneer 45Y88 (CL). 
• Grain yield was higher from the later sowing date (22 April) than the early sowing date (7 April).
• Grain yild was closely correlated to total biomass accumulation, which was greater from the 22 April sowing time than 7 April sowing time.

• Early sown (9 April) Pioneer 45Y88 (CL) yielded similarly to later sown (20 April) Pioneer 45Y88 (CL) and Hyola 575CL.
• The irrigation treatment that stored 20mm plant available water did not increase grain yield or oil concentration.
• The maturity biomass was higher from the later sowing date, but the harvest index was slightly higher from the early sowing date.

 

• Variety phenology and sowing date need to match to avoid plants flowering and podding during periods of severe frost. The highest yield in 2017 came from the 6 April sowing of the long season varieties Archer and ATR WahooA that flowered in early August.

• ATR Stingray and Nuseed® Diamond flowered earlier than the optimum start of flowering (OSF) date (28 July) from both the 6 April and 20 April sowing dates with significant frost damage incurred at both sowing dates.

• Canola varieties have the ability to recover from severe frost damage where soil water is not limited.

• The effects of sowing time and variety on yield and oil concentration of canola (Brassica napus) were investigated at Condobolin in 2002 and 2003.
• Eight canola varieties and two Indian mustard varieties differing in maturity were established at four sowing times from early April to mid June.
• Early sowing increased yield and oil concentration.
• Yield and oil concentration declined with each delay in sowing time in both years.
• Variety maturity type is not as important as early sowing.

• Sowing canola early (6 April) on 200 mm applied water reduced the time to the start of flowering by up to two weeks, compared with a later sowing (7 May).
• Significant yield increases were recorded across all varieties (for both sowing dates) where 200 mm water was applied pre-sowing, compared with 70 mm and 0 mm.
• The highest yield resulted from sowing a mid season hybrid (Pioneer® 45Y91 (CL)) early on 200 mm applied water.
• Sowing canola early on 200 mm applied water yielded around 900 kg/ha more than sowing later with the same amount of applied water, averaged across all varieties.

• Cereal stubble should be thought of as a source of C for microbes, not as a source of N for crops. In the Mallee under no-till systems, only 1-2% of the N requirement of wheat crops is derived from the previous wheat stubble.
• N tie-up in cropping soils is only a temporary constraint as the immobilised N will be released through microbial turnover, generally later in the crop season in spring.
• N tie-up by cereal residue is not just a problem following incorporation – it also occurs in surface-retained and standing-stubble systems.
• Management of tie-up is reasonably straightforward – supply more N (5 kg N for each t/ha of cereal residue) and supply it early to avoid impacts of N tie-up on crop yield and protein.
• Deep-banding N can improve the N uptake, yield and protein of crops, especially in stubble-retained systems.

• Each stubble incorporation prior to sowing lead to better weed control in the crop as we were able to create an early germination of ryegrass. 
• There was considerable difference in soil moisture and its distribution through the profile at establishement.
• Straw length at harvest was the biggest drawback in incorporating and establishment.
• Previous trial cropping areas, on other parts of the padock, still showed up the biggest difference in the crop's establishment.

• If sown by mid May, hybrid varieties produced dry matter for grazing in the order of 1.5 to 2.0 t/ha.
• Grain yield was reduced fro most varieties by grazing, compared to no grazing, but was thought to be a result of waterlogging and severe defoliation.
• Waterlogging also affected the yield of ungrazed varieties, especially if sown in June.
• Canola appears to be more sensitive than cereals to grazing under adverse weather and grazing conditions.

• Sowing time is essential for dry matter production and yield preservation 
• Poor growing conditions, the winter doldrums, during recovery from grazing seem to reduce final grain yield. 
• Canola appears to be more sensitive to grazing than cereals, especially, but not solely, under adverse weather and grazing conditions.
• With a traditional a sowing time, mid May, dry matter production levels didn’t reach a level that warrant taking the risk of impacting on grain yield when compared to grazing cereals.
• Even following established grazing protocols, that work north of the divide, grazing reduced grain yield for most varieties. 
• This trend has been the case over the 3 years we have conducted grazing canola trials in SW Victoria. 
• This trial suggests that yield loses associated with grazing are less with the newly released winter habit hybrids Hyola 930 and Hyola 971 when compared with most spring and winter types of canola.
• Initial work is suggesting that spring sown winter habit canola varieties may reverse the decline in yield associated with grazing and generate a large amount of feed out of season.

• Grain yields increase with higher crop inputs and, after grazing, further improve following a sown legume pasture and a more intensive grazing system.
• There is no measured change in soil organic carbon as a result of either varying crop and pasture inputs or grazing compared with not grazing stubbles or pastures.

• Grain yields increased with higher crop inputs and following grazing, they were further improved following a sown legume pasture and a more intensive grazing system.
• There has been no measured change in soil organic carbon over the 4 year project as a result of varying crop and pasture inputs or grazing compared to not grazing crop stubbles or pastures.

• Soil mineral nitrogen (N) values were low across all sites, which was indicative of the wet seasonal conditions and high nitrogen losses.
• There were no significant differences in mineral nitrogen values between the stubble treatments due to high variability (likely due to transient waterlogging across the sites).
• The project has been extended to enable the research to be repeated during 2017.

• While significant differences in mineral nitrogen (N) values were measured between stubble treatments, these differences were small and unlikely to elicit a plant growth response.
• No consistent trends were observed between trial sites.
• Delayed plant growth and development under no-till stubble retained (NTSR) systems in the Riverine Plains region is unlikely to be due to decreased mineral nitrogen availability as a result of immobilisation.

The data from this trial supports the theory that an early sowing date will increase DM and total N fixation in Percy and Morava.

• Although time of heading and flowering are considered the most sensitive stages for frost damage in cereals, sensitivity to early frost damage occurs from the start of stem elongation and is referred to as ‘stem frost’.

• Stem frost can be minimised by matching sowing date and cultivar phenology so that stem elongation starts after the period of greatest frost risk.

• Varieties that started stem elongation early (fast developing varieties sown early) were exposed to an increased number of frosts during the susceptible development stages, whilst winter types sown early had an extended vegetative period and were not exposed to the same frost risk, which reduced damage from stem frost.

• Crops can recover from stem frost where there is moisture available to support new tiller growth. However, the resulting effect on phasic development stage synchrony leads to delayed maturity and harvest issues.

• There was no observed difference in frost tolerance of specific cereal species observed in 2017.

• For a wheat crop with an average yield of 4.5–5t/ha, increasing the rate of nitrogen (N) applied (40 and 80 extra kilograms of nitrogen per hectare above the farm standard) significantly increased dry matter (DM) accumulation, crop height and final yield of first wheat following canola.
• Applying a plant growth regulator (PGR) (Moddus + chlormequat) reduced crop height by 3cm and significantly decreased DM production.
• A small, non-significant yield reduction was measured with PGR application, which was similar to that observed during 2014, when yields were in the 5–6t/ha range. Conversely, during 2015, there was a positive yield effect of 0.1t/ha, when average crop yield was approximately 3t/ha.
• Although differences were small, the PGR application significantly increased screenings and decreased test weight, results that are not in line with the effects observed during 2015.
• After three years of trials there is no evidence to suggest PGR application has delivered any positive yield effects or consistent quality effects.
• In all three years of trials, PGR application showed a trend to reduce DM, which was significant in 2016.

• In two first-wheat trials yielding 4.5-5.0t/ha, the application of a plant growth regulator (PGR) delivered no benefits in terms of yield or grain quality.
• The PGR application did not interact with additional nitrogen applied in terms of yield or quality.
• The impact of PGR application on crop height was greater than the impact of nitrogen timing; however, the differences in height were small.
• The grower-applied nitrogen at Redlands, at a rate of 75kg N/ha, and at Yarrawongs at a rat eof 100kg N/ha, were shown to be optimum in terms of yield and quality, with no extra yield or protein resulting from the higher nitrogen application rates with Corack and Wedgetail.

• With an average yield of almost 3t/ha, increasing the rate of nitrogen applied (40 and 80 extra kg N/ha) did not affect dry matter (DM) accumulation, crop height or fianl yield of first wheat following canola.
• Applying a plant growth regulator (PGR) decreased crop height, but did not influence DM or grain yield.
• Although differences were small, PGR application significantly decreased screenings and increased test weight.
• Applying the PGR also decreased crop reflectance, measured as normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) during stem elongation (GS39); a result also observed during 2013 and 2014.
• The lower NDVI readings suggest PGR altered greeness of the crop canopy or the orientation of the leaves, decreasing crop reflectance.

When canola was sown into wheat stubble in an east-west direction, long stubble (42cm) significantly reduced photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and reduced true leaf number up to mid-winter.

Although there were trends suggesting a reduction in dry matter (DM) production at the yellow bud stage (GS3.7) as a result of increasing stubble height, the differences were not statistically significant.

The average canola yield of the trial was 1.58t/ha with no significant differences in either yield or oil content due to stubble height of the previous wheat crop.

The results mirror a trial conducted at Dookie, where yields in long stubble were 3.70t/ha and 3.75t/ha in short stubble. At this site there were significant reductions in DM production early in the season in the long stubble treatment.

The results of this study suggest:

• Increasing the canola seeding rate of both OP and Hybrid varieties increased the crops potential competitiveness by increasing early biomass (NDVI) and % radiation interception.
• Increasing canola row spacing increased the crops light interception.
• At Cunderdin, the greatest decrease in ARG establishment in response to canola seeding rate occurred where both OP and Hybrid canola varieties were sown at wider (50cm) row spacing’s.
• The Mingenew site had a significantly higher weed density, reducing the trials competitive effect on ARG density, biomass, and seed production. Sites with lower weed seed banks will be identified in 2019.

At the Mingenew site, canola yield was higher in open pollinated variety (Bonito). At Cunderdin, no effects were identified.

In 2019, the three trial sites experienced vastly different rainfall and crop germination patterns. The Kojonup site had good soil moisture throughout the growing season resulting in a rapid crop germination. The York and Miling sites however were seeded into completely dry conditions with the wheat germination in the TOS 1 treatments occurring more than six weeks after seeding. The bioassay experiment showed that at all sites, Sakura was the most persistent herbicide. This was evident in the field results where the persistence and activity of Sakura resulted in lower ryegrass emergence, lower seed production and a higher wheat yield. Furthermore, the results showed that at the Kojonup site, which was sown into excellent soil moisture, Trifluralin was also very effective.

The TOS response was variable; the first time of seeding showed better weed control and wheat yields at Miling and York whereas the delayed time of seeding was advisable at the moist Kojonup site. It was also found that increasing the wheat density increased crop competition which in turn reduced ryegrass emergence, ryegrass biomass and ryegrass seed production for all herbicide treatments studied. 

• There were no advantages gained by using seed treatments when sowing wheat with granular NP fertilisers.
• On grey calcareous soils all fluid fertilisers increased early plant vigour and grain yield, and on red soils fluids containing zinc and manganese increased grain yields.
• In this season there were no differences in dry matter or yield between crops grown from certified or local seed.

• Select crops best adapted to the soil and climatic conditions of your region; faba bean is the pulse crop best adapted to soils prone to waterlogging.
• Avoid soils with acidic subsurface layers and/or shallow topsoil that limit root development and impermeable subsoil that restrict drainage.
• Test soil pH at 5cm intervals to a depth of 20 cm, to detect subsurface acidity.
• Select paddocks at least two years before sowing acid-sensitive crops to allow time for applied lime to react and increase soil pH, if required.
• Sow early in the recommended sowing window for your location, to encourage effective nodulation, early vigour and biomass accumulation before the onset of cold, wet conditions.

Executive summary

Recently interest in the role of renovation cropping in the farming systems of the Western Australian wheatbelt has increased.  It has been proposed as a means of addressing the apparent decline in soil quality in some intensively cropped areas and the increased incidence of herbicide resistance. 

Renovation cropping involves either turning a crop into the soil at flowering or cutting the crop and leaving it on the soil surface.   This is done to maximise the amount of organic matter added to the soil and to control weeds most effectively.  In the Western Australian wheatbelt the focus has been on using pulses, although a range of crops can be used.  The pulse phase of a rotation is favoured as pulses improve the nitrogen status of the soil. In addition the returns to pulses are lower relative to cereals and canola, so the forgone profit in the year of renovation cropping is lowest.

Renovation cropping leads to changes in soil conditions that persist for at least the following season.  It reduces weed numbers in the following crop by reducing seed set, increases the availability of nutrients and may improve soil structure.  Lower weed numbers reduce the carry-over of root diseases thus providing a disease break for the following cereal crop.  Recent trials have shown likely yield increases of 20-30% above those after a pulse crop and increased grain protein levels in the following cereal.

The main cost of green manuring is the income lost by sacrificing grain production.  The loss in income plus any additional costs associated with soil renovation need to be recouped in the following season(s).  Therefore the income from the yield increase(s) in the subsequent year(s) needs to be equal to or greater than the total costs of renovation, including the income forgone.

Despite the increase in interest in renovation cropping, no comprehensive economic analysis has been undertaken to determine its role in Western Australian farming systems.  This study investigates circumstances under which renovation cropping is likely to be profitable and estimates the needed increase in farm profit, given the variability of yields that result from seasonal influences.

To investigate the consequence of risky yields historical rainfall data was used to generate yield distributions for different rainfall zones, soil types and crops.  The yield distributions were used as input to a simulation model to determine the distribution of income, resulting from renovation cropping, in a lupin:wheat:wheat rotation.  The mean yield boost resulting from renovation cropping was estimated to be 3% based on trial results (F. Hoyle, pers. comm.). 

The results of the analysis showed that there is a 30-40% chance of increasing profit if yield is increased by 30% on average.  However, the results were very sensitive to the average increase in yield.  The probability that profit will be increased was halved when yield boost was reduced to 20%. 

The yield increase required to make renovation cropping profitable can vary between 100% under the worst case and below 10% under the best case.  The variability depends on grain prices, grain yield in the renovation phase (if a commercial crop had been was harvested), and the cost of renovation and grain yields in the following crop phase.

The likelihood that profit will be increased depends largely on minimising income forgone relative to the increase in income in the following years.  Therefore green manuring will be most profitable when done in years when the grain yield of the pulse crop is low, and/or when the following cereal yield is very high. 

Weather forecasts are not yet sufficiently developed to predict potentially good years over 12 months ahead, so renovation needs to be undertaken in poor years to maximise the chances of increasing profit.

Identifying poor yielding years prior to renovation does present some difficulty although weather forecasts may improve the chances of undertaking renovation in the 'right' year.  .  Also yield potential is determined directly by biomass of the crop, so this may be used as an early indicator of yield.  Where waterlogging or disease has caused low vegetative growth, resistant weeds are widespread in a paddock, or where frost has damaged the crop green manuring is more likely to be a profitable option. 

This suggests a role for tactical use of renovation cropping so that it is undertaken in years where the forgone income is minimised (i.e. it is done in poor yielding years).  The results of the analysis show that only small yield increases in the following cereal crop are necessary to break even in these circumstances. 

The analysis highlighted gaps in the knowledge of the impact of renovation cropping that may be important for more comprehensive economic analysis, or information that may improve the grower’s ability to undertake the practice profitably.  Further research into green manuring could include:

• Determining whether the profitability of green manuring can be increased using long term weather forecasts.  Improving the estimates of the probability of achieving different yields may allow farmers to renovate soils in years that have lower risk.
• More information on the effects of green manuring on yield and protein for different crops under different conditions is required to better assess the economic advantages of green manuring
• The profitability of green manuring relative to other methods of improving sustainability of cropping also needs to be addressed.

 

Executive summary

Recently interest in the role of renovation cropping in the farming systems of the Western Australian wheatbelt has increased.  It has been proposed as a means of addressing the apparent decline in soil quality in some intensively cropped areas and the increased incidence of herbicide resistance. 

Renovation cropping involves either turning a crop into the soil at flowering or cutting the crop and leaving it on the soil surface.   This is done to maximise the amount of organic matter added to the soil and to control weeds most effectively.  In the Western Australian wheatbelt the focus has been on using pulses, although a range of crops can be used.  The pulse phase of a rotation is favoured as pulses improve the nitrogen status of the soil. In addition the returns to pulses are lower relative to cereals and canola, so the forgone profit in the year of renovation cropping is lowest.

Renovation cropping leads to changes in soil conditions that persist for at least the following season.  It reduces weed numbers in the following crop by reducing seed set, increases the availability of nutrients and may improve soil structure.  Lower weed numbers reduce the carry-over of root diseases thus providing a disease break for the following cereal crop.  Recent trials have shown likely yield increases of 20-30% above those after a pulse crop and increased grain protein levels in the following cereal.

The main cost of green manuring is the income lost by sacrificing grain production.  The loss in income plus any additional costs associated with soil renovation need to be recouped in the following season(s).  Therefore the income from the yield increase(s) in the subsequent year(s) needs to be equal to or greater than the total costs of renovation, including the income forgone.

Despite the increase in interest in renovation cropping, no comprehensive economic analysis has been undertaken to determine its role in Western Australian farming systems.  This study investigates circumstances under which renovation cropping is likely to be profitable and estimates the needed increase in farm profit, given the variability of yields that result from seasonal influences.

To investigate the consequence of risky yields historical rainfall data was used to generate yield distributions for different rainfall zones, soil types and crops.  The yield distributions were used as input to a simulation model to determine the distribution of income, resulting from renovation cropping, in a lupin:wheat:wheat rotation.  The mean yield boost resulting from renovation cropping was estimated to be 3% based on trial results (F. Hoyle, pers. comm.). 

The results of the analysis showed that there is a 30-40% chance of increasing profit if yield is increased by 30% on average.  However, the results were very sensitive to the average increase in yield.  The probability that profit will be increased was halved when yield boost was reduced to 20%. 

The yield increase required to make renovation cropping profitable can vary between 100% under the worst case and below 10% under the best case.  The variability depends on grain prices, grain yield in the renovation phase (if a commercial crop had been was harvested), and the cost of renovation and grain yields in the following crop phase.

The likelihood that profit will be increased depends largely on minimising income forgone relative to the increase in income in the following years.  Therefore green manuring will be most profitable when done in years when the grain yield of the pulse crop is low, and/or when the following cereal yield is very high. 

Weather forecasts are not yet sufficiently developed to predict potentially good years over 12 months ahead, so renovation needs to be undertaken in poor years to maximise the chances of increasing profit.

Identifying poor yielding years prior to renovation does present some difficulty although weather forecasts may improve the chances of undertaking renovation in the 'right' year.  .  Also yield potential is determined directly by biomass of the crop, so this may be used as an early indicator of yield.  Where waterlogging or disease has caused low vegetative growth, resistant weeds are widespread in a paddock, or where frost has damaged the crop green manuring is more likely to be a profitable option. 

This suggests a role for tactical use of renovation cropping so that it is undertaken in years where the forgone income is minimised (i.e. it is done in poor yielding years).  The results of the analysis show that only small yield increases in the following cereal crop are necessary to break even in these circumstances. 

The analysis highlighted gaps in the knowledge of the impact of renovation cropping that may be important for more comprehensive economic analysis, or information that may improve the grower’s ability to undertake the practice profitably.  Further research into green manuring could include:

• Determining whether the profitability of green manuring can be increased using long term weather forecasts.  Improving the estimates of the probability of achieving different yields may allow farmers to renovate soils in years that have lower risk.
• More information on the effects of green manuring on yield and protein for different crops under different conditions is required to better assess the economic advantages of green manuring
• The profitability of green manuring relative to other methods of improving sustainability of cropping also needs to be addressed.

 

This demonstration clearly showed that by adding a small amount of barley (16kg/ha) to serradella when re-seeding, early winter feed for livestock can be significantly increased.  However, as the photos from early September indicate, the serradella growth in spring can be held back due to competition from the barley. Increasing the frequency and intensity of grazing would help, as would the application of a grass selective herbicide to kill the barley in early spring when feed is becoming abundant. If the season was very poor, the barley might be left to increase total pasture production and groundcover for summer.  

The application of compost at 2 t/ha did not result in higher returns and the response under compost plus fertiliser treatments could be attributed to the application of fertiliser. Spading did not return any further gains in terms of yield or quality at this site in 2013. The high cost of spading and compost in the first year, have negatively influenced profit outcomes. Depending on future yield improvements, these treatments may pay for themselves over the longer term.

No measureable changes in soil condition as a result of adding 2 t/ha compost were measured in 2013 and 2014 that would add value to the long term profit of this site.

Machinery used for applying compost caused some compaction and due to the dry post-sowing conditions, crop germination was very patchy. The trial site experienced significant moisture stress early in the season and may not be representative of seasons experiencing an average or wetter start.

There was no yield benefit using bio-degradable polymer film on late sown barley and field peas.

Results from the initial establishment season have again confirmed the ability of hardseeded legumes to grow and set seed under adverse seasonal conditions.  The value of indeterminate pattern of growth in facilitating additional seed set was also shwon with biserrula where following late spring rain, an additional round of seed set resulted in a more than doubling of overall seed production.Bladder, with a slightly deeper root system, and gland clover which is early maturing also showed b etter capacity to produce seed in challenging condition s compared to subterranean clover.  With production of a seed bank critical for pasture performance  in subsequent years, the performance of hardsseded legumes was very encouraging.

• Across three years addition of trace elements and fluid fungicide in-furrow did not provide increases in emergence, tillering or final yield - although this contradicts what other farmers have reported.
• Liquid N at sowing can improve crop emergence and early vigour, especially under dry conditions .
• Full liquid systems did not provide a profit benefit (due to higher input costs) even where they did provide increased yield which was not in all years.
• Recommendation most likely to provide higher returns for this area will be an in-furrow fertiliser system that incorporates some elements of liquid nitrogen and phosphorus fertiliser ,trace elements, fungicides and granular phosphorus and nitrogen fertiliser.

• Early sowing of barley may be an effective way of controlling ryegrass growth and limiting seed set.
• Results in wheat are more variable than for barley: at Wanilla, mid-May seemed the optimal time of sowing to reduce ryegrass with less effect obvious at Yeelanna.
• Higher seeding rates also followed the same trend, with little ryegrass suppression benefit seen in wheat but a benefit evident in barley.
• Increasing seeding rate did not improve wheat yields significantly however barley (Fleet) did seem to benefit from higher seeding rates when sown late (mid-June).

• Early sowing of barley may be an effective way of controlling ryegrass growth and limiting seed set.
• Results in wheat are more variable than for barley: at Wanilla, mid-May seemed the optimal time of sowing to reduce ryegrass with less effect obvious at Yeelanna.
• Higher seeding rates also followed the same trend, with little ryegrass suppression benefit seen in wheat but a benefit evident in barley.
• Increasing seeding rate did not improve wheat yields significantly however barley (Fleet) did seem to benefit from higher seeding rates when sown late (mid-June).

• The highest yielding wheat variety in the time of sowing trial at Hart in 2010 was Yitpi (4.81 t/ha) sown on May 1st.
• Wheat varieties Axe and Gladius increased grain yield as time of sowing was delayed from May 1st until May 29th.

• The highest yielding treatment in the wheat time of sowing trial at Hart in 2009 was Gladius sown on the 30th of April.
• Later maturing varieties were best sown in early May.
• Axe is a good option for sowing in late May.

• Early sowing of cereals, wheat, barley or oats, gave excellent grazing, hay or grain outcomes in 2009.
• The barley gave similar or better all round performance than the wheat or oats.

• Frame was the highest yielding variety when sown on the 1st May.
• As sowing date was delayed the early maturing variety Axe out yielded later maturing varieties Gladius and Frame.

• TOS1 was sown in mid May and established well.
• TOS2 was sown late May but did not emerge until late June.
• TOS3 was sown late June and emerged a few days later.

• The ideal sowing time for soybeans in southern NSW is from mid-November to early December.
• Delaying sowing until late December can result in reduced grain yield.

• A unique trial design (double up of each plot) was designed to allow destructive biomass sampling, and grain yield measurement
• This trial site was primarily used in a ‘screening function’- to evaluate any negative impact of lime of a variety of different legumes which was considered to be happening during the mid 1990’s. The key concern was to investigate if manganese deficiency was induced by liming
• The trial was sown to lupins in 1994, wheat in 1995.  Data not available
• Yield responses (negative) were apparently not noted in the early years following establishment of the trial.  Positive yield response did occur, several years post trial establishment
• The double up design allowed comparison of lime sources on many different species.  For example, in 1996, narrow leaf and yellow lupins were compared.  No data available
• In 1997 the trial was sown to wheat, no yield responses reported
• In 1998, the trial was sown to a diverse mix of new pasture legumes that were at various stages of evaluation prior to commercial release.  Some of the material screened, that subsequently was commercialised included Cadiz French serradella, Santorini and Charano yellow serradella, Casbah Biserrula, Prima gland clover and finally Bartolo bladder clover.  The primary focus of this work was to assess any negative impacts of lime on legumes.  No negative impacts reported.
• The inclusion of this trial into this sampling regime, was primarily because of the known (high rates) of lime subsequently applied by the cooperating farmer, and the focus to see if these high rates had changed soil pH deeper in the profile, which did not occur initially.

•    During the early years following trial establishment, there was no grain yield response measured
•    In 2004/2005, some 8 years post initial lime treatment, strong visual responses to lime became apparent
•    The ‘top up’ application (1.5t/ha, across all initial lime rates of 0, 1 and 2t/ha)) of lime applied in 2005 (9 years post trial establishment) has had dramatic impact on current soil pH, and the soil pH profiles now reflect lime applied
•    Only the highest rate of lime treatment (initial 2t/ha) followed by the 1.5t/ha in 2005 have a soil pH profile above the DAFWA recommendations (5.5 in the surface, over 4.8 at depth)
 

In 2012, early sown barley and canola gave the highest yields and gross returns. The early sown crops were able to withstand frosts and avoid the worst of the dry spring. Despite the different growth habit (erect vs prostrate) of many of the barley varieties, no one variety responded better to the altered sowing times or density than any other. Growers should plant all barley varieties at their chosen timing and plant density, and make their selection on the basis of other factors (e.g. disease resistance).

In 2012, early sown barley and canola gave the highest yields and gross returns. The early sown crops were able to withstand frosts and avoid the worst of the dry spring. Despite the different growth habit (erect vs prostrate) of many of the barley varieties, no one variety responded better to the altered sowing times or density than any other. Growers should plant all barley varieties at their chosen timing and plant density, and make their selection on the basis of other factors (e.g. disease resistance).

Sowing early increased yields by 0.5t/ha at Watchupga East and Horsham. Corack and Mace topped the yields at Watchupga East. Cobra and Mace were the highest yielding varieties at Horsham.

• Canola responded to N applied as late as 12 weeks after seeding but not as much as to N applied at 4 or 8 weeks.  Hyola 404 RR and CB Telfer responded similarly in terms of yield.
• Nitrogen reduced oil %, and late N reduced it more than early N.  Oil was more sensitive to applied N in CB Telfer than in Hyola 404 RR.
• Grain yield continued to respond to 100 kg N/ha but the highest gross margin was at 75 kg/ha in Hyola 404 RR and at 100 kg/ha in CB Telfer.

• This trial showed that timing of N application is critical to yield potential, this showed that early foliar N had greater significance than application of other nutrients like potassium and trace elements.
• The trial also showed that seed treatments can develop significantly greater root biomass than unapplied seed.

• Treated seed treatment had a marginally higher yield (3.24t/ha versus 3.15), lower screenings, lower protein and higher income by $9/ha.
• Seed from control plots (untreated seed sown) had higher nutrient (Mn, Cu, Zn, P and S) concentrations.
• Coating seed does no harm but farmers need to judge what is ' best bang for their buck'.

• Tonic plantain and Grouse chicory are worth considering as summer forages, with the Tonic plantain likely to persist through the following winter and longer. Although not tried, Italian ryegrass (or perennial ryegrass) could be oversown for more winter feed. In this trial, winter feed production from Tonic plantain and sub clover was excellent, no doubt partially due to the high sub clover seed reserves and partially due to the high soil fertility on Tremaine’s.
• Banquet tetraploid hybrid perennial ryegrass could be considered for a medium term high quality pasture for finishing lambs/weaners in high fertility paddocks, with controlled rotational grazing over summer.

The yields of the different Trifluralin treatments and sowing depths ranged from 1.5 to 2.1 t/ha.

• Tahara is one of the most widely grown Triticale variety in the district, however its performance was significantly inferior to that of Treat and Credit, two more recently released lines.
• For further conclusions, please see the attached trial report.

• Winter habit canola has been successfully sown in spring, grazed over summer and harvested for grain in 2012, 2013 and 2014.
• Establishing canola in spring means larger, more resilient plants in autumn with less impact from slugs and waterlogging.
• Forage value comparable to commercially available dedicated forage rapes over summer and autumn with added benefit of oil seed production.
• Grazing management and timing of stock removal is proving to have an impact on grain yield.
• Vernalisation means winter wheats have the potential to be used in the same way.
   

Key Messages Amount and quality of feed are important considerations when grazing livestock Barley and canola/vetch had fastest early growth rate to 21st August Oats/vetch and canola had the fastest growth rate between 21st August and 28th September Alternative pastures produced more dry matter overall than medic varieties

Pre-sowing: limed and cultivated by farmer.

Early season: very slow growth and stressed.

Mid season: very stressed until good rain in September.

Pre-harvest: droughted.

• There was significant rain in early April.
• The paddock was cultivated wet at the time of seeding.
• Seeding was delayed due to seed supply problem.

• The 2015 season was cooler than 2014 which affected how canola varieties developed and grain yields.
• Early sowing presents a good opportunity to improve canola water use efficiency and yields but variety selection is important.

• Barley leaf rust (LR) was observed on barley regrowth in the lower Great Southern and South Coast of WA in the summer/autumn of 2016. This contributed to the first observations of infected barley crops in the region in July 2016. All barley varieties including those with Adult Plant Resistance (APR) were under severe disease pressure and responded to application of fungicide.
• The high levels of LR in 2016 and the possibility of barley regrowth in autumn 2017 means a significant LR risk for the 2017 season and fungicide programs for APR varieties should be considered.
• LR is a social disease and all growers should be proactive in eliminating the volunteer barley green bridge. To minimise early onset of LR, the regrowth barley should be eliminated at least 4 weeks before seeding.
• Star of Bethlehem (an alternate host) should be sprayed to eliminate the likelihood of new pathotype developing in the region.
• Selecting varieties with adult plant resistance genes will reduce grain yield loss. However, performance of these varieties against LR is influenced by seasonal weather, time of disease onset, crop agronomy, and is hard to predict season to season. Depending on the LR pressure in the crop they may need early foliar fungicide intervention to reduce development of disease on plants during the growing season.
• Oxford possess two partial resistance genes (Rph20 and Rph24), and under high LR pressure application of foliar fungicides increased yield up to 64 per cent.

• Vigorous growth in all crops and pasture treatments in 2009 has set up the trial for 2010, when the impact of soil mineral N on disease suppression will be assessed.
• At the start of the 2009 season there were already small differences in mineral nitrogen levels in the soil profile, spray topped medic having the highest with 63 kg N/ha and the control wheat the least with 44 kg N/ha.
• Since healthy medic will fix around 25 kg N/t DM, the medic spray topped treatment should have fixed around 125 kg N/ha during 2009.
• There were slight changes in Rhizoctonia inoculum in some treatments early this season but there were no visual differences in Rhizoctonia patches in the cereal plots in 2009.

• 14 vertisols were sampled and analysed in the laboratory, and were sown to wheat in the glasshouse.
• DTPA-extractable zinc, zinc desorption and diffusion rates, and buffer power were measured.
• DTPA-extractable zinc and zinc desorption rate accounted for 80% of the variation in relative dry matter yield of wheat at anthesis.
• Inclusion of buffer power increased this to 92% of the variance in relative dry matter yield.
• These measure provide a better indicaiotn of the likely responsiveness of soils than the traditional single DTPA-extractable zinc.

• Slow maturing varieties sown early have potential to increase profitability, even in low rainfall areas.
• The late break to the season in 2012 in the UN, did not allow the long season variety to perform.
• Dry sowing of wheat 5 weeks before the opening rains produced equal or higher yields to wheat sown on the break.

• Agntain was found to provide little benefit for increasing canola yield. Agritain may have a role in reducing urea toxicity to germinating seeds, when crop seeds are sown close to pre-applied urea (especially when large amounts of N are used).
• This warrants further investigation.